第一篇：中西方企業(yè)文化的比較研究

中西方企業(yè)文化的比較研究

摘 要：如何提高企業(yè)競爭力是企業(yè)發(fā)展的核心問題，先進(jìn)的企業(yè)文化和良好的企業(yè)形象是提升企業(yè)無形資產(chǎn)競爭力的重要來源。當(dāng)前，企業(yè)文化在企業(yè)競爭力評價(jià)指標(biāo)中的作用逐漸被強(qiáng)化，企業(yè)競爭力的提高與企業(yè)文化發(fā)展相輔相成趨勢日益明顯。因此，要保持企業(yè)持久的競爭力，需實(shí)施企業(yè)文化發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略，促進(jìn)企業(yè)發(fā)展。

關(guān)鍵詞：企業(yè)文化；競爭力；以人為本

一、美國、日本、印度企業(yè)文化的特點(diǎn)

美國和日本等發(fā)達(dá)國家的優(yōu)秀企業(yè)都有一個(gè)共同特征，即它們都具有自身的核心價(jià)值觀，有獨(dú)特的企業(yè)文化。近年來，發(fā)展中國家經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展迅速，涌現(xiàn)出一大批具有國際競爭力的企業(yè)。其中，與傳統(tǒng)文化相融合、獨(dú)具魅力的印度企業(yè)文化獨(dú)樹一幟。

1.美國

美國的跨國企業(yè)在全球最多且最具競爭力，而每個(gè)成功的企業(yè)背后都有一個(gè)優(yōu)秀的管理團(tuán)隊(duì)，他們創(chuàng)造出適合企業(yè)發(fā)展、能持續(xù)提高企業(yè)競爭力的企業(yè)文化。美國的企業(yè)文化重視個(gè)人價(jià)值實(shí)現(xiàn)。如，蘋果電腦公司認(rèn)為，應(yīng)開發(fā)每個(gè)員工智慧的潛力，尋找他們思維的閃光點(diǎn)?！叭巳藚⑴c”、“群言堂”的企業(yè)文化，使企業(yè)不斷開發(fā)出具有轟動效應(yīng)的新產(chǎn)品。在個(gè)人價(jià)值實(shí)現(xiàn)的過程中，也推動了企業(yè)整體的發(fā)展。美國的企業(yè)文化提倡奉獻(xiàn)和競爭。企業(yè)員工只有具有奉獻(xiàn)精神才能真正將個(gè)人發(fā)展和企業(yè)整體利益結(jié)合起來，全心全意為企業(yè)服務(wù)。企業(yè)員工只有展開競爭才能有效益、出成果、出人才。同時(shí)，美國企業(yè)又非常重視為員工搭建良性競爭的平臺，充分發(fā)掘他們的潛力。提倡創(chuàng)新和利益共享是美國企業(yè)文化的另一特點(diǎn)。美國的IT公司處于世界領(lǐng)先地位，他們秉承創(chuàng)新、激勵創(chuàng)新的傳統(tǒng)，使公司的產(chǎn)品始終走在世界前列。在利益共享方面，美國許多企業(yè)實(shí)行股份制，給員工配股，提高他們在企業(yè)的地位，增強(qiáng)他們對企業(yè)的歸屬感。

2.日本

日本企業(yè)特別重視企業(yè)文化建設(shè)。其企業(yè)文化的特點(diǎn)主要有：一是企業(yè)文化的核心是“和魂洋才”?！昂突辍敝溉毡镜拿褡寰瘢把蟛拧敝笟W美的技術(shù)。“和魂”和“洋才”結(jié)合，成為日本近代企業(yè)家經(jīng)營活動的指導(dǎo)思想。二是家族主義是企業(yè)文化的顯著特色。家族主義把家庭的倫理道德轉(zhuǎn)移到企業(yè)中，企業(yè)的管理活動都是為保持集團(tuán)這個(gè)大家庭的協(xié)調(diào)，維護(hù)大家庭的利益，充分發(fā)揮大家庭的力量。家族主義觀念在企業(yè)中表現(xiàn)為團(tuán)隊(duì)精神，提倡和諧的人際關(guān)系。因此，“和為貴”的思想是日本企業(yè)文化的核心。三是企業(yè)文化的重要內(nèi)容是以人為中心，多方面協(xié)調(diào)企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)關(guān)系，緩和勞資矛盾，將企業(yè)發(fā)展成為一個(gè)命運(yùn)共同體，實(shí)現(xiàn)勞資和諧，提高員工的主體意識。

3.印度

印度的企業(yè)文化主要表現(xiàn)為家族文化、精英文化、信用文化。印度前任財(cái)政部長亞什萬特?辛哈曾說：“印度有三種經(jīng)濟(jì)，一種是信息技術(shù)推動的新經(jīng)濟(jì)，一種是磚瓦泥匠代表的舊經(jīng)濟(jì)，還有一種就是老牛車代表的更加陳舊的經(jīng)濟(jì)。”無論哪種經(jīng)濟(jì)都是私營企業(yè)占多數(shù)，家族企業(yè)多，但他們又不迷信家族接班制度，如果家族培養(yǎng)不出精英，可將產(chǎn)業(yè)交給家族外的精英來處理。家族文化和精英文化的優(yōu)勢互補(bǔ)保證企業(yè)發(fā)展的持續(xù)性。印度企業(yè)認(rèn)為信用是企業(yè)生存的根本，信用不僅體現(xiàn)在同其他企業(yè)的交往中，同時(shí)在員工待遇上也講求信用，嚴(yán)格遵守員工合同，為員工謀求利益，聽取并采納員工意見，這是印度企業(yè)中的人本文化。印度企業(yè)廣泛加入行業(yè)協(xié)會，團(tuán)結(jié)一致，注重在行業(yè)中提高自身的知名度。另外，行業(yè)規(guī)范嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，重視企業(yè)的社會效應(yīng)，提倡回報(bào)社會并以此提高企業(yè)的榮譽(yù)。

4.美國、日本和印度企業(yè)文化的共同點(diǎn)

首先，他們的文化都根植于本國優(yōu)秀的文化傳統(tǒng)。美國一向崇尚個(gè)人主義。因此，企業(yè)文化將實(shí)現(xiàn)個(gè)人價(jià)值放在首位，重視發(fā)掘員工價(jià)值，人盡其才，擴(kuò)大員工的發(fā)展空間。而日本和印度的企業(yè)文化家族觀念較重，他們將家族主義融入企業(yè)管理中，成為一種文化，這降低了管理難度，保證企業(yè)策略的一致性。其次，這些國家的優(yōu)秀企業(yè)無不將回報(bào)社會視為己任。企業(yè)不是一個(gè)獨(dú)立的個(gè)體，而是社會生活中的一份子，企業(yè)只有在社會的支持下才能長期盈利、獲得發(fā)展。同時(shí)，企業(yè)在奉獻(xiàn)社會的過程中又提高了自身的知名度和美譽(yù)度，也將得到社會更大的支持。企業(yè)與社會間的良性互動，既有利于企業(yè)，又造福于社會。最后，這三國的企業(yè)文化都重視提高員工的歸屬感，提倡員工對企業(yè)的榮譽(yù)感。只有這樣，員工才能甘心為企業(yè)奉獻(xiàn)并在工作中找到樂趣。

二、我國企業(yè)文化存在的現(xiàn)狀

改革開放以來，我國企業(yè)發(fā)展取得巨大進(jìn)步，隨著企業(yè)的生存環(huán)境由計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)體制逐步轉(zhuǎn)向市場經(jīng)濟(jì)體制，從工廠制轉(zhuǎn)向公司制，我國企業(yè)競爭也從產(chǎn)品競爭和服務(wù)競爭轉(zhuǎn)向深層次的文化競爭，企業(yè)在探索中不斷發(fā)展壯大。但同時(shí)也應(yīng)注意到，與許多國際知名企業(yè)相比，我國絕大多數(shù)企業(yè)在文化建設(shè)方面還存在明顯不足。

1.企業(yè)文化建設(shè)注重形式、忽視內(nèi)涵

當(dāng)下，我國許多公司企業(yè)都有自己的企業(yè)文化，但這些“企業(yè)文化”往往只是名義上的口號，并沒有真正植入到企業(yè)的日常經(jīng)營和決策中，沒有真正形成企業(yè)特色。如，有的企業(yè)雖然打著“務(wù)實(shí)、責(zé)任”的口號，但員工工作不嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)、消極怠工，有的員工不愛惜公司財(cái)物，沒有責(zé)任心。究其原因在于企業(yè)文化只流于形式，沒有真正深入員工的心里。

2.企業(yè)文化創(chuàng)建缺乏創(chuàng)新

企業(yè)文化理論源于西方發(fā)達(dá)國家。我國加入WTO后，許多西方國家的管理理論被我國企業(yè)采用，而我國部分企業(yè)紛紛模仿西方國家管理模式，不顧企業(yè)自身生存環(huán)境，全盤照搬西方模式，結(jié)果忽視了我國傳統(tǒng)文化中的精華部分。事實(shí)上，這樣的管理理念并不利于我國企業(yè)發(fā)展，因?yàn)槠髽I(yè)文化是基于民族文化的根基之上，我們所吸收的文化必須與我國企業(yè)文化相融合，否則就會“水土不服”。文化差異是企業(yè)發(fā)揮自身優(yōu)勢的條件，失去這個(gè)差異就等于削弱企業(yè)的競爭優(yōu)勢，這對企業(yè)發(fā)展不利。因此，我國企業(yè)一定不能照搬西方企業(yè)文化理念，應(yīng)根據(jù)實(shí)際情況，加以創(chuàng)新，確定適合企業(yè)發(fā)展的企業(yè)文化建設(shè)目標(biāo)。

3.企業(yè)文化建設(shè)存在政治化傾向

在計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)時(shí)代，企業(yè)的管理者是黨組織，企業(yè)文化建設(shè)也基本上等同于思想政治建設(shè)。雖然改革開放已三十年，國家也在大力推行政企分開，但從思想政治著手建設(shè)企業(yè)文化的意識仍存在，帶有濃重政治色彩的企業(yè)文化建設(shè)不利于企業(yè)的發(fā)展。

三、構(gòu)建有中國特色企業(yè)文化的對策

我國是一個(gè)擁有歷史悠久的文明古國，許多優(yōu)秀的文化傳統(tǒng)需要認(rèn)真發(fā)掘，融入到我國企業(yè)文化中。企業(yè)應(yīng)看清自身的特點(diǎn)，根據(jù)實(shí)際情況構(gòu)建企業(yè)文化，為企業(yè)的持續(xù)發(fā)展打造良好的“軟件”設(shè)施。

1.傳承傳統(tǒng)，構(gòu)建具有特色的企業(yè)文化

美國、日本、印度的企業(yè)文化都是在本國文化傳統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展起來的。任何企業(yè)都不能脫離國家的傳統(tǒng)文化。因此，企業(yè)文化建設(shè)要結(jié)合本國社會文化傳統(tǒng)。我國是一個(gè)歷史悠久的文明古國，燦爛的民族文化是我們?nèi)≈唤叩木褙?cái)富，傳統(tǒng)文化中的信義應(yīng)成為企業(yè)活動的準(zhǔn)則。而儒家思想中的“家國天下”也可解讀為：企業(yè)承載國家經(jīng)濟(jì)建設(shè)的重任，應(yīng)在自身發(fā)展的同時(shí)努力回報(bào)社會，為國家做貢獻(xiàn)，國家強(qiáng)大企業(yè)才有堅(jiān)實(shí)的后盾。如，海爾集團(tuán)總裁張瑞敏將《論語》、《孫子兵法》、《道德經(jīng)》中的傳統(tǒng)文化思想融入到企業(yè)文化建設(shè)中，提出帶有濃郁傳統(tǒng)文化氣息的企業(yè)文化：“管理無小事”、“人人是人才，賽馬不相馬”、“日事日畢，日清日新”。他倡導(dǎo)的企業(yè)精神是：“追求卓越，永不滿足”，并追求“敬業(yè)報(bào)國”的信念。這些與我國優(yōu)秀文化結(jié)合的海爾文化創(chuàng)造出令世界震驚的海爾業(yè)績。目前，海爾模式已被寫入哈佛大學(xué)MBA課程，成為中國型企業(yè)文化的典范。

2.企業(yè)文化建設(shè)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化與以人為本相結(jié)合

人性化是強(qiáng)調(diào)企業(yè)管理者通過道德修養(yǎng)感化職工，領(lǐng)導(dǎo)以身作則，將道德觀念融入到員工的評判標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中。標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化指企業(yè)建立完整的規(guī)章制度。完善的制度可以保證員工明確職責(zé)，提高工作的目的性。但一些企業(yè)常常將二者割裂開或?qū)⒍邔α⑵饋怼?shí)際上只有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化和人性化相結(jié)合，才能最大限度地發(fā)揮員工的積極性。過于強(qiáng)調(diào)人性化，忽略制度建設(shè)，會導(dǎo)致工作懈怠、管理無方，往往會忽視員工的工作能力；反之，只強(qiáng)調(diào)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化建設(shè)，不注重員工思想道德建設(shè)，不體諒員工，就會使管理過于形式化，企業(yè)也就失去持續(xù)上升的動力。以海信集團(tuán)為例，該企業(yè)是從十幾人的手工作坊發(fā)展成為大型電子信息企業(yè)集團(tuán)，海信集團(tuán)的企業(yè)文化是“敬人為先、創(chuàng)新為魂、質(zhì)量是根、情感管理”。海信集團(tuán)建立完整的激勵機(jī)制、明確的獎懲制度，并要求人人遵守。同時(shí)海信的企業(yè)文化倡導(dǎo)人和人之間的情感關(guān)懷，有濃厚的人情味，讓很多員工對海信都不忍割舍、放棄高報(bào)酬的其他工作機(jī)會。海信將標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化與人性化完美結(jié)合在一起，員工人人爭先，在把握創(chuàng)新和質(zhì)量兩個(gè)關(guān)口后，企業(yè)得以快速發(fā)展。

3.構(gòu)建以人為本的和諧的企業(yè)文化

企業(yè)管理也就是人的管理。美國的企業(yè)文化強(qiáng)調(diào)實(shí)現(xiàn)員工的個(gè)人價(jià)值，為員工構(gòu)建公平的競爭平臺，發(fā)掘他們的潛力。日本企業(yè)文化中“和為貴”的思想促進(jìn)團(tuán)隊(duì)協(xié)作，發(fā)揮整體優(yōu)勢。印度企業(yè)文化中的精英文化、人本文化無不將人推到企業(yè)發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)。因此，我國企業(yè)應(yīng)以人為本的構(gòu)建和諧企業(yè)文化。構(gòu)建以人為本，和諧的企業(yè)文化要重視人才引進(jìn)和人才培養(yǎng)，培養(yǎng)一支高素質(zhì)的員工隊(duì)伍。我國最大的房地產(chǎn)公司之一萬科公司始終認(rèn)為人才是最重要的資源和核心競爭力。董事長王石認(rèn)為，人才是一條理性的河流，哪里有谷地，就會向哪里匯聚。萬科始終將人才引進(jìn)和培養(yǎng)放在公司發(fā)展的首位，不惜成本建設(shè)人才培訓(xùn)機(jī)制，良好的人才儲備成為企業(yè)發(fā)展的源動力。構(gòu)建以人為本的和諧企業(yè)文化要為員工創(chuàng)造舒適的工作氛圍，增加員工的歸屬感。只有這樣，才能提高員工的主人翁意識，把企業(yè)看成自己的家。

企業(yè)文化是現(xiàn)代企業(yè)發(fā)展的重要組成部分，優(yōu)秀企業(yè)文化能不斷提升企業(yè)的核心競爭力。美國、日本、印度等國家知名企業(yè)都具有自身的核心價(jià)值觀，有獨(dú)特的企業(yè)文化。我國企業(yè)文化建設(shè)存在重形式、輕內(nèi)涵和缺乏創(chuàng)新等問題。需發(fā)掘傳統(tǒng)文化精華，結(jié)合自身企業(yè)特點(diǎn)創(chuàng)造適合企業(yè)發(fā)展的企業(yè)文化，不斷提升企業(yè)競爭力。

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第二篇：中西方酒文化的比較研究

中西方酒文化的比較研究

A Comparative Study on Alcohol Culture Between China and Western Countries

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, my appreciation goes to my affectionate parents, and the rest of my family.On the process of composing the paper, they have been giving me continuous support, encouragement and understanding.Their love and support encouraged me to pursue progress all the time.And I also would like to extend my sincere thanks to all other teachers who gave me lectures during the past three academic years.I have benefited so much not only from their courses and lectures but also from their constant encouragement.Finally, my deepest gratitude and respect go to my supervisor, Lu Li.It is for her constant encouragement, critical instructions, her great care and precious advice and suggestions that this paper appears in the present form.Abstract

Alcohol，which plays an important role in people’s daily life, is familiar to human beings.People’s life becomes colorful with it.As to alcohol culture, differences and similarities co-exist between China and the western countries.A large number of previous researches have been done on specific alcohol culture, whereas few studies focus on the alcohol culture comparison between China and western countries.Systematic and comprehensive researches in this regard are hard to find.Since comparative studies on the similarities and differences of alcohol culture between China and western countries are lacking, this paper attempt to explore the differences from the raw materials and drinking customs and conclude their similarities to introduce the alcohol culture of China and western countries.Key Words：alcohol;cultural difference;China and western countries

摘要

酒是人們非常熟悉的一種飲品，它在人們的日常生活中起著不可替代的作用。酒使人們的生活變的豐富多彩。關(guān)于酒文化，中國和西方相似之處與差異共存。前人對特定的酒文化研究較多，而對中西方酒文化的比較都只做了簡要的探討，并未系統(tǒng)、全面的做出總結(jié), 關(guān)于中西方酒文化的相似和差異的對比研究還比較欠缺。本文試圖在前人研究的基礎(chǔ)上，從釀酒的原料和飲酒的習(xí)俗等方面探討中西方酒文化的不同, 并結(jié)合它們的相似處，介紹中西方酒文化。

關(guān)鍵詞: 酒；文化差異；中國和西方國家

Contents

Introduction …………………………………………………………...1 I.History of alcohol ………………………………...……………........3 1.1 In China ………………...………………………………………....3 1.2 In west countries ………………………………………………......4 II.Alcohol culture in China and western countries ………………....6 2.1 Similarities in alcohol culture …………………………………......6 2.2 Differences in alcohol culture …………………………………......7 III.Intercommunication of alcohol culture …………………………15

3.1 The necessity to promote intercommunication of alcohol culture..15 3.2 Suggestions to the intercommunication of alcohol culture …...…..15 Conclusion ………………………………………………………..……16 Bibliography …………………………………………………..….........17

Introduction

The alcohol as an objective substance in the world is in the shape of water but it has the character of fire.It will brighten the bright and fool the fool.People, such as the emperors, the heroes, the liberators, the ordinary people and the beggars, all like it since it appeared.Undoubtedly, the alcohol can be said as a riddle.People no matter in China or in western countries all have the habit of drinking alcohol.They regard drinking alcohol as an indispensable part of life.The formation of alcohol culture is different in different countries.In China, the word for alcohol “jiu” is used to refer to all types of alcoholic beverages.Since long time ago China had have the stories about Du Kang who invented the method of brewing alcoholic beverages.A legend in western countries about the origin of alcohol is also spread.The alcohol culture was gradually formed after the appearing of alcohol.The phrase ”the alcohol culture“ is put forward by the renowned economist professor Li in China.In 1994, Xiao jiacheng said that the alcohol culture referred to the integration of material, technical, spiritual, custom, psychological, and behavior phenomenon which generated around the center.While we pride ourselves on the long history of alcohol culture, we only to find that we depend excessively on the traditional alcohol culture.As a result we can not make any innovation.There is no development and progress without innovation.In this case, we can learn from the western countries.There are varied types of alcohol with different raw materials, such as Gin, Whisky, Vodka, Rum, and Brandy.Even the cocktail which appeared later is brewed based on some types of the alcoholic beverages.It is generally acknowledged that China is far away from the western countries geographically.As a result, the way to drink is different.Even in China, there is also some difference between nationalities on the way to drink.There are also some similarities of alcohol culture between China and western countries although the difference exists.The development of alcohol spirit accompanied with alcohol culture.While alcohol culture developed to a certain degree, schools of ideology came into being.In order to push the development of alcohol culture we should do our utmost to promote the international communication of the alcohol culture.2 I.History of alcohol

1.1 In China The earliest evidence of alcohol in China are wine jars from Jiahu（Jiahu(賈湖 pinyin: Jiǎhú)was the site of a Neolithic Yellow River settlement based in the central plains of ancient China, modern Wuyang, Henan Province）which dated back to about 7000 BC[1:314].This early drink was produced by fermenting rice, honey, and fruit.A variety of alcoholic beverages was used in China since prehistoric times.Alcohol, known in Chinese as jiǔ was considered a spiritual food rather than a material(physical)food, and extensive documentary evidence attests to the important role it played in the religious life.”In ancient times people always drank when holding a memorial ceremony, offering sacrifices to gods or their ancestors, pledging resolution before going into battle, celebrating victory, before feuding and official executions, for taking an oath of allegiance, while attending the ceremonies of birth, marriage, reunions, departures, death, and festival banquets[1:314].“

A Chinese imperial edict of about 1116 BC makes it clear that the use of alcohol in moderation was believed to be prescribed by heaven.Whether or not it was prescribed by heaven, it was clearly beneficial to the treasury.At the time of Marco Polo(1254-1324)it was drunk daily and was one of the treasury's biggest sources of income.Alcoholic beverages were widely used in all segments of Chinese society, were used as a source of inspiration, were important for hospitality, were considered an antidote for fatigue, and were sometimes misused.Laws against making alcohol were enacted and repealed forty-one times between 1100 BC and AD 1400.However, a commentator writing around 650 BC asserted that people ”will not do without beer.To prohibit it and secure total abstinence from it is beyond the power even of sages.Hence, therefore, we have warnings on the abuse of it.“ 3 1.2 In west countries In Pre-Columbian American, alcoholic beverages were developed by many Native American civilizations some of which are still produced today.The traditional native beverage of Mesoamerica was pulque or octli which was made from the fermented juice of maguey.Mezcal was obtained by distilling pulque and tequila is a form of mezcal.It is believed to be beer but the main carbohydrate was a complex form of fructose and not starch.[3:178]

South America produced Chicha which is a Spanish word for a variety of traditional fermented beverages.Fruits, maize and manioc root formed the main ingredients of chicha.The Native American populations of Brazil made the traditional alcoholic beverage known as Cauim which was very similar to chicha and made using the same ingredients.A characteristic feature that set cauim apart from other alcoholic drinks was that the starting material is cooked, chewed and then re-cooked before fermentation.The saliva that is present in the ingredients of the cauim break down the starches into fermentable sugars.During the early modern period(1500-1800), Protestant leaders such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, the leaders of the Anglican Church, and even the Puritans did not differ substantially from the teachings of the Catholic Church: alcohol was a gift of God and created to be used in moderation for pleasure, enjoyment and health;drunkenness was viewed as a sin.A beverage that clearly made its debut during the seventeenth century was sparkling champagne.The credit for that development goes primarily to Dom Perignon, the wine-master in a French abbey.Around 1668, he used strong bottles, invented a more efficient cork(and one that could contain the effervescence in those strong bottles), and began developing the technique of blending the contents.However, another century would pass before problems, especially bursting bottles, would be solved and sparkling champagne would become popular.The original grain spirit, whisky and its specific origins are unknown but the distillation of whisky has been performed in Scotland and Ireland for centuries.The first confirmed written record of whisky comes from 1405 in Ireland, the production of whisky from malted barley is first mentioned in Scotland in an entry on the 1494, although both countries could have distilled grain alcohol before this date.Distilled spirit was generally flavored with juniper berries.The resulting beverage was known as jenever, the Dutch word for ”juniper.“ The French changed the name to genievre, which the English changed to ”geneva“ and then modified to ”gin.“ Originally used for medicinal purposes, the use of gin as a social drink did not grow rapidly at first.However, in 1690, England passed ”An Act for the Encouraging of the Distillation of Brandy and Spirits from Corn“ and within four years the annual production of distilled spirits, most of which was gin, reached nearly one million gallons.It should be noted that at that time ”corn“ in England meant ”grain“ in general.5 II.Alcohol culture in China and western countries

2.1 Similarities in alcohol culture 2.1.1 Beautiful legends on the origin of alcohol Although there is much difference of alcohol culture between China and western countries, we can not neglect the similarities.In the first place, both China and western countries have a beautiful legend about the origin of the alcohol.In China, some people think that Du Kang invented the method to make alcohol with a history of 4000 years, while other people think that Yi Di was the first person to brew alcoholic drink.However, there is a basically clear record about the origin of alcohol.In the west, though there is a not clear historical record, a beautiful legend about the origin of alcohol was handed down.It was said that an ancient Persian king sealed the remnant grapes in the barrel and labeled the word ”poison“ to prevent others from eating them.There was a concubine disfavored by the king and lived painfully opportunely to see the poison barrel and wanted to die at that time.She opened it and drunk for a few mouths.She felt not painful but a sense of intoxication when she was waiting to die.Then she told the king the matter.A test is unavoidable.This, of course, is a beautiful legend.But the alcohol beverages, indeed, enhanced the enjoyment of mankind.2.1.2 Alcohol and literature In the second place, the alcohol culture has the surprising similarities on literature.In the realm of literature and art, the alcohol spirit is everywhere and affects the men of letters and refined scholars deeply in that freeness, art and beauty is united.Freeness reaches art and art produces beauty.To get the free state of art with intoxication is an important channel to get rid of bind and get the ability of creation by the ancient Chinese arts.[6：101] Alcohol, more than any other beverage, had a great impact on men of letters as it seems that many of them produced their peak masterpieces in states of drunkenness.Being drunk, and so being released of inhibition, was and is an important way for men of letters to unleash their artistic and creative talents.After drinking the mysterious liquid, many famous poets, such as Li Bai and Du Fu, excelled in writing and left us surprisingly marvelous poems.[7:54] The famous poet Li Bai of the Tang Dynasty(AD618-907)is known as the ”Immortal of Wine“ because of his love for alcohol.Guo Moruo, a modern scholar, compiled statistics about Li's poems and found 17 percent of them were about drinking.Alcohol inspired the poet and helped him create many beautiful poems.When Li Bai was happy he wrote: ”People should enjoy drinking as much as possible when they succeed“.When he was sad he wrote: ”I tried to comfort myself with wine but the wine made the sadness even worse“.Not only poetry but also painting and calligraphy were elevated to new heights with the consumption of alcohol.Wang Xizhi, the famous Chinese calligrapher respectfully called the Saint of Calligraphy, tried dozens of times to outdo his most outstanding work, Lantingxu(Orchid Pavilion Prologue), which was finished when he was drunk, but he failed.The original one was the best.The consumption of alcoholic beverages isn't just a coincidentally recurring quirk in the literary world: it's downright traditional.For many famous writers of the past and present, a cocktail glass is as at home in their hand as a pen.Consider what Ernest Hemingway said, “A man does not exist until he is drunk.” or William Faulkner, “Civilization begins with distillation.” and, famously, F.Scott Fitzgerald who spent the majority of his writing career(and life)in a state of perpetual tipsiness, “First you take a drink, then the drink takes a drink, then the drink takes you.”

2.2 Differences in alcohol culture 2.2.1 Different categories of alcohol

China is one of the three ancient countries in the world and has thousands of years of history to brew alcohol.Today, China is also famous for its masterly technology and distinctive style of alcohol and is more renowned for the long history and profound culture.The world people gradually realized the great value of alcohol culture of China as the rapid development of Chinese alcohol since the foundation of China.In China, the word for alcohol ”jiu“ is used to mean all types of alcoholic beverages, from ”pijiu“(beer)to liquors(just called ”jiu“)to grape alcohol(”putaojiu“).The origins of the alcoholic beverages from fermented grain in China can not be traced definitely.The distilled drink was not popular until the 19th century.Traditionally, Chinese distilled liquors are consumed together with food rather than drunk on their own.[8:59]The alcohol can be generally classified into two types, namely, yellow liquors(huangjiu)or clear(white)liquor(baijiu).The yellow liquor is fermented alcohol that is brewed directly from grains such as rice or wheat.Such liquor contains less than 20% alcohol due to the inhibition of fermentation by ethanol at this concentration.This alcohol is traditionally pasteurized，aged, and filtered before their final bottling for sale to consumers.Yellow liquor can also be distilled to produce white liquor or baijiu.White liquor(baijiu)are also commonly called shaojiu, which means ”hot liquor“ or ”burned liquor“, either because of the burning sensation in the mouth during consumption and the fact that they are usually warmed before being consumed, or because of the heating requirements for distillation liquors of this type typically contain more than 30% alcohol in volume since they have undergone distillation.[9:25]There are a great many varieties of distilled liquors, both unflavored and flavored.According to different kinds of material, there are a large number of types of famous Chinese liquors and wines familiar to us, such as:

Fen Jiu(汾酒)--this liquor was dated back to Northern and Southern Dynasties(5500 A.D.).It is the original Chinese white liquor made from sorghum.Alcohol content by volume: 63--65%;Zhu Ye Qing Jiu(竹葉青酒)--this sweet liquor is Fen Jiu brewed with a dozen or more selected Chinese herbal medicine.One of the ingredients is bamboo leaves which give the liquor a yellowish-green color and its name.Its alcohol content ranges between 38 and 46 percent by volume;Mao Tai Jiu(茅臺酒)--this liquor has a production history of over 200 years.It is named after its origin at Mao Tai town in Guizhou province.It is made from wheat and sorghum with a unique distilling process that involves seven iterations of the brewing cycle.This liquor is famous to the western world when the Chinese government served this in state banquets entertaining the US presidents.Alcohol content by volume: 54--55%;Gao Liang Jiu(高粱酒)--”Gaoliang“, commonly written ”Kaoliang“, is the Chinese word for a specific type of sorghum.Besides sorghum, the brewing process also use barley, wheat etc.The alcohol was originated from Da Zhi Gu since the Ming Dynasty.Nowadays, Taiwan is a large producer of sorghum.Alcohol content by volume: 61--63%;Mei Gui Lu Jiu(玫瑰露酒rose essence wine)--a variety of sorghum with distilling from a special species of rose and crystal sugar.Alcohol content by volume: 54--55%;Wu Jia Pi Jiu(五加皮酒)--a variety of gao liang jiu with a unique selection of Chinese herbal medicine added to the brewing.Alcohol content by volume: 54--55%;Da Gu Jiu(大麴酒)--originated from Sichuan province with 300 years of history.This alcohol is made of sorghum and wheat by fermenting in a unique process for a long period in the cellar.Alcohol content by volume: 52%;Yuk Bing Shiu Jiu(玉冰燒酒)--a rice alcohol with over 100 years history.It is made of steamed rice and stored a long period after distillation.Alcohol content by volume: 30%;Shuang Jing(雙蒸酒double distillation)and San Jing(三蒸酒triple distillation)Jiu--two varieties of rice alcohol from the Jiujiang(九江)area by distilling twice and three times respectively.Alcohol content by volume: 32% and 38--39% respectively;San Hua(three flowers三花酒)Jiu--a rice alcohol made in Gui Lin with allegedly over a thousand years history.It is famous for the fragrant herbal addition and the use of spring water from Mount Elephant in the region.Alcohol content by volume: 55--57%;Fujian Glutinous Rice Wine(福建糯米酒)--made by adding a long list of expensive Chinese herbal medicine to glutinous rice and a low alcohol rice alcohol distillation.The unique brewing technique uses another alcohol as raw material.The alcohol has an orange red color.Alcohol content by volume: 18%;

Hua Diao Jiu(花雕酒)--a type of yellow alcohol originates from Shaoxing, Zhejiang.It is made of glutinous rice and wheat.Alcohol content by volume: 16%.[11:75-77] This is the raw material of alcohol in China.In western countries, the types of alcohol are divided by the raw material:

Qinjiu(Gin), the first action of a special purpose for the spirits.Sylvius Docter, maker of this alcohol, was a professor of medicine well known in the Netherlands to Dayton University in the 17th century.He knew that the oil of Cadinene strawberry contained an element of diuretic which together with pure ethanol distillation to obtain cheaper diuretic drugs, and he succeeded finally.Not only medicine but it is a new species of alcohol beverages.[3:205] Qinjiu Types: The unique and different formula of Qinjiu used by the distillery.Qinijiu can be divided into 4 types according to brands, types, production.Netherlands Qinjiu(Holland)or(Dutch Gin), the taste is sweet accompanied with hot no matter it is pure to drink or to drink plus some ice.The two cases are both very tasty.It is basically made from malt.The flavor came from gin.It adds ice and a piece of lemon which is the best alternative of dry Martini.London Qinjiu(Tom Gin)or(London Gin): The sweet London Qinjiu is made with malt and grain as raw materials and primary products.Plymouth Qinjiu: It is similar to London Qinjiu although with different flavor.British Qinijiu: This alcohol is not sweet and has not the original savor.The difference British and the United States is an important factor.The British Qinjiu has lower alcohol after distillation but it retains more grain characteristics of low alcohol distillation.Secondly, the water, of course, Britain and the United States are different.Which mutually affect the characteristics of the technique and distilled spirits.Whisky The Characteristics of Whiskey: Whiskey is made from the smashed fermentation and distillation of grains and then placed into a barrel.Although any cereal can be used to brew whiskey, the most important materials are corn, wheat, and barley.[3:206] The Origin of Whiskey: At present, four major producing areas, namely, Scotland, Ireland, Canada and the United States.Most of these areas have produced whiskey named its origin in addition to Bourbon whisky and the United States blending whisky(Blended Scotch)and Light customers(Scotch whiskey)The Types Whiskey: Scotch whisky, American whiskey, Irish whiskey, Tennessee whiskey, Canadian whiskey Brandy Brandy's Character: Brandy is a mixture of fermentation and distillation of fruit juice and residue.Distilled alcohol content is less than 95% in order to retain its flavor and aromatic character.[3:206] ”Cognac“ Brandy: Cognac is a kind of Brandy alcohol distilled from alcohol in Cognac, French.It named by the French government law.Lyme alcohol(Rum): Islands of west Indies is the home of Rum alcohol where is abound in sugarcane.Rum is the first three words of Rum bullion which means excitement.Rum is distilled alcohol made from sugarcane as the raw material.It is different for the difference of producing area and the way to make it.It can be divided into three types according to the tint.It is one of the basic alcohols in confecting cocktail.[3:207] The Origin of Rum: The producing area is mainly in the place where people speak Spanish and English, such as Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Java along the East Indies.Puerto Rico Rum(Puerto Rico)which is famous for its light alcohol.Demerara Rum rather than Jamaica sales a large amount to the United States.Batavian Run(Batavian)is spicy Java Lime liquor.It is special because of the special flavor of honey, water, and the rice added to it to ferment.Hawaiian Rum(Hawaii)is the lightest available alcohol in the market which is made lately.It is the best beverages with orange juice.With ice and quinine water, Rum is the best beverages in the hot days.At present, ordinary Chinese people have always just used alcohol to help them celebrate the happiness in their lives.In China, a banquet known as ”jiuxi“ means an alcohol banquet and the life of every person, from birth to death, should have pauses for drinking banquets starting a month or 100 days after a baby's birth when the parents invite people in for a drink.When someone builds a new house, marries, starts a business, makes a fortune or lives a long life, he should invite people in for a drinking session.In modern times it is a pity that the games that go with drink are not the elegant ones of the past that involved poetry or music.Today, drinkers just play simple finger guessing games along with a lot of heavy drinking.It also seems today that friendship depends only on the volume of drink being consumed.It is widely said among the drinking fraternity that ”if we are good friends, then bottom up;if not, then just take a sip“.As we know, China has 56 nationalities and a wide range of territory.There is varied drinking custom for different nationalities.2.2.2 Different customs of drinking alcohol Several major Chinese festivals of the year have corresponding drinking activities, such as the Dragon Boat Festival and drinking ”calamus wine“.Double Ninth Festival drink ”chrysanthemum wine“ to ward off evil and to wish their elders good health and longevity.Of course, no wedding ceremony is complete unless the happy couple symbolizes their love for each other by linking their arms to drink to their future happiness(jiaobeijiu), after which they offer a dutiful toast to their parents to thank them for the care they have given to them as children.In some places, such as Jiangxi, people gathered to drink after planting the cereal crop or to celebrate the harvest time.Chinese New Year also is known as New Year's Eve.It is the day for family reunion to have the most sumptuous dinner of the year.Dinner and alcohol are essential to the even poorest family.In some places, people generally do not leave the house on the first day of the first lunar month.From the second day, people begin to drop around.The owner of the house takes the dishes which have been prepared earlier to the table and enjoy the alcohol with the guests.” liquor of daughter in the south“(女兒酒)According to the earliest record by the ”Southern Grasses“ that the southern people began to brew alcohol when their daughter was born.Then they bury the brewed alcohol underground and keep it until their daughter marries.Then they take the jar up and paint auspicious pictures upon it to give greetings.This kind of alcohol was inherited in Shaoxing and developed to be famous as ”Huadiao jiu" Another difference exists in the custom of drinking alcohol.As is known to us, China is a big country with 56 nationalities and vast territory.Most of the nations have its own distinctive alcohol and custom of drinking alcohol.However, there still exists the common character: encouraging people to drink.While in western countries, no one will encourage you to drink.It is up to you to drink or not.No one would associate toasting people with the face.It there exists buying alcohol culture, that is, today I buy the alcohol for you in a bar;tomorrow you will buy for me.Alcohol culture brings about the difference of ideology of flows.Alcohol culture that caused great effect on the east and west civilization is embodied in the feminism.In the west, fete is an important means of worship of alcohol.The housewives and girls gathered in wild mountains to dance and enjoy themselves the whole night.Women could communicate with any people.[4:89]Although the man was discontented with this, he could not have any complaints.This tradition was handed down.As a result, women got almost the same status with the man in the west.The worship of alcohol came along with the mysterious worship of maternity, which rippled in the civilization of the west.It was not the case in China.Although at the beginning, the alcohol was brewed for Yi Di, the daughter of Yu, women were deprived of right of drinking alcohol by man.The girls in The Dream of Red Mansion mostly drank fruit wine.The liquor, was the patent of men, such as Jia Zheng.The status of women was gradually promoted after the spread of western culture during the period of Fourth Five.Women have the same right of drinking alcohol in modern times.2.2.3 Different purpose of drinking alcohol In China, alcohol is often used as a tool, the so-called “a tippler's delight lay not in alcohol but in mountains and waters.The delight to enjoy mountains and waters came from the bottom of his heart, and relied on alcohol as well”.People are mostly rely on alcohol to pursue other things rather than alcohol.[13:123] Qingmeizhujiu as to demonstrate who is a hero;do not put down your cup in Invitation To Wine(將進(jìn)酒，Li Bai)is to we may drown the woes age-old;seven sages are sing wildly in bamboo grove, in order to take refuge with alcohol.Alcohol in the eyes of the Chinese people more as a communication tool in China's alcohol culture, and alcohol for their own lack of scientific and systematic analysis and evaluation, they play more attention on wonderful role of alcohol after drinking it.In the West, the drinking purpose is very simple, in order to appreciate the alcohol to drinking the alcohol, in order to enjoy the alcohol to drinking the alcohol.Of course, alcohol in the West also has the function of communication, but it's more pursuing is how much of the flavor of alcohol to enjoy.[5：78]

III.Intercommunication of alcohol culture

3.1 The necessity to promote intercommunication of alcohol culture

The development of world alcohol culture depends on the intercommunication

of different nations.At present, the research communication between professors and experts in especially French, Germany, and England and so on is little.Only by intercommunication people could share different kinds of alcohol culture and make progress quickly.Isolation is bound up with failure.It is a necessity to promote intercommunication of alcohol culture

3.2 Suggestions to the intercommunication of alcohol culture

The development of world alcohol culture depends on the intercommunication of different nations.On this matter, I’d like to present several suggestions as the following:

Firstly, we should launch international communication conference about research of alcohol culture.This give professors, experts and people who are interested in alcohol a chance to exchange their ideas and views about alcohol and put forward new suggestions.It is an important and direct way to push the development of alcohol culture.Secondly, a worldwide organization should be set up to harmonize and guide the deed acted by nations and set the suitable rules.As we know, a proverb says without rules we cannot do things well.Thus it is necessary and important to set the suitable rules.Regions and nations behave according to the rules regulated.Lastly, the innovation is crucial in developing alcohol culture.We couldn’t indulge ourselves in the success we have had and depend on the traditional alcohol culture excessively.We should innovate the alcohol culture to keep the booming vitality of alcohol.Conclusion

The alcohol is the best present that God has given to people.Alcohol culture comes along with the birth of alcohol since alcohol appeared.Due to the difference of alcohol, regions and environment, the faith brought by alcohol culture also has more or less difference.At first, the alcohol in China was the sweet alcohol made from fruits.After that, man gradually found the grain which was used as the raw material of liquor.It was much better than sweet alcohol either in power or taste.Therefore, it is the mainstream to brew alcohol with grain as the raw material.At present, it refers to liquor when it comes to the alcohol of China.However, the alcohol in the west was brewed with barley the raw material firstly.Man began to brew alcohol with grape.The alcohol made man intoxicated and gradually became the mainstream of the west.And now, it refers to Champagne and Brandy, grape as the raw material.Drinking alcohol in China is the common phenomenon of different nations.Most of nations have its own characteristic alcohol and custom of drinking alcohol.The culture of drinking alcohol has endurable vitality and character.The research of drinking custom will promote the unity of nations and progress of civilization.In order to communicate with the consumer, it is necessary to promote the development of alcohol culture.The alcohol can popularize wildly and sell best according to the taste of consumer.The brewed alcohol is to be consumed by man.Consequently, people's suggestion about the way of brewing alcohol is vital, which is to make sure the alcohol is consumed with confirmation and agreement of consumer.Intercommunication is also crucial to the development of alcohol culture.Thus, increasing international communication is essential.Professors and experts can exchange their views and put forward new ideas about innovation of technology.A worldwide organization restrains the behavior of the members.Through this topic, the profound Chinese culture during the course of investigations will be appreciated.Consequently the Chinese alcohol culture will develop along with the development of the world alcohol culture.Bibliography 〔1〕 Patrick McGovern.Ancient wine: the search for the origin of viniculture [M].Princeton University, 2003.〔2〕 Haeger North American Pinot Noir [M].Langman, 2004.〔3〕Patrick Matthews.Real wine: the rediscovery of natural winemaking [M].Mitchell Beazley, 2000.〔4〕 Jeni Port.Crushed by women: women and win [M].Arcadia, 2000.〔5〕 Jancis Robinson.Jancis Robinson's wine tasting workbook [M].Conran Octopus, 2000.〔6〕 王守國．酒文化與藝術(shù)精神[M]．鄭州：河南大學(xué)出版社, 2006． 〔7〕 鐵流．中華酒文化大觀[M]．北京：當(dāng)代中國出版社, 2000． 〔8〕 張愛敬．酒文化[M]．青島：中國海洋大學(xué)出版社, 1999． 〔9〕 張長興．酒文化[M]．呼和浩特：內(nèi)蒙古人民出版社, 2003．

〔10〕 趙榮光．中國傳統(tǒng)酒人形象的歷史異變[A]．香港：飲食文化研究出版社, 2002．

〔11〕 蔣雁峰．中國酒文化研究[M]．長沙：湖南師范大學(xué)出版社, 2000． 〔12〕 朱迪．帶一只酒杯去巴黎[M]．北京：團(tuán)結(jié)出版社, 2005． 〔13〕 Thomas Karlauf．突然想喝酒,微醺[M]．上海外文出版社, 2003． 〔14〕 蕭曦清酒國春秋[M]．臺北：臺灣新生報(bào)出版社, 2001． 〔15〕 韓勝寶．姑蘇酒文化[M]．蘇州：古吳軒出版社, 2000．

第三篇：中西方公務(wù)員制度比較研究

中西方公務(wù)員制度比較研究

摘要：中國公務(wù)員制度的建立是我國干部人事管理制度改革的重要成果,既繼承和發(fā)揚(yáng)了我國干部和人事工作的優(yōu)良傳統(tǒng),總結(jié)和完善了改革開放以來干部人事制度改革的新鮮經(jīng)驗(yàn),又吸收和借鑒了西方國家文官制度的有益做法,已在現(xiàn)階段形成了中國特色。本文試從中西方公務(wù)員范圍的界定到公務(wù)員制度的特征差異展開對比分析,并對其發(fā)展趨勢作了一些探討。關(guān)鍵字：公務(wù)員制度，公務(wù)員，公務(wù)員考核，公務(wù)員培訓(xùn) 正文：公務(wù)員制度，西方又叫文官制度。西方文官制度最早產(chǎn)生于英國，后在美國、加拿大、法國、日本等國家實(shí)行。到目前為止，絕大多數(shù)發(fā)達(dá)國家都采用了這種制度，第三世界一些國家已經(jīng)和正在采用這種制度。國家公務(wù)員制度是從19世紀(jì)中后期開始，為適應(yīng)西方工業(yè)化時(shí)代政府管理的實(shí)踐需要而逐步形成和發(fā)展起來的。隨著西方各國由工業(yè)社會向后工業(yè)社會的轉(zhuǎn)變，傳統(tǒng)的文官制度的弊端日益暴露出來，越來越不適應(yīng)信息社會以及全球化時(shí)代政府管理實(shí)踐的需要。20世紀(jì)80年代以來，西方掀起了一場聲勢浩大的政府改革運(yùn)動，作為官僚體制支柱的文官制度，成為改革的焦點(diǎn)。80年代中期，伴隨改革開放的偉大歷史腳步，我國開始了建立國家公務(wù)員制度的理論與實(shí)踐，取得了歷史性突破。而隨著我國市場經(jīng)濟(jì)體制的建立和完善以及政治——行政體制改革的逐步深化，我國公務(wù)員制度的建設(shè)面臨著新的機(jī)遇與挑戰(zhàn)。因此，面對全球范圍的公務(wù)員制度改革的潮流，如何立足于我國的國情，借鑒西方文官制度改革的經(jīng)驗(yàn)與教訓(xùn)，推進(jìn)我國公務(wù)員制度建設(shè)，便成為一個(gè)重要的理論與實(shí)踐問題。

公務(wù)員系指代表國家從事社會公共事務(wù)管理、行使國家權(quán)力，履行國家公務(wù)的人員。公務(wù)員制度的稱謂，各國不盡一致，英國叫“文官”或“文職服務(wù)人員”。美國叫“政府雇員"。一般通稱為公務(wù)員或文官。所謂公務(wù)員制度，就是通過制定公務(wù)員法，對公務(wù)人員依法進(jìn)行管理的總稱。公務(wù)員制度的建立、發(fā)展和完善，是衡量一個(gè)國家民主政治成熟與否的重要標(biāo)志。我國在推行公務(wù)員制度的進(jìn)程中，積極吸收和大膽借鑒了西方文官制度的成功經(jīng)驗(yàn)，但是這種吸收和借鑒不是照搬，從社會制度的本質(zhì)來說，我國推行的公務(wù)員制度與西方文官制度有著本質(zhì)區(qū)別。

１、從權(quán)利和義務(wù)上看，我國和西方公務(wù)員既有相同之處，也有顯著區(qū)別

我國和西方國家公務(wù)員權(quán)利和義務(wù)的共同點(diǎn)體現(xiàn)于都規(guī)定公務(wù)員要依法行事，忠于職守，為大眾服務(wù)，遵守紀(jì)律，不得經(jīng)商，不得參加與本部門有關(guān)的贏利活動，不得兼職等等。而其差別體現(xiàn)在兩個(gè)方面：首先，西方各國強(qiáng)調(diào)地方公務(wù)員的權(quán)利和義務(wù)一般僅限于服務(wù)的地區(qū)范圍，而在我國，所有的公務(wù)員所享受的權(quán)利和承擔(dān)的義務(wù)都是相同的，根本不受服務(wù)地區(qū)的范圍限制；其次，西方各國強(qiáng)調(diào)公務(wù)員“政治中立”，不介于政黨活動，即為文官工作不受黨派斗爭的影響，如各國公務(wù)員法都明確規(guī)定：公務(wù)員不得參加政黨的競選活動和支持競選的募捐活動，不得擔(dān)任由選舉和政治任命產(chǎn)生的公職，不得接受政治捐款等等。規(guī)定“政治中立”的目的是為了在多黨競爭的政治環(huán)境中，避免“政黨分贓制”造成的工作混亂和官員隊(duì)伍的動蕩不穩(wěn)，從而使業(yè)務(wù)類公務(wù)員不卷入政治斗爭，以保證政府各項(xiàng)工作的有條不紊地進(jìn)行，穩(wěn)定公務(wù)員隊(duì)伍，保持政策的連續(xù)性和政治的穩(wěn)定。但是實(shí)際上完全做到“政治中立”是不可能的。在我國，則是要求全體公務(wù)員都要堅(jiān)持中國共產(chǎn)黨的基本路線，并接受馬列主義、毛澤東思想、鄧小平理論和“三個(gè)代表”的教育，我國公務(wù)員制度的建立是為貫徹黨的基本路線服務(wù)并提供組織保證的，這與西方文官制度所標(biāo)榜的“政治中立”有本質(zhì)的區(qū)別。眾所周知，作為上層建筑的國家政治制度的公務(wù)員制度，必然取決于并服務(wù)于本國的根本政治經(jīng)濟(jì)制度，由于國情不同，文化傳統(tǒng)各異，因而必然各具其特色。

2、在公務(wù)員的錄用考核方面，西方各國與我國也有所不同

西方各國對公務(wù)員的選用，是以公務(wù)員是否具有職務(wù)上所需要的知識能力為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的，而為此所采取的方法即是客觀公正的競爭考試，保證真正優(yōu)秀的人才有機(jī)會擔(dān)任公職，這樣有利于提高公務(wù)員的素質(zhì)，克服政府官員任用中的不正之風(fēng)。西方各國對公務(wù)員的考核側(cè)重于功績的原則。這是任用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和依據(jù)的重要原則。要求按照工作成績決定晉升，具有客觀的測評標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。因?yàn)椴拍艿母叩?、品行的好壞，?yīng)該反映在工作成績上。功績制原則的作用就在于激勵公務(wù)員努力工作，提高政府的工作效率，同時(shí)，又可以強(qiáng)化競爭機(jī)制，促使公務(wù)員不斷地爭先創(chuàng)優(yōu)。一句話，功績制原則可以充分調(diào)動公務(wù)員的積極性和創(chuàng)造性。美國的考績制度便是如此。但這種考核往往注重人的現(xiàn)實(shí)能力，忽視人的潛能與發(fā)展趨勢，這也是一個(gè)缺點(diǎn)所在。在我國對公務(wù)員的考核所堅(jiān)持的原則：一是客觀公正的原則，即要全面準(zhǔn)確地實(shí)事求是地反映公務(wù)員的狀況，并按統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)公平地做出對公務(wù)員的評價(jià)；二是民主公開的原則，就是要將考核的內(nèi)容、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、方法和程序等公諸于眾，公開接受群眾監(jiān)督，并通過征求意見，民主評議的方式，讓群眾直接參與考核；三是依法考核的原則。其考核內(nèi)容，即從公務(wù)員的德、能、勤、績四個(gè)方面進(jìn)行全面考核，重點(diǎn)考核工作實(shí)績，強(qiáng)調(diào)堅(jiān)持德才標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和注重考核政治思想表現(xiàn)。

與西方公務(wù)員考核一樣，我國的公務(wù)員考核結(jié)果也是晉升的依據(jù)，但在考核上也有一定的區(qū)別：西方各國對公務(wù)員的考核主要是考勤和考績，以考績?yōu)橹攸c(diǎn)，一般不問政治行為；而我國則要求德才兼?zhèn)?。考核方法不同，西方各國以領(lǐng)導(dǎo)考核為主，考核結(jié)果不公布；而我國是采取領(lǐng)導(dǎo)與群眾相結(jié)合的考核方法，考核結(jié)果通知本人?？己藱C(jī)構(gòu)不同，西方各國以人

事部門為主對各部門考核，而我國是各部門自已考核。年考核次數(shù)不同，西方各國多年考核兩次，我國則考核一次?？己顺潭炔煌?，我國考核相對復(fù)雜些。

3、從公務(wù)員與政府的關(guān)系來看，我國與西方各國有重大區(qū)別

西方各國公務(wù)員與政府的關(guān)系是雇用關(guān)系，把文官系統(tǒng)看作是獨(dú)立的利益集團(tuán)，將文官身份分裂開來（對公眾是官員，對政府是雇員）。我國的公務(wù)員是人民的勤務(wù)員，是國家的主人，是代表人民行使國家行政權(quán)利的工作人員，他們和政府的關(guān)系是共同履行行政責(zé)任的連帶關(guān)系。

4、在公務(wù)員培訓(xùn)方面，我國和西方各國有所不同

西方各國很重視對公務(wù)員知識的更新和能力的提高，因此以各種形式對公務(wù)員進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)，來保證公務(wù)員素質(zhì)不斷適應(yīng)社會發(fā)展的需要，提高現(xiàn)有行政管理水平。如英國1970年成立了文官學(xué)院，以加強(qiáng)對文官的培養(yǎng)工作。而且西方各國還注重對公務(wù)員人格的培訓(xùn)，以使其具有良好的品質(zhì)，這樣才能在工作中兢兢業(yè)業(yè)地完成其本職工作。此外，對新錄用的公務(wù)員或公務(wù)員晉升職務(wù)都要進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)。西方各國比較重視公務(wù)員專業(yè)化原則，用人注重知識和專業(yè)，所以也要對公務(wù)員進(jìn)行社會科學(xué)的培訓(xùn)，以拓寬其視野。另外，還進(jìn)行單門知識和專業(yè)技術(shù)的培訓(xùn)以及對專門機(jī)構(gòu)整理出來的政府機(jī)關(guān)亟待解決的實(shí)踐課題和理論課題的研修培訓(xùn)。西方各國對公務(wù)員的培訓(xùn)，強(qiáng)調(diào)針對性、靈活性的原則，形成了一些行之有效的培訓(xùn)方式。例如，法國國立行政學(xué)院是專門培訓(xùn)非技術(shù)性高級文官的“超尖子”學(xué)校。該院有一套自己的組織形式、嚴(yán)格的招生制度和獨(dú)特的教學(xué)方式，以滿足培訓(xùn)目標(biāo)的需要。

在我國，《國家公務(wù)員暫行條例》規(guī)定：國家行政學(xué)院、地方行政學(xué)院以及其它培訓(xùn)機(jī)構(gòu)按有關(guān)規(guī)定承擔(dān)國家公務(wù)員的培訓(xùn)任務(wù)。國家行政學(xué)院負(fù)責(zé)培訓(xùn)高級公務(wù)員和部分中級公務(wù)員；地方行政學(xué)院負(fù)責(zé)培訓(xùn)地區(qū)中級和初級公務(wù)員；其它培訓(xùn)機(jī)構(gòu)主要包括國務(wù)院各部委和直屬機(jī)構(gòu)所屬的管理院校、高等院校的成人教育機(jī)構(gòu)等。它們分別按系統(tǒng)或按專業(yè)承擔(dān)有關(guān)公務(wù)員的培訓(xùn)工作。其培訓(xùn)內(nèi)容主要是堅(jiān)持政治教育和業(yè)務(wù)培訓(xùn)相結(jié)合。其類型有新錄用的公務(wù)員培訓(xùn)、晉升領(lǐng)導(dǎo)職務(wù)的公務(wù)員的培訓(xùn)、專門業(yè)務(wù)培訓(xùn)、知識更新培訓(xùn)等。相比較而言，我國公務(wù)員的培訓(xùn)在規(guī)范化和制度化方面與西方各國差距較大。

國情與環(huán)境的差別決定了我國的公務(wù)員制度的發(fā)展與西方文官制度改革的目標(biāo)、戰(zhàn)略、步驟、方法以及具體措施上的不同。因此，我們在加強(qiáng)公務(wù)員制度的建設(shè)的同時(shí)，應(yīng)注意靈活性，在兩者之間尋求一個(gè)平衡。具體措施如下：

1、加快立法，強(qiáng)化執(zhí)法，提高公務(wù)員管理的法治化水平。第一，抓緊制定公務(wù)員法。根據(jù)黨中央、國務(wù)院和全國人大的要求，在認(rèn)真總結(jié)公務(wù)員制度的基礎(chǔ)上，抓緊《國家公務(wù)員法》的起草工作。第二，研究制定出臺尚缺的單項(xiàng)法規(guī)。如公務(wù)員紀(jì)律、行為規(guī)范、調(diào)任、競爭上崗等；對現(xiàn)有的單項(xiàng)法規(guī)要在實(shí)踐檢驗(yàn)的基礎(chǔ)上，進(jìn)行修改、補(bǔ)充和完善。第三，抓好制度落實(shí)。第四，探索公務(wù)員管理的執(zhí)法機(jī)制。要完善機(jī)制，創(chuàng)新辦法，提高公務(wù)員管理的科學(xué)化水平。堅(jiān)持“凡進(jìn)必考”，完善考試錄用制度。推進(jìn)和規(guī)范競爭上崗，保證競爭上崗的效果。繼續(xù)探索分類管理的思路，研究起草《專業(yè)技術(shù)類公務(wù)員管理辦法》。改進(jìn)考核制度，積極做好加強(qiáng)和改進(jìn)黨政機(jī)關(guān)考核工作的試點(diǎn)。搞好配套改革，抓緊制定降職、辭職、辭退的配套措施，推動公務(wù)員社會養(yǎng)老、醫(yī)療等社會保障制度建立。

2、以強(qiáng)化競爭激勵機(jī)制為重點(diǎn)，推動公務(wù)員制度的完善。第一，完善考試錄用制度，加強(qiáng)對應(yīng)試者行政能力、潛力的測評。完善公務(wù)員錄用考試制度，探索建立分級分類考試體系，創(chuàng)新考試組織方式。第二，要規(guī)范競爭上崗的程序和考試內(nèi)容，探索完善競爭上崗的科學(xué)方法，為優(yōu)秀公務(wù)員的成長鋪設(shè)“快車道”。第三，改進(jìn)考核制度，激勵公務(wù)員奮發(fā)向上。第四，優(yōu)化競爭激勵機(jī)制的氛圍。抓緊制定降職、辭職、辭退的配套措施，推動公務(wù)員社會養(yǎng)老、醫(yī)療、失業(yè)等社會保障制度建設(shè)。加強(qiáng)輿論宣傳，促進(jìn)觀念轉(zhuǎn)變，營造有利于競爭激勵機(jī)制的良好環(huán)境。

3、根據(jù)不斷變化的情況，勇于創(chuàng)新管理制度。要在鞏固、健全并實(shí)施好現(xiàn)行制度的同時(shí)，著眼于全局，著眼于長遠(yuǎn)，針對新情況，研究新問題，勇于創(chuàng)新，使公務(wù)員制度充滿活力和旺盛的生命力。要把握重點(diǎn)，突出關(guān)鍵環(huán)節(jié)：一是從完善制度入手，根據(jù)新形勢、新情況，對公務(wù)員制度內(nèi)容進(jìn)行細(xì)化、補(bǔ)充，對公務(wù)員管理的重點(diǎn)環(huán)節(jié)進(jìn)行探索；二是；圍繞隊(duì)伍建設(shè)這個(gè)目標(biāo)，在公務(wù)員能上能下、能進(jìn)能出和提高素質(zhì)等方面，大膽嘗試，摸索經(jīng)驗(yàn)；三是以解決人民群眾和公務(wù)員關(guān)注的熱點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)問題為重點(diǎn)進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新；四是及時(shí)歸納、總結(jié)新的做法和經(jīng)驗(yàn)，對較為成熟的制度大力推廣；對帶有方向性，還不具備普遍推廣條件的，要循序漸進(jìn)地?cái)U(kuò)大試點(diǎn)，在試點(diǎn)中不斷充實(shí)和完善。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1]尹蔚民．公務(wù)員管理的法制法〔Ｊ〕．國家行政學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)，２００１（６）

1、《國家公務(wù)員制度》徐理明主編高等教育出版社 1999年10月第一版

2、《國家公務(wù)員制度教程》舒放 王克良主編中國人民大學(xué)出版社，2001年9月第一版09政本：彭蘭英

第四篇：企業(yè)文化研究

企業(yè)文化的社會調(diào)查

企業(yè)文化是企業(yè)的無形資產(chǎn)

企業(yè)文化是一個(gè)企業(yè)在長期生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營中形成、積累，經(jīng)過篩選形成并倡導(dǎo)的一套優(yōu)良作風(fēng)、行為方式及價(jià)值觀念，是企業(yè)的一種無形資產(chǎn)，是企業(yè)的靈魂和持續(xù)發(fā)展的根本，也是企業(yè)核心競爭能力之一，發(fā)揮著其他資源不可替代的作用。越來越多的企業(yè)意識到文化對企業(yè)的重要意義，也有越來越多的企業(yè)陷入抄襲剽竊、有形無神的企業(yè)文化建設(shè)各種誤區(qū)當(dāng)中。盲目追求企業(yè)文化的形式，忽視企業(yè)文化的內(nèi)涵，從而使企業(yè)文化流于空談，淪為企業(yè)作秀的工具。

在培育和創(chuàng)建企業(yè)文化時(shí)，既要根據(jù)各個(gè)企業(yè)所處的環(huán)境，以及所處產(chǎn)業(yè)和行業(yè)特點(diǎn)，把握創(chuàng)建的四大原則，同時(shí)，也要抓住企業(yè)文化建設(shè)的要害環(huán)節(jié)，采取相應(yīng)對策和措施，創(chuàng)建出具有時(shí)代特色的個(gè)性化企業(yè)文化來。企業(yè)文化表面看是虛的，但它卻是企業(yè)的靈魂，關(guān)乎企業(yè)的興亡。它能激發(fā)人們自覺地創(chuàng)造性地從事經(jīng)營活動，豐富企業(yè)物質(zhì)財(cái)富。因此，知識經(jīng)濟(jì)時(shí)代的企業(yè)更應(yīng)該正視企業(yè)文化的功能和作用，運(yùn)用企業(yè)文化保障自己的組織個(gè)性鮮明，不斷創(chuàng)新，成為卓越的企業(yè)。

通過對奇瑞汽車股份有限公司的調(diào)查，最后得出的結(jié)論是：通過此次社會實(shí)踐，使我更深刻地熟悉到企業(yè)文化在企業(yè)中的重要性：企業(yè)只有重視人文治理，才能有一支高素質(zhì)的員工隊(duì)伍，才能取得良好的效益。既要根據(jù)各個(gè)企業(yè)所處的環(huán)境，以及所處產(chǎn)業(yè)和行業(yè)特點(diǎn)，把握創(chuàng)建的四大原則，同時(shí)，也要抓住企業(yè)文化建設(shè)的要害環(huán)節(jié)，采取相應(yīng)對策和措施，創(chuàng)建出具有時(shí)代特色的個(gè)性化企業(yè)文化來。

奇瑞汽車股份有限集團(tuán)公司之所以會取得今天的輝煌業(yè)績，其最重要的一個(gè)因素就在于注重企業(yè)文化。企業(yè)文化是以企業(yè)治理哲學(xué)和企業(yè)精神為核心，凝集企業(yè)員工歸屬感，積極性和創(chuàng)造性的人本治理理論。

企業(yè)文化在市場競爭中所體現(xiàn)出來的價(jià)值是不可估量的，企業(yè)文化是潛在的生產(chǎn)力，是企業(yè)員工共同的精神支柱，它可以形成企業(yè)巨大的凝聚力、親和力和戰(zhàn)斗力，這種效果，是單純的硬件建設(shè)和工資福利等手段所達(dá)不到的，企業(yè)文化建設(shè)在激烈的市場競爭中的作用有以下幾方面：

1、有利于塑造良好的企業(yè)形象

樹立企業(yè)形象，創(chuàng)企業(yè)名牌，是企業(yè)文化的一大作用，文化增加企業(yè)自身的魅力，增加別人對企業(yè)的信任，提高企業(yè)在競爭中的成功率。

2、有利于增強(qiáng)企業(yè)員工的向心力和凝聚力

優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化不僅可以激勵士氣，使人奮發(fā)進(jìn)取，在企業(yè)中營造一種健康向上的工作氛圍，而且可以使員工自覺認(rèn)同企業(yè)的價(jià)值理念和發(fā)展目標(biāo)，為企業(yè)的發(fā)展盡職盡責(zé)。

3、有利于加強(qiáng)企業(yè)治理

治理機(jī)制是企業(yè)文化的一部分，企業(yè)文化的增長，對企業(yè)員工素質(zhì)的提高和治理水平的提高，有巨大促進(jìn)作用。企業(yè)文化的形成和發(fā)展，標(biāo)志著企業(yè)的經(jīng)營治理由低水平向高水平發(fā)展。

4、有利于提升企業(yè)競爭力

企業(yè)文化是造就企業(yè)核心競爭力的動力之源，它不僅能夠增強(qiáng)企業(yè)的向心力和凝聚力，而且是企業(yè)應(yīng)對市場競爭，創(chuàng)造國內(nèi)一流企業(yè)的內(nèi)在動力，對企業(yè)整體競爭力的提升和對外擴(kuò)張發(fā)揮著重要作用。優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化樹立真心誠意為顧客服務(wù)的經(jīng)營理念，通過品牌形象，讓顧客在購買使用產(chǎn)品的過程中熟悉企業(yè)、相信企業(yè)、從而接受企業(yè)的產(chǎn)品。

企業(yè)核心競爭力來源于企業(yè)文化中的企業(yè)理念和核心價(jià)值觀，一個(gè)成功的企業(yè)，就是要創(chuàng)造一種能夠使企業(yè)全體員工衷心認(rèn)同的核心價(jià)值觀和使命感，一個(gè)能夠積極地推動組織變革和發(fā)展的企業(yè)文化。企業(yè)只有通過樹立共同的價(jià)值觀及價(jià)值觀指導(dǎo)下的企業(yè)目標(biāo)、企業(yè)精神、職業(yè)道德等，才能激發(fā)員工的工作熱情，使其積極性、主動性和創(chuàng)造性得以最大限度地發(fā)揮，真正使企業(yè)在激烈的市場競爭中具有較強(qiáng)的競爭實(shí)力。共同的價(jià)值觀念是企業(yè)文化的核心，可以規(guī)范和引導(dǎo)員工行為。共同的價(jià)值準(zhǔn)則在團(tuán)體內(nèi)會形成一種無形的壓力和推動力，可以導(dǎo)致個(gè)體行為產(chǎn)生從眾行為，改變個(gè)體行為，使之與集體行為一致。這種沒有強(qiáng)制性的影響力，有時(shí)比權(quán)威命令效果大得多。

企業(yè)治理的根本任務(wù)之一，就是要充分調(diào)動員工的積極性、主動性、創(chuàng)造性。在企業(yè)文化的建設(shè)中要重視和研究員工的各種需要，為員工創(chuàng)造良好的氛圍，促使員工的交往、歸屬、尊重、自我實(shí)現(xiàn)等高層次的精神需求得到充分滿足。通過激勵措施與手段，引導(dǎo)員工在增加企業(yè)效益和社會效益的基礎(chǔ)上獲取物質(zhì)利益。把無形的精神激勵與有形的物質(zhì)激勵有機(jī)結(jié)合起來，從而充分地持久地調(diào)動員工的生產(chǎn)積極性，提高企業(yè)治理水平。

企業(yè)是人群的協(xié)作體現(xiàn)，企業(yè)治理中最重要的是尊重人、關(guān)心人，充分發(fā)揮員工的積極性和創(chuàng)造性；要肯定和體現(xiàn)員工自身的價(jià)值；有意識地培養(yǎng)員工的團(tuán)體精神，使企業(yè)的發(fā)展布滿生氣和活力。

企業(yè)是由人構(gòu)成的，員工的素質(zhì)決定著企業(yè)的能量。一個(gè)企業(yè)若員工的基本素質(zhì)不高或缺乏良好的職業(yè)道德，企業(yè)的健康發(fā)展是不可能的。加強(qiáng)培訓(xùn)不斷提高員工的基本素質(zhì)，是建設(shè)企業(yè)文化的基本保證。要通過豐富多彩的工作和生活，促進(jìn)員工學(xué)習(xí)文化和專業(yè)技術(shù)知識。并通過灌輸性的企業(yè)文化教育，強(qiáng)化員工對企業(yè)目標(biāo)、價(jià)值觀念，行為規(guī)范的熟悉，潛移默化地培養(yǎng)企業(yè)文化，提高員工素質(zhì)。

在企業(yè)形象塑造中，要以實(shí)施品牌戰(zhàn)略為契機(jī)，通過多種形式的宣傳教育，把企業(yè)的經(jīng)營之道、企業(yè)精神和企業(yè)形象體現(xiàn)在產(chǎn)品品牌上，在銷售產(chǎn)品的同時(shí)向用戶傳遞服務(wù)的觀念，負(fù)責(zé)的企業(yè)經(jīng)營理念，富有親和力的價(jià)值導(dǎo)向，得到用戶的認(rèn)可，并通過廠區(qū)美化，環(huán)境優(yōu)化，增強(qiáng)品牌的外在感染力，全面提升企業(yè)的社會形象和市場形象，最終達(dá)到提高企業(yè)核心競爭能力的目的。

綜上所述，假如把“企業(yè)”比喻成人，那么企業(yè)文化就好比人的“性格”，“性格決定命運(yùn)”，企業(yè)文化則決定著企業(yè)的生存和發(fā)展方向，在企業(yè)經(jīng)營治理中發(fā)揮著極其重要的作用。因此，在企業(yè)文化建設(shè)中每個(gè)企業(yè)都應(yīng)根據(jù)自身所處的環(huán)境條件、發(fā)展目標(biāo)、價(jià)值取向等因素綜合考慮，創(chuàng)建獨(dú)具特色的企業(yè)文化，以增強(qiáng)企業(yè)核心競爭能力。使企業(yè)在競爭中立于不敗之地。

奇瑞汽車股份有限公司正是以“真摯誠信，激情永駐；用戶第一，品質(zhì)至上；永遠(yuǎn)創(chuàng)業(yè)，追求卓越；馬上行動，日清日高；以人為本，鼓勵競爭；組織優(yōu)化，團(tuán)隊(duì)互動；超越夢想，挑戰(zhàn)極限“為口號。使全國人民認(rèn)同奇瑞是“中國第一民族汽車品牌” 的傲人稱號，使“奇瑞”汽車暢銷全國31個(gè)省、市、自治區(qū)，在國內(nèi)汽車行業(yè)具有較高的知名度；同時(shí)奇瑞汽車運(yùn)銷全球五大洲，出口非洲、東南亞、中南美、中東等國家，市場占有率一直排名全國前五強(qiáng)。同時(shí)，公司以鑄造誠信，以人為本、質(zhì)量至上為公司的經(jīng)營理念，面對復(fù)雜多邊的客觀環(huán)境，面對日趨復(fù)雜的市場競爭，將企業(yè)文化與樹立危機(jī)意識為企業(yè)生存和發(fā)展的根本；以誠信求市場，以品牌求發(fā)展、以創(chuàng)新求優(yōu)勢，為把奇瑞做大、做強(qiáng)、做優(yōu)。

第五篇：企業(yè)文化研究

一.企業(yè)文化的診斷

二.企業(yè)文化的診斷就是對企業(yè)文化現(xiàn)有的狀態(tài)進(jìn)行診視和評估。由于各個(gè)企業(yè)具

有不同的歷史背景、發(fā)展?fàn)顩r、經(jīng)營性質(zhì)和特點(diǎn)、人員結(jié)構(gòu)、組織形式等，再加上企業(yè)員工自身行為觀念、價(jià)值準(zhǔn)則、文化素質(zhì)的差異、導(dǎo)致了每種企業(yè)文化都具有自己的獨(dú)特性。若不進(jìn)行企業(yè)文化診斷，就難以了解各自企業(yè)文化的特點(diǎn)，建設(shè)、發(fā)展企業(yè)文化就會帶來一定的盲目性。

客觀的分析和全面評估一個(gè)企業(yè)的企業(yè)文化并非易事。因?yàn)樘幵谀撤N文化影響下的組織成員，總是以這種文化所決定的特殊性思維方式與觀察方式思考問題。先入為主的觀念，往往會影響組織成員客觀的分析和公正的評價(jià)本企業(yè)的文化傳統(tǒng)和現(xiàn)狀。同時(shí)，企業(yè)文化的內(nèi)隱性，更增添了人們?nèi)藗兎治龊驮u價(jià)企業(yè)的困難。因此，作為企業(yè)文化研究者首先要找到一種客觀的診斷方法和評價(jià)指標(biāo)，應(yīng)用科學(xué)的調(diào)查研究的手段，才能對企業(yè)文化的傳統(tǒng)和現(xiàn)狀，做出客觀的分析和公正的評價(jià)。

一般說來，一項(xiàng)大規(guī)模的企業(yè)文化診斷過程，是一項(xiàng)相當(dāng)復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)工程。主要可分為三個(gè)步驟來進(jìn)行。

1.確定企業(yè)文化診斷人員。

2.為了能客觀的診斷企業(yè)文化的傳統(tǒng)和現(xiàn)狀，必須要選擇恰當(dāng)?shù)脑\斷人員。一般

來說，對一個(gè)企業(yè)進(jìn)行文化診斷，其人員主要有兩個(gè)渠道：一是本企業(yè)中的具有豐富的管理經(jīng)驗(yàn)，資歷較深的管理人員；二是外聘的一些企業(yè)經(jīng)營管理方面的專家和學(xué)者。這兩類人員各有優(yōu)缺，可互相取長補(bǔ)短的進(jìn)行相互合作的工作，比如，在診斷方法的設(shè)計(jì)，計(jì)劃安排等方面，可以主要由專家、學(xué)者來承擔(dān)，在具體的實(shí)施方面則應(yīng)當(dāng)主要依靠企業(yè)自身的調(diào)查人員。2.設(shè)計(jì)診斷內(nèi)容與選擇診斷方法

3.由于企業(yè)的性質(zhì)以及規(guī)模不同，企業(yè)的外部經(jīng)營環(huán)境及其經(jīng)營方式不同，企業(yè)的人員素質(zhì)及要求不同，因此，企業(yè)文化診斷的具體內(nèi)容也就會有所不同。一般的，一項(xiàng)企業(yè)文化診斷大致要考慮以下幾方面。

4.5.a.研究企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營狀況

這方面主要包括研究企業(yè)的產(chǎn)品性質(zhì)、企業(yè)的產(chǎn)品市場占有率、投資收益率、企業(yè)的組織結(jié)構(gòu)及信息溝通方式，企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)工藝水平及產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新能力等等。了解這些問題，主要的目的是為了從宏觀上把握企業(yè)的現(xiàn)有文化是否對企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營活動具有推動作用。

b.研究企業(yè)的各種規(guī)章制度和宣傳材料

企業(yè)的規(guī)章制度是企業(yè)文化的內(nèi)容之一。在具有優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化的企業(yè)中，企業(yè)各不同職能部門之間雖工作性質(zhì)不同，但它們都具有統(tǒng)一性、共同認(rèn)可的一個(gè)或少數(shù)幾個(gè)清晰明確的經(jīng)營觀念，而這種經(jīng)營觀念會以簡潔的形式，表現(xiàn)在企業(yè)制度的各種規(guī)章制度之中，表現(xiàn)在企業(yè)的各種宣傳資料當(dāng)中。因此，研究其規(guī)章制度和宣傳材料，可以逐步總結(jié)和歸納出企業(yè)的經(jīng)營信念。

c.研究最高主管或決策者的價(jià)值觀念。

一個(gè)企業(yè)是否具有統(tǒng)一的、為廣大職工的普遍認(rèn)可的經(jīng)營價(jià)值觀，在很大程度上取決于企業(yè)的最高主管或決策者是否有明確的經(jīng)營觀念。

在具有優(yōu)秀企業(yè)文化的企業(yè)中，所表現(xiàn)出來的一個(gè)共同特點(diǎn)就是企業(yè)的最高主管或決策者都具有清晰明確的價(jià)值觀念，把主要精力放在思考企業(yè)的經(jīng)營價(jià)值觀及企業(yè)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略等方面，并以個(gè)人的獨(dú)特領(lǐng)導(dǎo)權(quán)威和魅力，不斷的向職工灌輸自己的經(jīng)營價(jià)值觀。

d.考慮企業(yè)如何處理與企業(yè)外部的關(guān)系。

企業(yè)作為社會系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)部分，它每時(shí)每刻都在同外界進(jìn)行交往和聯(lián)系。而企業(yè)奉行的交往原則，在很大程度上是由企業(yè)的經(jīng)營價(jià)值觀和社會責(zé)任感所決定的，在是否注重外部環(huán)境的變化，用什么態(tài)度對待顧客，能否為消費(fèi)者不斷的提供新產(chǎn)品和新的服務(wù)項(xiàng)目方面，具有不同企業(yè)文化的企業(yè)，會有差別很大的處理方法與態(tài)度。尤其是在如何處理企業(yè)同顧客的關(guān)系方面，更能表現(xiàn)出不同企業(yè)之間的文化優(yōu)劣與否。

e.深入細(xì)致的對企業(yè)內(nèi)部職工進(jìn)行調(diào)查和訪問。

企業(yè)文化的作用若是整體一致性的，它就會綜合的反應(yīng)在企業(yè)內(nèi)部的每一個(gè)職工的觀念、態(tài)度和行為中。通過深入細(xì)致的開展對企業(yè)職工的調(diào)查和訪問，可以深入的了解企業(yè)職工對企業(yè)的知曉度，企業(yè)價(jià)值觀的滲透程度，從而可以全面的反應(yīng)出企業(yè)文化的成熟度。具體而言，主要可以通過了解企業(yè)對職工的吸引力大小、職工的責(zé)任感與參與感、職工對企業(yè)樹立的典范人物的評價(jià)、企業(yè)內(nèi)部職工之間的交流與溝通的方式與內(nèi)容、企業(yè)職工對企業(yè)歷史和傳統(tǒng)的了解度和自豪感等方面進(jìn)行研究。

診斷方法的選擇也很重要。采用何種方法，主要取決于企業(yè)的規(guī)模、診斷時(shí)間的期限、內(nèi)容的多寡、參加診斷人員的數(shù)量及素質(zhì)、企業(yè)職工的素質(zhì)及心理傾向等多種因素。可采取定性與定量分析相結(jié)合，訪問、觀察、實(shí)驗(yàn)、抽樣調(diào)查、文獻(xiàn)研究等等。總之，要具體對象具體對待。

二.企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的研究

在當(dāng)前我國特定的社會主義市場經(jīng)濟(jì)條件下，如何使我國企業(yè)進(jìn)行一個(gè)良性的穩(wěn)步的發(fā)展，建設(shè)企業(yè)文化是極其重要的。在高層管理人員戰(zhàn)略管理過程中，必須要加強(qiáng)企業(yè)內(nèi)部的文化建設(shè)，實(shí)施企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略，由于它與企業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)策略緊密配合，因此能有效的趕山企業(yè)的經(jīng)營成果，提高企業(yè)競爭力。

在企業(yè)成長過程中，文化對企業(yè)產(chǎn)生的許多影響都被理入企業(yè)行為動機(jī)的原始部位，它處于行為動機(jī)的意識層面之下，以至于文化的作用往往被人們所忽視。但事實(shí)上，由于文化本身所具有的無形性、軟約束性、相對穩(wěn)定性和連續(xù)性等，使文化始終以一種不可抗逆的方式影響著企業(yè)。特別是當(dāng)企業(yè)進(jìn)行改革時(shí)，若這種改革與企業(yè)文化不能一致，文化便會產(chǎn)生阻礙改革的現(xiàn)象。如何使企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略與文化相協(xié)調(diào)一致，便成為企業(yè)所要解決的一個(gè)重要問題。一般說來，可有兩種方式進(jìn)行協(xié)調(diào)：一是企業(yè)目前的文化仍能適應(yīng)企業(yè)的經(jīng)營要求，且企業(yè)文化已根深蒂固，在這種情況下，企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略做相應(yīng)的調(diào)整，以適應(yīng)現(xiàn)存的文化；二是調(diào)整企業(yè)文化適應(yīng)戰(zhàn)略，調(diào)整一個(gè)公司的文化去適應(yīng)一個(gè)新戰(zhàn)略比改變戰(zhàn)略去適應(yīng)公司現(xiàn)存的文化更為有效。由于企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的基本信念、價(jià)值觀與企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)一致，并體現(xiàn)在企業(yè)成員的行為方式中，使企業(yè)成員以更大熱情去完成企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略計(jì)劃，可使企業(yè)取得良好的經(jīng)營績效。

〔一〕、企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略制定

企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略制定是企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的重要環(huán)節(jié)和關(guān)鍵步驟，也是戰(zhàn)略決策的主要內(nèi)容，一般而言，企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略制定包括以下幾個(gè)相互銜接的環(huán)節(jié)：

1.樹立正確的企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略思想。

由于企業(yè)文化體現(xiàn)了企業(yè)的共同價(jià)值準(zhǔn)則和精神觀念，對企業(yè)職工有著強(qiáng)烈的內(nèi)聚力、向心力和持久力，具有無形的導(dǎo)向、凝聚和約束功能，因此，正確、健康、向上的企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略思想對于創(chuàng)建優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化具有重要的指導(dǎo)作用。尤其是對于當(dāng)前我國的企業(yè)來說，弘揚(yáng)時(shí)代精神，振奮民族意識，體現(xiàn)職工主人翁思想，堅(jiān)持集體主義價(jià)值標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，將是中國企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略思想的主旋律。

2.確定企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略模式。

由于各種企業(yè)所面臨的環(huán)境不同，企業(yè)發(fā)展的階段有所差別，企業(yè)職工的文化素質(zhì)參差不齊，因此企業(yè)文化的戰(zhàn)略模式也各有千秋。一般而言，企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略模式包括這樣幾種：①先導(dǎo)型的，全力以赴追求企業(yè)文化的先進(jìn)性和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)性，如搶先型、改革型、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)型的戰(zhàn)略模式；②探索型的，敢于開拓，敢于創(chuàng)新，敢于獨(dú)樹一幟，與眾不同；③穩(wěn)定型的，按照自己的運(yùn)行規(guī)律步步為營，穩(wěn)打穩(wěn)扎；④追隨型的，并不搶先實(shí)施企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略，而是當(dāng)出現(xiàn)成功的經(jīng)驗(yàn)時(shí)立即進(jìn)行模仿或加以改

進(jìn)；⑤惰性型的，奉行穩(wěn)妥主義，不冒風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，安于現(xiàn)狀；⑥多元型的，沒有一成不變的戰(zhàn)略模式，堅(jiān)持實(shí)用態(tài)度，或綜合進(jìn)行，或任其發(fā)展，哪種有用就采用哪種模式。

3.劃分企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略階段。

由于不同的企業(yè)發(fā)展具有不平衡性，企業(yè)文化的進(jìn)程有先有后，就是同一個(gè)企業(yè)的發(fā)展也有不同發(fā)展階段，企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的實(shí)施進(jìn)程有快有慢，因此應(yīng)當(dāng)實(shí)事求是地認(rèn)真分析自己企業(yè)所處的戰(zhàn)略階段，以利于企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的持續(xù)進(jìn)行。一般而言，企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略階段包括：①初創(chuàng)階段；②上升階段；③成熟階段；④衰退階段；⑤變革階段。

4.制定企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略方案。

為了達(dá)到企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的目標(biāo)，應(yīng)當(dāng)依據(jù)對企業(yè)內(nèi)部和外部條件的分析與預(yù)測，制定出科學(xué)、最優(yōu)和滿意的企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略方案。方案的制訂可以根據(jù)企業(yè)不同時(shí)期的不同重點(diǎn)，劃分為總體戰(zhàn)略方案和各部門、各單位、各下屬的分體戰(zhàn)略，或者是全領(lǐng)域戰(zhàn)略和局部領(lǐng)域戰(zhàn)略。制訂方案要貫徹可行性準(zhǔn)則，既要把握方案的時(shí)機(jī)是否成熟，又要注意該方案在實(shí)踐中能否行得通，同時(shí)還要兼顧必要的應(yīng)變方案。最后通過一定的評估方案，

選出理想的最佳方案或理想的綜合方案。

5.明確企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略重點(diǎn)。

所謂企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略重點(diǎn)是指那些對于實(shí)現(xiàn)戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)具有關(guān)鍵作用而又有發(fā)展優(yōu)勢或者自身發(fā)展薄弱而需要著重加強(qiáng)的方面、環(huán)節(jié)和部分。對于不同的企業(yè)來說，戰(zhàn)略重點(diǎn)的側(cè)重點(diǎn)有所不同，有的重點(diǎn)在于培養(yǎng)企業(yè)精神、企業(yè)意識、企業(yè)道德，有的重點(diǎn)在于塑造企業(yè)形象、規(guī)范企業(yè)制度，有的重點(diǎn)在于樹立廠風(fēng)廠貌、端正經(jīng)營風(fēng)尚、提高企業(yè)素質(zhì)，等等。因此，抓準(zhǔn)了戰(zhàn)略重點(diǎn)，不僅有助于企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的重點(diǎn)突破，而且也會由此而找到了企業(yè)走上振興之路的關(guān)鍵樞紐。

6.選擇卓有成效的企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略策略。

企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略策略是實(shí)現(xiàn)戰(zhàn)略指導(dǎo)思想和戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)而采取的重要措施、手段和技巧。企業(yè)應(yīng)當(dāng)根據(jù)戰(zhàn)略環(huán)境的不同情況，選擇別具一格和新穎獨(dú)特的戰(zhàn)略策略，以達(dá)成戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)和推行戰(zhàn)略行動。一般而言，企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略策略所遵循的原則包括：①針對性，必須針對實(shí)現(xiàn)戰(zhàn)略指導(dǎo)思想和戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)的需要；②靈活性，要因時(shí)因事因地隨機(jī)應(yīng)變，以適應(yīng)內(nèi)外環(huán)境變化多端的特征；③適當(dāng)性，要講求實(shí)效恰到好處，不過分追新和夸張或搞形式；④多元性，各種策略技巧相互配套，有機(jī)結(jié)合，謀求最佳配合和整體優(yōu)勢。

〔二〕、企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略實(shí)施

企業(yè)在選擇了正確的企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略之后，就應(yīng)當(dāng)轉(zhuǎn)入有效的戰(zhàn)略實(shí)施，以保證戰(zhàn)略的成功和實(shí)效。一般而言，企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略實(shí)施包括以下幾種措施：

1.建立戰(zhàn)略實(shí)施的計(jì)劃體系。即通過把戰(zhàn)略方案的長期目標(biāo)分解為各種短期計(jì)劃、行動方案和操作程序，使各級管理人員和職工明確各自的責(zé)任體系和任務(wù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)，以保證各種實(shí)施活動與企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略指導(dǎo)思想和戰(zhàn)略重點(diǎn)的相互一致。

2.通過一定的組織機(jī)構(gòu)實(shí)施。企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的實(shí)施，要求建立一個(gè)高效率的組織機(jī)構(gòu)，通過相互協(xié)調(diào)、相互信任和合理授權(quán)，以保證企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的順利實(shí)施。

3.提供必要的物質(zhì)條件、硬件設(shè)施和財(cái)務(wù)支持，這既是塑造企業(yè)形象的內(nèi)在要求，也是企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略實(shí)施的物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)。

4.努力創(chuàng)造有利于實(shí)施企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的文化氛圍和環(huán)境，通過一定的教育和灌輸方式，大力宣傳企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的具體內(nèi)容和要求，使之家喻戶曉，人人明白，使全體職工深刻理解企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的實(shí)質(zhì)。

〔三〕、企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略控制

戰(zhàn)略控制就是將信息反饋回來的實(shí)際成效和預(yù)定的戰(zhàn)略計(jì)劃進(jìn)行比較，以檢測兩者的偏差程度，然后采取有效措施進(jìn)行糾正，以保證戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)的完成。

企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略控制的基本要素包括：

1.戰(zhàn)略評價(jià)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和指標(biāo)體系。就企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的評價(jià)指標(biāo)而言，可以考慮以下幾種：①企業(yè)精神；②企業(yè)哲學(xué)；③企業(yè)價(jià)值觀；④企業(yè)目標(biāo)；⑤企業(yè)素質(zhì)；⑥企業(yè)制度；⑦企業(yè)行為；⑧企業(yè)形象；⑨企業(yè)家文化。就企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略的評價(jià)級度而言，可以選用品位級度，分為高水平、中水平、低水平；也可以選用質(zhì)量級度，分為優(yōu)質(zhì)、中質(zhì)、低質(zhì)。

2.實(shí)際成效。企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略實(shí)施成果是在具體執(zhí)行過程中達(dá)到目標(biāo)程度的綜合反映。如要切實(shí)掌握準(zhǔn)確的成果資料和數(shù)據(jù)，必須建立一定的管理信息系統(tǒng)，必要時(shí)可以借助于電子計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)軟件系統(tǒng)，運(yùn)用科學(xué)的控制方法和控制系統(tǒng)，測定企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略活動的真實(shí)特性，提供企業(yè)文化戰(zhàn)略發(fā)展趨勢的定性信息。

3.績效評價(jià)。就是用取得的成果與預(yù)定的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行比較分析，如果出現(xiàn)正偏差，即超過預(yù)定的目標(biāo)，就是好結(jié)果；如果出現(xiàn)微偏差，即與預(yù)定的目標(biāo)基

本相等，也屬好結(jié)果；如果出現(xiàn)負(fù)偏差，即遠(yuǎn)沒達(dá)到預(yù)定目標(biāo)，就是不好的結(jié)果，應(yīng)當(dāng)及時(shí)采取措施，進(jìn)行必要的糾偏調(diào)整。