第一篇：雙語教學中的生物化學詞匯

雙語生物化學詞匯

Glossary of Biochemistry Bilingually

A Absolute configuration（絕對構型）The configuration of four different substituent groups around an asymmetric carbon atom, in relation to u-and i.-glyceraldehyde.Absorption（吸收）: transport of the products of digestion from the intestinal tract into the blood.Acceptor control（受體控制）: The regulation of the rate of respiration by the availability of ADP as phosphate group acceptor.Accessory pigments（輔助色素）: Visible light-absorbing pigments(carotenoids, xanthophyll, and phycobilins藻膽素)in plants and photosynthetic bacteria that complement chlorophylls in trapping energy from sunlight.Acidosis（酸中毒）: A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer is diminished;usually accompanied by decreased blood pH.Actin（肌動蛋白）: A protein making up the thin filaments（細絲）of muscle;also an important component of the cytoskeleton of many eukaryotic cells.Activation energy(ΔG*)（活化能）: The amount of energy(in joules)required to convert all the molecules in 1 mole of a reacting substance from the ground state to the transition state.Activator:（活化物、激活劑）(1)A DNA-binding protein that positively regulates the expression of one or more genes;that is, transcription rates increase when an activator is bound to the DNA.(2)A positive modulator of an allosteric enzyme.Active site:（活性部位）The region of an enzyme surface that binds the substrate molecule and catalytically transforms it;also known as the catalytic site.Active transport:（主動運輸）Energy-requiring transport of a solute across a membrane in the direction of increasing concentration.Activity:（活度）The true thermodynamic activity or potential of a substance, as distinct from its molar concentration.Activity coefficient:（活度系數）The factor by which the numerical value of the concentration of a solute must be multiplied to give its true thermodynamic activity.Adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate: See cyclic AMP.Adenosine diphosphate: See ADP.Adenosine triphosphate: See ATP.Adipocyte:（脂肪細胞）An animal cell specialized for the storage of fats(triacylglycerols).Adipose tissue:（脂肪組織）Connective tissue specialized for the storage of large amounts of triacylglycerols.ADP(adenosine diphosphate): A ribonucleoside diphosphate serving as phosphate group acceptor in the cell energy cycle.Aerobe:（需氧生物）An organism that lives in air and uses oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor in respiration.Aerobic: Requiring or occurring in the presence of oxygen.Alcohol fermentation:（乙醇發酵）The anaerobic conversion of glucose to ethanol via glycolysis.See also fermentation.Aldose:（醛糖）A simple sugar in which the carbonyl carbon atom is an aldehyde;that is, the carbonyl carbon is at one end of the carbon chain.Alkalosis:（堿中毒）A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer is diminished;usually accompanied by an increase in blood pH.Allosteric enzyme:（變/別構效應）A regulatory enzyme, with catalytic activity modulated by the noncovalent binding of a specific metabolite at a site other than the active site.Allosteric protein:（變/別構蛋白）A protein(generally with multiple subunits)with multiple ligand-binding sites, such that ligand binding at one site affects ligand binding at another.Allosteric site:（變/別構部位）The specific site on the surface of an allosteric enzyme molecule to which the modulator or effector molecule is bound.α helix:（α-螺旋）A helical conformation of a polypeptide chain, usually right-handed, with maximal intrachain hydrogen bonding;one of the most common secondary structures in proteins.Ames test: A simple bacterial test for carcinogens, based on the assumption that carcinogens are mutagens.Amino acid activation:（氨基酸活化）ATP-dependent enzymatic esterification of the carboxyl group of an amino acid to the 3'-hydroxyl group of its corresponding tRNA.Amino acids:（氨基酸）an Amino-substituted carboxylic acids, the building blocks of proteins.Amino-terminal residue:（氨基末端殘基）The only amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain with a free a-amino group;defines the amino terminus of the polypeptide.Aminoacyl-tRNA:（氨酰tRNA）An aminoacyl ester of a tRNA.Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases:（氨酰tRNA合成酶）Enzymes that catalyze synthesis of an aminoacyl-tRNA at the expense of ATP energy.Aminotransferases:（氨基轉移酶）Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of amino groups fromα-amino to α-keto acids;also called transaminases.Ammonotelic:（排氨的）Excreting excess nitrogen in the form of ammonia.Amphibolic pathway:（雙向代謝途徑）A metabolic pathway used in both catabolism and anabolism.Amphipathic:（雙親的）Containing both polar and nonpolar domains.Ampholyte:（兩性電解質）A substance that can act as either a base or an acid.Amphoteric:（兩性的）Capable of donating and accepting protons, thus able to serve as an acid or a base.Anabolisim:（合成代謝）The phase of intermediary metabolism concerned with the energy-requiring biosynthesis of cell components from smaller precursors.Anaerobe:（厭氧生物）An organism that lives without oxygen.Obligate anaerobes（專性厭氧生物）die when exposed to oxygen.Anaerobic:（厭氧的）Occurring in the absence of air or oxygen.Anaplerotic reaction:（回補反應）An enzyme-catalyzed reaction that can replenish the supply of intermediates in the citric acid cycle.Angstrom(?):（唉）A unit of length(10-8cm)used to indicate molecular dimensions.Anhydride:（酸酐）The product, of the condensation of two carboxyl or phosphate groups in which the elements of water are eliminated to form a compound with the general structure R—X—0—X—R, where X is either carbon or phosphorus.Anion-exchange resin:（陰離子交換樹脂）A polymeric resin with fixed cationic groups;used in the chromatographic separation of anions.Anomers:（異頭物、端基異構體）Two stereoisomers of a given sugar that differ only in the configuration about the carbonyl(anomeric)carbon atom.Antibiotic:（抗生素）One of many different organic compounds that are formed and secreted by various species of microorganisms and plants, are toxic to other species, and presumably have a defensive function.Antibody:（抗體）A defense protein synthesized by the immune system of vertebrates.See also immunoglobulin.Anticodon:（反密碼子）A specific sequence of three nucleotides in a tRNA, complementary to a codon for an amino acid in an mRNA.Antigen:（抗原）A molecule capable of eliciting the synthesis of a specific antibody in vertebrates.Antiparallel:（反平行）Describing two linear polymers that are opposite in polarity or orientation.Antiport:（反向轉運）Cotransport of two solutes across a membrane in opposite directions.Apoenzyme:（酶蛋白）The protein portion of an enzyme, exclusive of any organic or inorganic cofactors or prosthetic groups that might be required for catalytic activity.Apolipoprotein:（脫輔基脂蛋白）The protein component of a lipoprotein.Apoprotein:（脫輔基蛋白）The protein portion of a protein, exclusive of any organic or inorganic cofactors or prosthetic groups that might be required for activity.Apoptosis:（細胞凋亡）(app'-a-toe'-sis)Programmed cell death, in which a cell brings about its own death and lysis, signaled from outside or programmed in its genes, by systematically degrading its own macromolecules.Arrestin:（抑制蛋白）A family of proteins that bind to the phosphorylated carboxyl-terminal region of serpentine receptors, preventing their interactions with G proteins and thereby terminating the signal through those receptors.Asymmetric carbon atom:（不對稱碳原子）A carbon atom that is covalently bonded to four different groups and thus may exist in two different tetrahedral configurations.ATP(adenosine triphosphate): A ribonucleoside 5'-triphosphate functioning as a phosphate group donor in the cell energy cycle;carries chemical energy between metabolic pathways by serving as a shared intermediate coupling endergonic and exergonic reactions.ATP synthase:（ATP合酶）An enzyme complex that forms ATP from ADP and phosphate during oxidative phosphorylation in the inner mitochondrial membrane or the bacterial plasma membrane, and during photophosphorylation in chloroplasts.ATPase:（ATP酶）An enzyme that hydrolyzes ATP to yield ADP and phosphate;usually coupled to some process requiring energy.Attenuator:（弱化子）An RNA sequence involved in regulating the expression of certain genes;functions as a transcription terminator.Autotroph:（自養生物）An organism that can synthesize its own complex molecules from very simple carbon and nitrogen sources, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia.Auxin:（植物生長素）A plant growth hormone.Auxotrophic mutant(auxotroph):（營養缺陷突變體）A mutant organism defective in the synthesis of a given biomolecule, which must therefore be supplied for the organism's growth.Avogadro's number: The number of molecules in a gram molecular weight(a mole)of any compound(6.02 × 1023).B Back-mutation:（回復突變）A mutation that causes a mutant gene to regain its wild-type base sequence.Bacteriophage(phage):（噬菌體）A virus capable of replicating in a bacterial cell.Basal metabolic rate:（基礎代謝率）The rate of oxygen consumption by an animal's body at complete rest, long after a meal.Base pair:（堿基對）Two nucleotides in nucleic acid chains that are paired by hydrogen bonding of their bases;for example, A with T or U, and G with C.β conformation:（β構象）、An extended, zigzag arrangement of a polypeptide chain;a common secondary structure in proteins.β oxidation:（β氧化）Oxidative degradation of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA by successive oxidations at the β-carbon atom.β-turn:（β轉角）A type of secondary structure in polypeptides consisting of four amino acid residues arranged in a tight turn so that the polypeptide turns back on itself.Bilayer:（雙分子層）A double layer of oriented amphipathic lipid molecules, forming the basic structure of biological membranes.The hydrocarbon tails face inward to form a continuous nonpolar phase.Bile salts:（膽酸鹽）Amphipathic steroid derivatives with detergent properties, participating in digestion and absorption of lipids.Binding energy:（吸附能）The energy derived from noncovalent interactions between enzyme and substrate or receptor and ligand.Binding site:（結合部位）The crevice or pocket on a protein in which a ligand binds.Biocytin:（生物胞素）The conjugate amino acid residue arising from covalent attachment of biotin, through an amide linkage, to a Lys residue.Biomolecule:（生物分子）An organic compound normally present as an essential component of living organisms.Biopterin:（生物喋呤）An enzymatic cofactor derived from pterin and involved in certain oxidation-reduction reactions.Biosphere:（生物圈）All the living matter on or in the earth, the seas, and the atmosphere.Biotin:（生物素）A vitamin;an enzymatic cofactor involved in carboxylation reactions.Bond energy:（鍵能）The energy required to break a bond.Branch migration:（分支遷移）Movement of the branch point in branched DNA formed from two DNA molecules with identical sequences.See also Holliday intermediate.Buffer:（緩沖液）A system capable of resisting changes in pH, consisting of a conjugate acid-base pair in which the ratio of proton acceptor to proton donor is near unity.C Calorie:（卡）The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1.0 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 °C.One calorie(cal)equals 4.18 joules(J).Calvin cycle:（Calvin循環）The cyclic pathway used by plants to fix carbon dioxide and produce triose phosphates.cAMP: See cyclic AMP.cAMP receptor protein(CRP):（cAMP受體蛋白）A specific regulatory protein that controls initiation of transcription of the genes producing the enzymes required for a bacterial cell to use some other nutrient when glucose is lacking.Also called catabolite gene activator protein(CAP)，降解物基因活化蛋白.CAP: See catabolite gene activator protein.Capsid:（衣殼）The protein coat of a virion or virus particle.Carbanion:（碳負離子）A negatively charged carbon atom.Carbocation:（碳正離子）A positively charged carbon atom;also called a carbonium ion.Carbon-assimilation reactions:（碳同化反應）Reaction sequences in which atmospheric CO2 is converted into organic compounds.Carbon-fixation reaction:（固碳反應）The reaction catalyzed by rubisco during photosynthesis, or by other carboxylases, in which atmospheric CO2 is initially incorporated into an organic compound.Carboxyl-terminal residue:（羧基末端殘基）The only amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain with a free a-carboxyl group;defines the carboxyl terminus of the polypeptide.Carotenoids:（類葫羅卜素）Lipid-soluble photosynthetic pigments made up of isoprene units.Catabolism:（分解代謝）The phase of intermediary metabolism concerned with the energy-yielding degradation of nutrient molecules.Catabolite gene activator protein(CAP): See cAMP receptor protein.Catalytic site:（催化部位）See active site.Catecholamines:（兒茶酚胺類）Hormones, such as epinephrine, that are amino derivatives of catechol.Catenane:（連環體）Circular polymeric molecules with a noncovalent topological link resembling the links of a chain.Cation-exchange resin:（陽離子交換樹脂）An insoluble polymer with fixed negative charges;used in the chromatographic separation of cationic substances.cDNA: See complementary DNA.Central dogma:（中心法則）The organizing principle of molecular biology: genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.Centromere:（著絲粒）A specialized site within a chromosome, serving as the attachment point for the mitotic or meiotic spindle.Cerebroside(腦苷酯)Sphingolipid containing one sugar residue as a head group.Channeling:（生物合成途徑限制作用)The direct transfer of a reaction product(common intermediate)from the active site of one enzyme to the active site of a different enzyme catalyzing the next step in a sequential pathway.Chemiosmotic coupling:（化學滲透偶聯）Coupling of ATP synthesis to electron transfer via an electrochemical H+ gradient across a membrane.Chemotaxis（向化性）: A cell's sensing of and movement toward, or away from, a specific chemical agent.Chemotroph:（化能生物）An organism that obtains energy by metabolizing organic compounds derived from other organisms.Chiral center:（手性中心）An atom with substituents arranged so that the molecule is not superimposable on its mirror image.Chiral compound:（手性化合物）A compound that contains an asymmetric center(chiral atom or chiral center)and thus can occur in two nonsuperimposable mirror-image forms(enantiomers).Chlorophylls:（葉綠素）A family of green pigments functioning as receptors of light energy in photosynthesis;magnesium-porphyrin complexes.Chloroplasts:（葉綠體）Chlorophyll-containing photosynthetic organelles in some eukaryotic cells.Chromatin:（染色質）A filamentous complex of DNA, histones, and other proteins, constituting the eukaryotic chromosome.Chromatography:（層析）A process in which complex mixtures of molecules are separated by many repeated partitionings between a flowing(mobile)phase and a stationary phase.Chromosome:（染色體）A single large DNA molecule and its associated proteins, containing many genes;stores and transmits genetic information.Chylomicron:（乳糜微粒）A plasma lipoprotein consisting of a large droplet of triacylglycerols stabilized by a coat of protein and phospholipid;carries lipids from the intestine to the tissues.cis and trans isomers:（順反異構體）See geometric isomers.Cistron:（順反子）A unit of DNA or RNA corresponding to one gene.Citric acid cycle:（檸檬酸循環）A cyclic system of enzymatic.reactions for the oxidation of acetyl residues to carbon dioxide, in which formation of citrate is the first step;also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle.Clones:（克隆）The descendants of a single cell.Cloning: The production of large numbers of identical DNA molecules, cells, or organisms, from a single ancestral DNA molecule, cell, or organism.Closed system:（封閉系統）A system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with the surroundings.See also system.Cobalamin:（鈷胺素）See cocnzyme B12.Codon:（密碼子）A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides in a nucleic acid that codes for a specific amino acid.Coenzyme:（輔酶）An organic cofactor required for the action of certain enzymes;often contains a vitamin as a component.Coenzyme A:（輔酶A）A pantothenic acid-containing coenzyme serving as an acyl group carrier in certain enzymatic reactions.Coenzyme B12: An enzymatic cofactor derived from the vitamin cobalamin, involved in certain types of carbon skeletal rearrangements.Cofactor(輔助因子)An inorganic ion or a coenzyme required for enzyme activity.Cognate:（相關的）Describing two biomolecules that normally interact;for example, an enzyme and its normal substrate, or a receptor and its normal ligand.Cohesive ends:（粘性末端）See sticky ends.Cointegrate:（共整合）An intermediate in the migration of certain DNA transposons in which the donor DNA and target DNA are covalently attached.Colligative properties:（依數性）Properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles per unit volume;for example, freezing-point depression.Common intermediate:（共同中間產物）A chemical compound common to two chemical reactions, as a product of one and a reactant in the other.Competitive inhibition:（競爭性抑制作用）A type of enzyme inhibition reversed by increasing the substrate concentration;a competitive inhibitor generally competes with the normal substrate or ligand for a protein's binding site.Complementary:（互補）Having a molecular surface with chemical groups arranged to interact specifically with chemical groups on another molecule.Complementary DNA(cDNA): A DNA used in DNA cloning, usually made by reverse transcriptase;complementary to a given mRNA.Configuration:（構型）The spatial arrangement of an organic molecule that is conferred by the presence of either(1)double bonds, about which there is no freedom of rotation, or(2)chiral centers, around which substituent groups are arranged in a specific sequence.Configurational isomers cannot be interconverted without breaking one or more covalent bonds.Conformation:（構象）The spatial arrangement, of substituent groups that are free to assume different positions in space, without breaking any bonds, because of the freedom of bond rotation.Conjugate acid-base pair:（共扼酸堿對）A proton donor and its corresponding deprotonated species;for example, acetic acid(donor)and acetate(acceptor).Conjugate redox pair:（共扼氧還對）An electron donor and its corresponding electron acceptor form;for example, Cu+(donor)and Cu2+(acceptor), or NADH(donor)and NAD+(acceptor).Conjugated protein:（結合蛋白質）A protein containing one or more prosthetic groups.Consensus sequence:（一致序列）A DNA or amino acid sequence consisting of the residues that occur most commonly at each position within a set of similar sequences.Conservative substitution:（保守性置換）Replacement of an amino acid residue in a polypeptide by another residue with similar properties;for example, substitution of Glu by Asp.Constitutive enzymes:（組成酶）Enzymes required at all times by a cell and present at some constant level;for example, many enzymes of the central metabolic pathways.Sometimes called house-keeping enzymes.Contour length(外形長度): The length of a helical polymeric molecule as measured along the molecule's helical axis.Corticosteroids（皮質類固醇激素）Steroid hormones formed by the adrenal cortex.Cotransport:（共轉運）The simultaneous transport, by a single transporter, of two solutes across a membrane.See antiport, symport.Coupled reactions:（偶聯反應）Two chemical reactions that have a common intermediate and thus a means of energy transfer from one to the other.Covalent bond:（共價鍵）A chemical bond that involves sharing of electron pairs.Cristae:（嵴）Infoldings of the inner mitochondrial membrane.CRP（cAMP受體蛋白）See cAMP receptor protein.Cyclic AMP(cAMP): A second messenger within cells;its formation by adenylyl cyclase is stimulated by certain hormones or other molecular signals.Cyclic electron flow:（循環電子流）In chloroplasts, the light-induced flow of electrons originating from and returning to photosystem I.Cyclic photophosphorylation:（循環光合磷酸化）ATP synthesis driven by cyclic electron flow through photosystem I.Cyclin:（細胞周期蛋白）One of a family of proteins that activate cyclin-dependent protein kinases and thereby regulate the cell cycle.Cytochromes:（細胞色素）Heme proteins serving as electron carriers in respiration, photosynthesis, and other oxidation-reduction reactions.Cytokine:（細胞因子）One of a family of small secreted proteins(such as interleukins or interferons)that activate cell division or differentiation by binding to plasma membrane receptors in sensitive cells.Cytokinesis:（胞質分裂）The final separation of daughter cells following mitosis.Cytoplasm:（細胞質）The portion of a cell's contents outside the nucleus but within the plasma membrane;includes organelles such as mitochondria.Cytoskeleton:（細胞骨架）The filamentous network providing structure and organization to the cytoplasm;includes actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments.Cytosol:（細胞漿）The continuous aqueous phase of the cytoplasm, with its dissolved solutes;excludes the organelles such as mitochondria.D Dalton:（道爾頓）The weight of a single hydrogen atom(1.66 x I0-24 g).Dark reactions:（暗反應）See carbon-assimilation reactions.De novo pathway:（從頭合成）Pathway for synthesis of a biomolecule, such as a nucleotide, from simple precursors;as distinct from a salvage pathway.Deamination:（脫氨基作用）The enzymatic removal of amino groups from biomolecules such as amino acids or nucleotides.Degenerate code:（兼并密碼）A code in which a single element in one language is specified by more than one element in a second language.Dehydrogenases:（脫氫酶類）Enzymes catalyzing the removal of pairs of hydrogen atoms from their substrates.Deletion mutation:（刪除突變）A mutation resulting from the deletion of one or more nucleotides from a gene or chromosome.Denaturation:（變性）Partial or complete unfolding of the specific native conformation of a polypeptide chain, protein, or nucleic acid.Denatured protein:（變性蛋白）A protein that has lost its native conformation by exposure to a destabilizing agent such as heat or detergent.Deoxyribonucleic acid;See DNA.Deoxyribonucleotides:（脫氧核糖核苷酸）Nucleotides containing 2-deoxyribose as the pentose component.Desaturases:（去飽和酶）Enzymes that catalyze the introduction of double bonds into the hydrocarbon portion of fatty acids.Desolvation:（脫水）In aqueous solution, the release of bound water surrounding a solute.Dextrorotatory isomer:9右旋異構體）A stercoisomer that rotates the plane of plane-polarized light clockwise.Diabetes mellitus:（糖尿病）A metabolic disease resulting from insulin deficiency;characterized by a failure in glucose transport from the blood into cells at normal glucose concentrations.Dialysis:（透析）Removal of small molecules from a solution of a macromolecule, by allowing them to diffuse through a semipermeable membrane into water.Differential centrifugation:（差速離心）Separation of cell organelles or other particles of different size by their different rates of sedimentation in a centrifugal field.Differentiation:（分化）Specialization of cell structure and function during embryonic growth and development.Diffusion:（擴散）The net movement, of molecules in the direction of lower concentration.Digestion:（消化）Enzymatic hydrolysis of major nutrients in the gastrointestinal system to yield their simpler components.Diploid:（二倍體）Having two sets of genetic information;describing a cell with two chromosomes of each type.Dipole;（雙極分子）A molecule having both positive and negative charges.Diprotic acid: An acid having two dissociable protons.Disaccharide:（二糖）A carbohydrate consisting of two covalently joined monosaccharide units.Dissociation constant:（解離常數）(1)An equilibrium constant(Kd)for the dissociation of a complex of two or more biomolecules into its components;for example, dissociation of a substrate from an enzyme.(2)The dissociation constant(Ka)of an acid, describing its dissociation into its conjugate base and a proton.Disulfide bridge:(二硫橋)A covalent cross link between two polypeptide chains formed by a cystine residue(two Cys residues).0 DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid)： A polynucleotide having a specific sequence of deoxyribonucleotide units covalently joined through 3', 5'-phosphodiester bonds;serves as the carrier of genetic information.DNA chimera:（DNA嵌合）A DNA containing genetic information derived from two different species.DNA cloning: Sec cloning.DNA library:（DNA文庫）A collection of cloned DNA fragments.DNA ligase：（DNA連接酶）An enzyme that creates a phosphodiester bond between the 3' end of one DNA segment, and the 5' end of another.DNA looping:（DNA出環）The interaction of proteins bound at distant sites on a DNA molecule so that the intervening DNA forms a loop.DNA microarray:（DNA微陣列）A collection of DNA sequences immobilized on a solid surface, with individual sequences laid out in patterned arrays that can be probed by hybridization.DNA polymerase:（DNA聚合酶）An enzyme that catalyzes template-dependent synthesis of DNA from its deoxyribonucleoside 5'-triphosphate precursors.DNA replicase system：（DNA復制酶系統）The entire complex of enzymeH and specialized proteins required in biological DNA replication.DNA supercoiling:（DNA超螺旋化）The coiling of DNA upon itself, generally as a result of bending, underwinding, or overwinding of the DNA helix.DNA transposition:（DNA轉座）See transposition.domain:（結構域）A distinct structural unit of a polypeptide;domains may have separate functions and may fold as independent, compact units.Double helix:（雙螺旋）The natural coiled conformation of two complementary, antiparallel DNA chains.Double-reciprocal plot:（雙倒數作圖）A plot, of 1/Vo versus 1/[S], which allows a more accurate determination of Vmax and Km than a plot of V versus [S];also called the Lineweaver-Burk plot, E E'°: 標準還原電位 See standard reduction potential.E.coli(Escherichia coli):（大腸桿菌）A common bacterium found in the small intestine of vertebrates;the most well-studied organism.Electrochemical gradient:（電化學梯度）The sum of the gradients of concentration and of electric charge of an ion across a membrane;the driving force for oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation.Electrochemical potential:（電化學勢）

The energy required to maintain a separation of charge and of concentration across a membrane.Electrogenic:（生電的）Contributing to an electrical potential across a membrane.1 1

Electron acceptor:（電子受體）A substance that receives electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Electron carrier:（電子載體）A protein, such as a flavoprotein or a cytochrome, that can reversibly gain and lose electrons;functions in the transfer of electrons from organic nutrients to oxygen or some other terminal acceptor.Electron donor:（電子供體）A substance that donates electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Electron transfer:（電子轉移）Movement of electrons from substrates to oxygen via the carriers of the respiratory(electron transfer)chain.Electrophile:（親電劑）An electron-deficient group with a strong tendency to accept electrons from an electron-rich group(nucleophile).Electrophoresis（電泳）: Movement of charged solutes in response to an electrical field;often used to separate mixtures of ions, proteins, or nucleic acids.Electroporation:（電穿孔法）Introduction of macromolecules into cells after rendering the cells transiently permeable by the application of a high-voltage pulse.Elongation factors:（延長因子）Specific proteins required in the elongation of polypeptide chains by ribosomes.Eluate:（流出液）The effluent from a chromatographic column.Enantiomers:（對映異構體）Stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other.End-product inhibition: See feedback inhibition.Endergonic reaction(耗能反應): A chemical reaction that consumes energy(that is, for which ΔG is positive).Endocrine glands:（內分泌腺）Groups of cells specialized to synthesize hormones and secrete them into the blood to regulate other types of cells.Endocytosis:（內吞體）The uptake of extracellular material by its inclusion within a vesicle formed by an invagination of the plasma membrane.Endonuclease:（內切核酸酶）An enzyme that hydrolyzes the interior phosphodiester bonds of a nucleic acid;that is, it acts at points other than the terminal bonds.Endoplasmic reticulum:（內質網）An extensive system of double membranes in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells;it encloses secretory channels and is often studded with ribosomes(rough endoplasmic reticulum).Endothermic reaction:（吸熱反應）A chemical reaction that takes up heat(that is, for which ΔH is positive).Energy charge:（能荷）The fractional degree to which the ATP/ADP/AMP system is filled with high-energy phosphate groups.Energy coupling:（能量偶聯）The transfer of energy from one process to anotlier.Enhancers:（增強子）DNA sequences that facilitate the expression of a given gene;2 1

may be located a few hundred, or even thousand, base pairs away from the gene.Enthalpy(H):（焓）The heat.content of a system.Enthalpy change(ΔH):（焓變）For a reaction, is approximately equal to the difference between the energy used to break bonds and the energy gained by the formation of new ones.Entropy(S):（熵）The extent of randomness or disorder in a system.Enzyme：（酶）A biomolecule, either protein or RNA, that catalyzes a specific chemical reaction.It does not affect the equilibrium of the catalyzed reaction;it enhances the rate of a reaction by providing a reaction path with a lower activation energy.Enzyme cascade:（酶級聯）A series of reactions, often involved in regulatory events, in which one enzyme activates another(often by phosphorylation), which activates a third, and so on.The effect, of a catalyst activating a catalyst is a large amplification of the signal that initiated the cascade.Epimerases:（表異構酶）Enzymes that catalyze the reversible interconveraion of two epimers.Epimers:（表異構體）Two stereoisomers differing in configuration at one asymmetric center, in a compound having two or more asymmetric centers.Epithelial cell:（上皮細胞）Any cell that forms part of the outer covering of an organism or organ.Epitope:（抗原決定族）An antigenic determinant;the particular chemical group or groups within a macromolecule(antigen)to which a given antibody binds.Equilibrium:（平衡）The state of a system in which no further net change is occurring;the free energy is at a minimum.Equilibrium constant(K'eq)（平衡常數）A constant, characteristic for each chemical reaction;relates the specific concentrations of all reactants and products at equilibrium at a given temperature and pressure.Erythrocyte:（紅細胞）A cell containing large amounts of hemoglobin and specialized for oxygen transport;a red blood cell.Escherichia coli: See E.coli.Essential amino acids:（必需氨基酸）Amino acids that cannot be synthesized by humans(and other vertebrates)and must be obtained from the diet.Essential fatty acids:（必需脂肪酸）The group of polyunsaturated fatty acids produced by plants, but not by humans;required in the human diet.Ethanol fermentation:（乙醇發酵）See alcohol fermentation.Eukaryote:（真核生物）A unicellular or multicellular organism with cells having a membrane-bounded nucleus, multiple chromosomes, and internal organelles.Excited state:（激發態）An energy-rich state of an atom or molecule;produced by the absorption of light energy.Exergonic reaction:（放能反應）A chemical reaction that proceeds with the release of 3 1

free energy(that is, for which ΔG is negative).Exocytosis:（胞泌作用）The fusion of an intracellular vesicle with the plasma membrane, releasing the vesicle contents to the extracellular space.Exon:（外顯子）The segment of a eukaryotic gene that encodes a portion of the final product of the gene;a portion that remains after posttranscriptional processing and is transcribed into a protein or incorporated into the structure of an RNA.See intron.Exonuclease:（外切核酸酶）An enzyme that hydrolyzes only those phosphodiester bonds that are in the terminal positions of a nucleic acid.Exothermic reaction:（放熱反應）A chemical reaction that releases heat(that is, for which A// is negative).Expression vector:（表達載體）See vector.F Facilitated diffusion:（協助擴散）Diffusion of a polar substance across a biological membrane through a protein transporter;also called passive diffusion or passive transport.Facultative cells:（兼性需樣氧細胞）Cells that can live in the presence or absence of oxygen.FAD(flavin adenine dinucleotide)：（黃素腺嘌呤二核苷酸）The coenzyme of some oxidation-reduction enzymes;it contains riboflavin.Fatty acid:（脂肪酸）A long-chain aliphatic carboxylic acid found in natural fats and oils;also a component of membrane phospholipids arid glycolipids.Feedback inhibition:（反饋抑制）Inhibition of an allosteric enzyme at the beginning of a metabolic sequence by the end product of the sequence;also known as end-product inhibition.Fermentation:（發酵）Knergy-yielding anaerobic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation;yields lactate, ethanol, or some other simple product.Fibroblast（成纖維細胞）A cell of the connective tissue that secretes connective tissue proteins such as collagen.Fibrous proteins:（纖維狀蛋白質）Insoluble proteins that serve in a protective or structural role;contain polypeptide chains tliat generally share a common secondary structure.Fingerprinting:（指紋作圖）See peptide mapping.First law of thermodynamics: The law staling that in all processes, the total energy of the universe remains constant.Fischer projection formulas:（Fischer投影式）See projection formulas.5' end: The end of a nucleic acid that lacks a nucleotide bound at the 5' position of the terminal residue.4 1

Flagellum:(鞭毛)A cell appendage used in propulsion.Bacterial flagella have a much simpler structure than eukaryotic flagella, which are similar to cilia.Flavin-linked dehydrogenases:(黃素脫氫酶)Dehydrogenases requiring one of the riboflavins.coenzymes, FMN or FAD.Flavin nucleotides:（黃素核苷酸）Nucleotide coenzymes(FMN and FAD)containing riboflavin.Flavoprotein(黃素蛋白)An enzyme containing a flavin nucleotide as a tightly bound prosthetic group.Fluid mosaic model:（流動鑲嵌模型）A model describing biological membranes as a fluid lipid bilayer with embedded proteins;the bilayer exhibits both structural and functional asymmetry.Fluorescence:（熒光）Emission of light by excited molecules as they revert to the ground state, FMN(flavin mononucleotide):（黃素單核苷酸）Riboflavin phosphate, a coenzyme of certain oxidation-reduction enzymes.Footprinting(足跡法)A technique for identifying the nucleic acid sequence bound by a DNA-or RNA-binding protein.Fractionation:（分級分離）The process of separating the proteins or other components of a complex molecular mixture into fractions based on differences in their physical properties, such as size, net charge, and solubility.Frame shift:（移碼）A mutation caused by insertion or deletion of one or more paired nucleotides, changing the reading frame of codons during protein synthesis;the polypeptide product has a garbled amino acid sequence beginning at the mutated codon.Free energy(G):（自由能）The component of the total energy of a system that can do work at constant temperature and pressure.Free energy of activation ΔG?(活化自由能);See activation energy.Free-energy change ΔG(自由能變化): The amount of free energy released(negative ΔG)or absorbed(positive ΔG)in a reaction at constant temperature and pressure.Free radical:（自由基）See radical.Functional group:（功能團）The specific atom or group of atoms that confers a particular chemical property on a biomolccule.Furanose:（呋喃糖）A simple sugar containing the five-membered furan ring.Fusion protein:（融合蛋白）(1)A family of proteins that facilitate membrane fusion.(2)The protein product of a gene created by the fusion of two distinct genes or portions of genes.Futile cycle:（無效循環）A set of enzyme-catalyzed cyclic reactions that results in release of thermal energy by the hydrolysis of ATP.5 1

G G proteins:（G蛋白）A family of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins that act in intracellular signaling pathways.Commonly, ligand binding to a serpentine receptor induces the exchange of GTP for bound GDP, enabling the G protein to activate a downstream enzyme in a signaling pathway.G proteins have intrinsic GTPase activity, and therefore self-inactivate.ΔG’°:(標準自由能變化)See standard free-energy change.Gametes:（配子）Reproductive cells with a haploid gene content;sperm or egg cells.Gangliosides:（神經節苷脂）Sphingolipids, containing complex oligosaccharides as head groups;especially common in nervous tissue.Gel filtration:（凝膠過濾）See size-exclusion chromatography.（分子排阻層析）Gene:（基因）A chromosomal segment, that codes for a single functional polypeptide chain or RNA molecule.Gene expression:（基因表達）Transcription, and in the case of proteins, translation, to yield the product of a gene;a gene is expressed when its biological product is present and active.Gene splicing:（基因拼接）The enzymatic attachment of one gene, or part.of a gene, to another.General acid-base catalysis:（廣義酸堿催化）Catalysis involving proton transfer(s)to or from a molecule other than water.Genetic code:（遺傳密碼）The set of triplet code words in UNA(or mRNA)coding for the amino acids of proteins.Genetic information:（遺傳信息）The hereditary information contained in a sequence of nucleotide bases in chromosomal DNA or RNA.Genetic map:（遺傳圖譜）A diagram showing the relative sequence and position of specific genes along a chromosome.Genome:（基因組）All the genetic information encoded in a cell or virus.Genomic library:（基因組文庫）A DNA library containing DNA segments representing all(or most)of the sequences in an organism's genome.Genotype:（基因性或遺傳型）The genetic constitution of an organism, as distinct from ils physical characteristics, or phenotype.Geometric isomers:（幾何異構體）Isomers related by rotation about a double bond;also called cis and trans isomers.Germ-line cell(生殖系細胞)A type of animal cell that is formed early in embryogenesis and may multiply by mitosis or may produce, by meiosis, cells that develop into gametes(egg or sperm cells).Globular proteins：（球蛋白）Soluble proteins with a globular(somewhat rounded)shape.Glucogenic amino acids:（生糖氨基酸）Amino acids with carbon chains that can be 6 1

metabolically converted into glucose or glycogen via gluconeogenesis.Gluconeogenesis:(糖異生)The biosynthesis of a carbohydrate from simpler, noncarbohydrate precursors such as oxaloacetate（草酰乙酸）or pyruvate（丙酮酸）.Glycan:（聚糖）Another term for polysaccharide;a polymer-of monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, Glycerophospholipid:（甘油磷脂）An amphipathic lipid with a glycerol backbone;fatty acids are ester-linked to C-l and C-2 of glycerol, and a polar alcohol is attached through a phosphodiester linkage to C-3.Glycoconjugate:(復合糖)A compound containing a carbohydrate component bound covalently to a protein or lipid, forming a glycoprotein or glycolipids.Glycolipid:（糖脂）A lipid containing a carbohydrate group, Glycolysis:（糖酵解）The catabolic pathway by which a molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate.Glycoprotein(糖蛋白)A protein containing a carbohydrate group.Glycosaminoglycan:（糖胺聚糖）A heteropolysaccharide of two alternating units: one is either N-acetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine;the other is a uronic acid(usually glucuronic acid).Formerly called mucopolysaccharide.(粘多糖)Glycosidic bonds:（糖苷鍵）Bonds between a sugar and another molecule(typically an alcohol, purine, pyrimidine, or sugar)through an intervening oxygen.Glyoxylate cycle:(乙醛酸循環)A variant of the citric acid cycle, for the net conversion of acetate into succinate and, eventually, new carbohydrate;present in bacteria and some plant cells.Glyoxysome:（乙醛酸體）A specialized peroxisome containing the enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle;found in cells of germinating seeds.Golgi complex:（高爾基復合體）A complex membranous organelle of eukaryotic cells;functions in the posttranslational modification of proteins and their secretion from the cell or incorporation into the plasma membrane or organellar membranes.Gram molecular weight:（克分子重量）The weight in grams of a compound that is numerically equal to its molecular weight;the weight of 1 mole.Grana:（基粒）Stacks of thylakoids（類囊體）, flattened membranous sacs or disks, in chloroplasts.Ground state:（基態）The normal, stable form of an atom or molecule;as distinct from the excited state.Group transfer potential:（基團轉移力）A measure of the ability of a compound to donate an activated group(such as a phosphate or acyl group);generally expressed as the standard free energy of hydrolysis.H Half-life:（半衰期）The time required for the disappearance or decay of one-half of a 7 1

given component in a system.Haploid:（單倍體）Having a single set of genetic information;describing a cell with one chromosome of each type.Hapten:（半抗原）A small molecule which, when linked to a larger molecule, elicits an immune response.Haworth perspective formulas:（Haworth透視式）A method for representing cyclic chemical structures so as to define the configuration of each substituent group;the method commonly used for representing sugars.Helicase(解螺旋酶)An enzyme that, catalyzes the separation of strands in a DNA molecule before replication.Heme:（血紅素）The iron-porphyrin prosthetic group of heme proteins.Heme protein:（血紅素蛋白）A protein containing a heme as a prosthetic group.Hemoglobin:（血紅蛋白）A heme protein in erythrocytes;functions in oxygen transport.Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: An equation relating the pH, the pKa, and the ratio of the concentrations of the proton-acceptor(A+)and proton-donor(HA)species in a solution.Hepatocyte(肝細胞)The major cell type of liver tissue.Heteroduplex DNA(異源雙鏈DNA)Duplex DNA containing complementary strands derived from two different DNA molecules with similar sequences, often as a product of genetic recombination.Heteropolysaccharide:（雜多糖）A polysaccharide containing more than one type of sugar.Heterotroph:（異養生物）An organism that requires complex nutrient molecules, such as glucose, as a source of energy and carbon.Heterotropic:（異促的）Describes an allosteric modulator that is distinct from the normal ligand.Heterotropic enzyme:（異促酶）An allosteric enzyme requiring a modulator other than its substrate.Hexose:（己糖）A simple sugar with a backbone containing six carbon atoms.High-energy compound:（高能化合物）A compound that on hydrolysis undergoes a large decrease in free energy under standard conditions.High-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)：（高效液相色譜）Chromatographic procedure, often conducted at relatively high pressures, using automated equipment that permits refined and highly reproducible profiles, Hill reaction:（希爾反應）The evolution of oxygen and the photoreduction of an artificial electron acceptor by a chloroplast preparation in the absence of carbon dioxide.Histones:（組蛋白）The family of five basic proteins that associate tightly with DNA in the chromosomes of all eukaryotic cells, 8 1

Holliday intermediate（赫利地中間物）An intermediate in genetic recombination in which two double-stranded DNA molecules are joined by virtue of a reciprocal crossover involving one strand of each molecule.Holoenzyme:（全酶）A catalytically active enzyme including all necessary subunits, prosthetic groups, and cofactors.Homeobox:（同源框）A conserved DNA sequence of 180 base pairs encoding a protein domain found in many proteins that play a regulatory role in development.Homeodomain:（發育同源結構域）The protein domain encoded by the homeobox.Homeostasis:（內穩態）The maintenance of a dynamic steady state by regulatory mechanisms that compensate for changes in external circumstances.Homeotic genes:（同源框基因）Genes that regulate the development of the pattern of segments in the Drosophila body plan;similar genes are found in most vertebrates.Homologous genetic recombination:（同源遺傳重組）Recombination between two DNA molecules of similar sequence, occurring in all cells;occurs during meiosis and mitosis in eukaryotes.Homologous proteins:（同源蛋白）Proteins having sequences and functions similar in different species;for example, the hemoglobins.Homopolysaccharide:（同多糖）A polysaccharide made up of only one type of monosaccharide unit.Homotropic:(同促的）Describes an allosteric modulator that is identical to the normal ligand.Homotropic enzyme:（同促酶）An allosteric enzyme that uses its substrate as a modulator.Hormone:（激素）A chemical substance synthesized in small amounts by an endocrine tissue and carried in the blood to another tissue, where it acts as a messenger to regulate the function of the target tissue or organ.Hormone receptor:(激素受體)A protein in, or on the surface of, target cells that binds a specific hormone and initiates the cellular response, Hormone response element(HRE):（激素響應元件）A short(12 to 20 bp)DNA sequence to which receptors for steroid, retinoid, thyroid, and vitamin D hormones bind, altering the expression of the contiguous genes.For each hormone, there is a consensus sequence preferred by the cognate receptor.Hyaluronic acid:（透明質酸）A high molecular weight, acidic polysaccharide typically composed of the alternating disaccharide GlcUA(β1→3)GlcNAc, Hyaluronic acid is a major component of the extracellular matrix, and forms larger complexes(proteoglycans)with proteins and other acidic polysaccharides.Hydrogen bond:（氫鍵）A weak electrostatic attraction between one electronegative atom(such as oxygen or nitrogen)and a hydrogen atom covalently linked to a second electronegative atom.9 1

Hydrolases:（水解酶）Enzymes(proteases, lipases, phosphatases, nucleases, for example)that catalyze hydrolysis reactions.Hydrolysis:（水解）Cleavage of a bond, such as an anhydride or peptide bond, by the addition of the elements of water, yielding two or more products, Hydronium ion:（水合氫離子）The hydrated hydrogen ion(H3O+).Hydropathy index:（親水指數）A scale that expresses the relative hydrophobia and hydrophilic tendencies of a chemical group.Hydrophilic：（親水的）Polar or charged;describing molecules or groups that associate with(dissolve easily in)water.Hydrophobic:（疏水的）Nonpolar;describing molecules or groups that are insoluble in water.hydrophobic interactions（疏水相互作用）The association of nonpolar groups, or compounds, with each other in aqueous systems, driven by the tendency of the surrounding water molecules to seek their most stable(disordered)state.Hyperchromic effect(增色效應)The large increase in light absorption at 260 nm occurring as a double-helical DNA is melted(unwound).Hypoxia:（低氧）The metabolic condition in which the supply of oxygen is severely limited.I Immune response:（免疫反應）The capacity of a vertebrate to generate antibodies to an antigen, a macromolecule foreign to the organism.Immunoglobulin(免疫球蛋白)An antibody protein generated against, and capable of binding specifically to an antigen.in vitro:（體外）“In glass”;that is, in the test tube.in vivo:（體內）“In life”;that is, in the living cell or organism.Induced fit:（誘導契合）A change in the conformation of an enzyme in response to substrate binding that renders the enzyme catalytically active;also used to denote changes in the conformation of any macromolecule in response to ligand binding such that the binding site of the macromolecule better conforms to the shape of the ligand.Indncer:（誘導物）A signal molecule that, when bound to a regulatory protein, produces an increase in the expression of a given gene.Induction:（誘導）An increase in the expression of a gene in response to a change in the activity of a regulatory protein.Informational macromolecules:（信息大分子）Biomolecules containing information in the form of specific sequences of different monomers;for example, many proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.Initiation codon（起始密碼）AUG(sometimes GUG in prokaryotes);codes for the first amino acid in a polypeptide sequence: N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes, and methionine in eukaryotes.0 Initiation complex:（起始復合物）A complex of a ribosome with an mRNA and the initiating Met-tRNAMet or fMet-tRNAMet, ready for the elongation steps.Inorganic pyrophosphatase(無機焦磷酸酶)An enzyme that hydrolyzes a molecule of inorganic pyrophosphate to yield two molecules of(ortho)phosphate;also known as pyrophosphatase.Insertion mutation:（插入突變）A mutation caused by insertion of one or more extra bases, or a mutagen, between successive bases in DNA.Insertion sequence:（插入序列）Specific base sequences at either end of a transposable segment of DNA.Integral proteins:（膜整體蛋白）Proteins firmly bound to a membrane by hydrophobic interactions;as distinct from peripheral proteins.Integrin:（整連蛋白）One of a large family of heterodimeric transmembrane proteins that mediate adhesion of cells to other cells or to the extracellular matrix.Intercalating mutagen:（嵌入突變）A mutagen that inserts itself between successive bases in a nucleic acid, causing a frame-shift mutation.Intercalation:（嵌入）Insertion between stacked aromatic or planar rings;for example, the insertion of a planar molecule between two successive bases in a nucleic acid.Iinterferons:（干擾素）A class of glycoproteins with antiviral activities.Intermediary metabolism:（中間代謝）In cells, the enzyme-catalyzed reactions that extract chemical energy from nutrient molecules and utilize it to synthesize and assemble cell components.Intron(intervening sequence)（內含子，間隔序列）A sequence of nucleotides in a.gene that is transcribed but excised before the gene is translated.Ion channel:（離子通道）An integral protein that provides for the regulated transport of a specific ion, or ions, across a membrane.Ion-exchange resin:（離子交換樹脂）A polymeric resin that contains fixed charged groups;used in chromatographic columns to separate ionic compounds.Ion product of water(Kw)（水的離子積）The product of the concentrations of H+and OH-in pure water: kw = [H+] X [OH-] = 10-14 at 25 °C.Ionizing radiation（電離輻射）A type of radiation, such as x rays, that causes loss of electrons from some organic molecules, thus making them more reactive.Ionophore:（離子載體）A compound that binds one or more metal ions and is capable of diffusing across a membrane, carrying the bound ion.Iron-sulfur center:（鐵硫中心）A prosthetic group of certain redox proteins involved in electron transfers;Fe2+ or Fe3+ is bound to inorganic sulfur and to Cys groups in the protein.Isoelectric focusing（等電聚焦）An electrophoretic method for separating macromolccules on the basis of their isoelectric pH.1 2

Isoelectric pH(isoelectric point)(等電點)The pH at which a solute has no net electric charge and thus does not move in an electric field, Isoenzymes:（同工酶）See isozymes.Isomerases:（異構酶類）Enzymes that catalyze the transformation of compounds into their positional isomers.Isomers:（異構體）Any two molecules with the same molecular formula, but a different arrangement of molecular groups.Isoprene:（異戊二烯）The hydrocarbon 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene, a recurring structural unit of the terpenoid biomolecules.Isoprenoid:（類異戊二烯）Any of a large number of natural products synthesized by enzymatic polymerization of two or more isoprene units;also called terpenoids.Isothermal:（等溫的）Occurring at constant temperature.Isotopes:（同位素）Stable or radioactive forms of an element that differ in atomic weight but are otherwise chemically identical to the naturally abundant form of the clement;used as tracers.Isozymes:（同工酶）Multiple forms of an enzyme that catalyze the same reaction but differ from each other in their amino acid sequence, substrate affinity, Vm, and / or regulatory properties;also called isoenzymes.K Keratins;(角蛋白)Insoluble protective or structural proteins consisting of parallel polypeptide chains in α-helical or β conformations.Ketogenic amino acids（生酮氨基酸）Amino acids with carbon skeletons that can serve as precursors of the ketone bodies.Ketone bodies:（酮體）Acetoacetate, D-β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone;water-soluble fuels normally exported by the liver but overproduced during fasting or in untreated diabetes mellitus.Ketose:（酮糖）A simple monosaccharide in which the carbonyl group is a ketone.Ketosis:（酮尿癥）A condition in which the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood, tissues, and urine is abnormally high.Kinases:（激酶）Enzymes that catalyze the phosphorylation of certain molecules by ATP.Kinetics:（動力學）The study of reaction rates.Krebs cycle:（Krebs 循環）See citric acid cycle.L Lagging strand（滯后鏈）The DNA strand that, during replication, must be synthesized in the direction opposite to that in which the replication fork moves.Law of mass action:（質量作用定律）The law stating that the rate of any given chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the activities(or concentrations)of the reactants.2 2

Leader:（前導序列）A short sequence near the amino terminus of a protein or the 5' end of an RNA that has a specialized targeting or regulatory function.Leading strand:（領頭鏈）The DNA strand that, during replication, is synthesized in the same direction in which the replication fork moves.Leaky mutant:（滲漏突變）A mutant gene that gives rise to a product with a detectable level of biological activity, Leaving group:（離去基團）The departing or displaced molecular group in a unimolecular elimination or a bimolecular substitution reaction.Lectin（凝集素）A protein that binds a carbohydrate, commonly an oligosaccharide, with very high affinity and specificity, mediating cell-cell interactions.Lethal mutation:（致死突變）A mutation that inactivates a biological function essential to the life of the cell or organism.Leucine zipper:（亮氨酸拉鏈）A protein structural motif involved in protein-protein interactions in many eukaryotic regulatory proteins;consists of two interacting a helices in which Leu residues in every seventh position are a prominent, feature of the interacting surfaces.Leukotrienes:（白三烯）A family of molecules derived from arachidonate;muscle contractants that constrict air passages in the lungs and are involved in asthma.Levorotatory isomer:（左旋異構體）A stercoisomer that rotates the plane of plane-polarized light counterclockwise.Ligand: A small molecule that binds specifically to a larger one;for example, a hormone is the ligand for its specific protein receptor.Ligases:（連接酶）Enzymes that.catalyze condensation reactions in which two atoms are joined using the energy of ATP or another energy-rich compound.Light-dependent reactions:（光反應）The reactions of photosynthesis that require light and cannot, occur in the dark;also known as the light reactions.Lineweaver-Burk equation: An algebraic transform of the Michaells-Menten equation, allowing determination of Vmax and Km by extrapolation of [S] to infinity.Linking number:(連接數)The number of times one closed circular DNA strand is wound about another;the number of topological links holding the circles together.Lipases:（脂酶）Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols.Lipid:（脂）A small water-insoluble biomolecule generally containing fatty acids, st.erols, or isoprenoid compounds.Lipoate(lipoic acid)（硫辛酸）A vitamin for some microorganisms;an intermediate carrier of hydrogen atoms and acyi groups hi a-keto acid dehydrogenases.Lipoprotein（脂蛋白）A lipid-protein aggregate that serves to carry water-insoluble lipids in the blood.The protein component alone is an apolipoprotein.Liposome:（脂質體）A small, spherical vesicle composed of a phospholipid bilayer, which forms spontaneously when phospholipids are suspended in an aqueous buffer.3 2

Low-energy phosphate compound:（低能化合物）A phosphorylated compound with a relatively small standard free energy of hydrolysis.Lyases:（裂解裂合酶類）Enzymes that catalyze the removal of a group from a molecule to form a double bond, or the addition of a group to a double bond.Lymphocytes:（淋巴細胞）A subclass of leukocytes involved in the immune response.B lymphocytes synthesize and secrete antibodies;T lymphocytes either play a regulatory role in immunity or kill foreign and virus-infected cells.Lysis:（裂解）Destruction of a cell's plasma membrane or of a bacterial cell wall, releasing the cellular contents and killing the cell.Lysosome:（溶酶體）A membrane-bounded organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells;it contains many hydrolytic enzymes and serves as a degrading and recycling center for unneeded components.M Macromolecule:（大分子）A molecule having a molecular weight in the range of a few thousand to many millions.Matrix:（基質）The aqueous contents of a cell or organelle(the mitochondrion, for example)with dissolved solutes.Meiosis:（減數分裂）A type of cell division in which diploid cells give rise to haploid cells destined to become gametes.Membrane potential(Vm):（膜電位）The difference in electrical potential across a biological membrane, commonly measured by the insertion of a microelectrode.Typical membrane potentials vary from —25 mV(by convention, the negative sign indicates that the inside is negative relative to the outside)to greater than —100 mV across some plant vacuole membranes.Membrane transport:（膜轉運）Movement of a polar solute across a membrane via a specific membrane protein(a transporter).Messenger RNA(mRNA):（信使RNA）A class of RNA molecules, each of which is complementary to one strand of DNA;carries the genetic message from the chromosome to the ribosomes, Metabolism(新陳代謝)The entire set of enzyme-catalyzed transformations of organic molecules in living cells;the sum of anabolism and catabolism.Metabolite:（代謝物）A chemical intermediate in the enzyme-catalyzed reactions of metabolism.Metalloprotein:（金屬蛋白）A protein having a metal ion as its prosthetic group.Metamerism:（分節）Division of the body into segments;in insects, for example.Micelle:（微團）An aggregate of amphipathic molecules in water, with the nonpolar portions in the interior and the polar portions at the exterior surface, exposed to water.Michaelis constant(Km)（米氏常數）The substrate concentration at which an enzyme-catalyzed reaction proceeds at one-Iialf its maximum velocity.4 2

Michaelis-Menten equation（米氏方程）The equation describing the hyperbolic dependence of the initial reaction velocity, V, on substrate concentration, [S], in many enzyme-catalyzed reactions.Michaelis-Menten kinetics:（米氏動力學）A kinetic pattern in which the initial rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction exhibits a hyperbolic dependence on substrate concentration.Microbodies:（微體）Cytoplasmic, membrane-bounded vesicles containing peroxide-forming and peroxide-destroying enzymes;include lysosomes, peroxisomes, and glyoxysomes.Microfilaments:（微絲）Thin filaments composed of actin, found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells;serve in structure and movement.Microtubules:（微管）Thin tubules assembled from two types of globular tubulin subunits;present, in cilia, flagella, centrosomes, and other contractile or motile structures.Mismatch(堿基錯配)a base pair in a nucleic acid that cannot form normal Watson-Crick pairs.Mismatch repair:(錯配修復)an enzymatic system for repairing base mismatches in DNA.Mitochondrion:（線粒體）Membrane-bounded organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes;contains the enzyme systems required for the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, electron transfer, and oxidative phosphorylation.Mitosis:（有絲分裂）The multistep process in eukaryotic cells that results in the replication of chromosomes and cell division, Mixed-function oxidases:（混合功能氧化酶）Enzymes(a inonooxygenase, for example)that catalyze reactions in which two reductants, one of which is generally NADPH, the other the substrate, are oxidized.One oxygen atom is incorporated into the product, the other is reduced to H^O.These enzymes often employ cylochrome P-450 to cany electrons from NADPH to 0^.Mixed inhibition:（混合抑制）The reversible inhibition pattern resulting when an inhibitor molecule can bind to either the free enzyme or to the enzyme-substrate complex(not necessarily with the same affinity).Modulator:（調節物）A Metabolite that, when bound to the allosteric site of an enzyme, alters its kinetic characteristics.Molar solution:（摩爾溶液）One mole of solute dissolved in water to give a total volume of 1000 mL.Mole:（摩爾）One gram molecular weight of a compound.See Avogadro's number.Monoclonal antibodies:（單克隆抗體）Antibodies produced by a cloned hybridoma cell, which therefore are identical and directed against the same epitope of the antigen.Monolayer:（單分子層）A single layer of oriented lipid molecules.Monoprotic acid: An acid having only one dissociable proton-5 2

Monosaccharide:（單糖）A carbohydrate consisting of I single sugar unit.mRNA: See messenger RNA.Mucopolysaccharide:（粘多糖）An older name for a glycosaminoglycan.Multienzyme system:（多酶系統）A group of related enzyme;participating in a given metabolic pathway.Mutarotation:（變旋現象）The change in specific rotation o a pyranose or furanose sugar or glycoside accompanying tlie equilibration of its a-and j8-anomcric forms.Mutases（變位酶）: Enzymes that catalyze the transposition of functional groups.Mutation: An inheritable change in the nucleotide sequence of a chromosome.Myofibril:（肌原纖維）A unit of thick and thin filaments of muscle fibers.Myosin:（肌球蛋白）A contractile protein;the major component of the thick filaments of muscle and other actin-myosin systems.N NAD, NADP(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate): Nicotinaniide-containing coenzyme: functioning as carriers of hydrogen atoms and electrons in some oxidation-reduction reactions.Native conformation:（天然構象）Ttie biologically active conformation of a macromolecule.Negative cooperativity:（負協同性）A phenomenon of some inultisubunit enzymes or proteins in which binding of a ligand or substrate to one subunit impairs binding to another subunit.Negative feedback:（負反饋）Regulation of a biochemical pathway achieved when a reaction product.inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.Neuron:（神經元）A cell of nervous tissue specialized for transmission of a nerve impulse.Neurotransmitter:（神經遞質）A low molecular weight compound(usually containing nitrogen)secreted from the terminal of a neuron and bound by a specific receptor in the next neuron;serves to transmit a nerve impulse.Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate: See NAD,NADP.Ninhydrin reaction（茚三酮反應）A color reaction given by amino acida and peptides on heating with ninhydrin;widely used for their detection and estimation.Nitrogen cycle:（氮循環）The cycling of various forms of biologically available nitrogen through the plant, animal, and microbial worlds, and through the atmosphere and geosphere.Nitrogen fixation:（固氮作用）Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen(N3)into a reduced, biologically available form by nitrogen-fixing organisms.Nitrogenase complex:（固氮復合物）A system of enzymes capable of reducing atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia in the presence of ATP.6 2

Noncyclic electron flow:（非環式電子流）The light-induced tlow of electrons from water to NADP^ in oxygen-evolving photosynthesis;it involves both photosystems I and II.Nonessential amino acids:（非必需氨基酸）Amino acids tliat can be made by humans and other vertebrates from simpler precursors, and are thus not required in the diet.Nonheme iron proteins:（非血紅素鐵蛋白）Proteins, usually acting in oxidation-reduction reactions, containing iron but no porphyrin groups.Nonpolar:（非極性的）Hydrophobic;describing molecules or groups that are poorly soluble in water.Nonsense codon:（無義密碼）A codon that docs not specify an amino acid, but signals the termination of a polypeptide chain.Nonsense mutation:（無義突變）A mutation that results in the premature termination of a polypeptide chain.Nonsense suppressor（無義抑制）A mutation, usually in the gene for a tRNA, that, causes an amino acid to be inserted into a polypeptide in response to a termination codon.Nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)spectroscopy（核磁共振譜）A technique that utilizes certain quantum mechanical properties of atomic nuclei to study the structure and dynamics of the molecules of which they are a part.Nucleases:（核酸酶）Knzymes that hydrolyze the internucicotidc(phosphodiester)linkages of nucleic acids.Nucleic acids:（核酸）Biologically occurring polynucleotides in which the nucleotide residues are linked in a specific sequence by phosphodiester bonds;DNA and RNA.Nucleoid:（擬核）In bacteria, the nuclear zone that contains the chromosome but has no surrounding membranc-Nucleolus:（核仁）A densely staining structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells;involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome formation.Nucleophile:（親核劑）An electron-rich group with a strong tendency to donate electrons tu an electron-deficient nucleus(electrophilc);the entering reactant in a bimolecular substitution reaction.Nucleoplasm:（核質）The portion of a cell's contents enclosed by the nuclear membrane;also called the nuclear matrix.Nucleoside:（核苷）A compound consisting of a purinc or pyrimidine base cuvalently linked to a pentose.Nucleoside diphosphate kinase:（核苷二磷酸激酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of the terminal phosphate of a nucleoside 5'-triphosphate to a nucleoside 5'-diphosphate.7 2

Nucleoside diphosphate sugar:（核苷二磷酸糖）A coenzymelike carrier of a sugar molecule, functioning in the enzymatic synthesis of polysaccharides and sugar derivatives.Nucleoside monophosphate kinase:（核苷一磷酸激酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of the termi-nal phosphate of ATP to a nucleoside 5'-monophosphate.Nucleosome:（核小體）Structural unit for packaging chromatin;consists of a UNA strand wound around a histone core.Nucleotide:（核苷酸）A nucleoside phosphorylated at one of its pentose hydroxyl groups.Nucleus:（細胞核）In cukaryotes, a membrane-bounded organellc that contains chromosomes.O Oligomer:(寡聚體)A short polymer, usually of amino acids, sugars, or nucleotides;the definition of “short” is somewhat arbitrary, but usually less than 50 subunits.Oligomeric protein:(寡聚蛋白)A multisubunit protein having two or more identical polypeptide chains.Oligonucleotide（寡核苷酸）: A short polymer of nucleotides(usually less than 50).Oligopeptide:（寡肽）A few amino acids joined by peptide bonds.Oligosaccharide:（寡糖）Several monosaccharide groups joined by glycosidic bonds.Oncogene:（致癌基因）A cancer-causing gene;any of several mutant genes that, cause cells to exhibit, rapid, uncontrolled proliferation.See also proto-oncogene.Open reading frame:（開放閱讀框）A group of contiguous nonoverlapping nucleotide codons in a DNA or RNA molecule that do not include a termination codon.Open system:（開放系統）A system that exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings.See also system.Operator(操縱基因)A region of DNA that interacts with a represser protein to control the expression of a gene or group of genes.Operon:（操縱子）A unit, of genetic expression consisting of one or more related genes and the operator and promoter sequences that regulate their transcription.optical activity:（光學活性）The capacity of a substance to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light.Optimum pH:（最適pH）The characteristic pH at which an enzyme has maximal catalytic activity.Organelles(細胞器)Membrane-bounded structures found in eukaryotic cells;contain enzymes and other components required for specialized cell functions.Origin:（起始位點）The nucleotide sequence or site in DNA where DNA replication is 8 2

initiated.Osmosis;（滲透作用）Bulk flow of water through a semi-permeable membrane into another aqueous compartment containing solute at a higher concentration.Osmotic pressure（滲透壓）: Pressure generated by the osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable membrane into an aqueous compartment containing solute at a higher concentration.Oxidases:（氧化酶）Enzymes that catalyse oxidation reactions in which molecular oxygen serves as the electron acceptor, but neither of the oxygen atoms is incorporated into the product.Compare oxygenases.Oxidation:（氧化作用）The loss of electrons from a compound.Oxidation-reduction reaction:（氧化還原反應）A reaction in which electrons are transferred from a donor to an acceptor molecule;also called a redox reaction.Oxidative phosphorylation（氧化磷酸化）The enzymatic phosphorylation of ADP to ATP coupled to electron transfer from a substrate to molecular oxygen.Oxidizing agent(oxidant)（氧化劑）The acceptor of electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Oxygen debt:（氧債）The extra oxygen(above the normal resting level)consumed in the recovery period after strenuous physical exertion.Oxygenases:（加氧酶）Enzymes that catalyze reactions in which oxygen atoms are directly incorporated into tile product, forming a hydroxyl or carboxyl group.In reactions catalyzed by a monooxygenase, only one of the two 0 atoms is incorporated;the other is reduced to rLO;in reactions catalyzed by a dioxygenase, both 0 atoms are incorporated into the product.Compare oxidases.P

Palindrome（回文結構）: A segment of duplex DNA in which the base sequences of the two strands exhibit twofold rotational symmetry about an axis.Partition coefficient（分配系數）: A constant that expresses the ratio in which a given solute will be partitioned or distributed between two given immiscible liquids at equilibrium.Pathogenic:（病原性的）Disease-causing.Pentose:（戊糖）A simple sugar with a backbone containing five carbon atoms.Pentose phosphate pathway（磷酸戊糖途徑）: A pathway that serves to interconvert hexoses and pentoses and is a source of reducing equivalents and pentoses for biosynthetic processes;present, in most organisms.Also called the phosphogluconate pathway.Peptidases:（肽酶）Enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds.Peptide:（肽）Two or more ammo acids covaleiitly joined by peptide bonds.Peptide bond（肽鍵）A substituted amide linkage between the a-amino group of one amino acid and the a-carboxyl group of another, with the elimination of the elements of 9 2

water, Peptide mapping:（肽指紋圖）The characteristic two-dimensional pattern(on paper or gel)formed by the separation of a mixture of peptides resulting from partial hydrolysis of a protein;also known as peptide fingerprinting.Peptidoglycan:（肽聚糖）A major component of bacterial cell walls;generally consists of parallel heteropolysaccharides cross-linked by short peptides.Peripheral proteins:（外周蛋白）Proteins that are loosely or reversibly bound to a membrane by hydrogen bonds or electrostatic forces;generally water-soluble once released from the membrane.Permeases:（透過酶）See transporters.Peroxisome:（過氧化物酶體）Membrane-bounded organelle in the cytoplasm of cukaryotic cells;contains peroxide-forming and peroxide-destroying enzymes.pH: The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of an aqueous solution.Phage: See bacteriophage.Phenotype:（表型）The observable characteristics of an organism.Phosphatases:（磷酸酶）Enzymes that hydrolyze a phosphate ester or anhydride, releasing inorganic phosphate, Pi.Phosphodiester linkage:（磷酸二酯鍵）A chemical grouping that contains two alcohols esterified to one molecule of phosphoric acid, winch thus serves as a bridge between them.Phosphogluconate pathway:（磷酸己糖途徑）An oxidative pathway beginning with glucose 6-phosphate and leading, via 6-phosphogluconate, to pentose phosphates and yielding NADPH.Also called the pentose phosphate pathway.Phospholipid:（磷脂）A lipid containing one or more phosphate groups.Phosphorolysis:（磷酸解）Cleavage of a compound with phosphate as the attacking group;analogous to hydrolysis.Phosphorylases;Enzymes that catalyze phosphorolysis(defined above).Phosphorylation（磷酸化作用）Formation of a phosphate derivative of a biomolecule, usually by enzymatic transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP.Phosphorylation potential(ΔGp)（磷酸化能力）: The actual free-energy change of ATP hydrolysis under the nonstandard conditions prevailing within a cell.Photochemical reaction center（光化學反應中心）The part of a photosynthetic complex where the energy of an absorbed photon causes charge separation, initiating electron transfer.Photon:（光子）The ultimate unit(a quantum)of light energy.Photophosphorylation（光合磷酸化）The enzymatic formation of ATP from ADP coupled to the light-dependent transfer of electrons in photosynthetic cells.Photoreduction（光還原）The light-induced reduction of an electron acceptor in phot.osynthetic cells.0 Photorespiration（光呼吸）Oxygen consumption occurring in illuminated temperate-zone plants, largely due to oxidation ofphosphoglycolate.Photosynthesis（光合作用）The use of light energy to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and a reducing agent sucli as water.Photosynthetic phosphorylation（光合磷酸化）See photophosphorylation.Photosystem（光系統）In photosynthetic cells, a functional set of light-absorbing pigments and its reaction center.Phototroph（光能生物）An organism that.can use the energy of light to synthesize its own fuels from simple molecules such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water;as distinct from a chemotroph.pKa: The negative logarithm of an equilibrium constant.Plasma membrane(質膜)The exterior membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.Plasma proteins（血漿蛋白）The proteins present in blood plasma.Plasmalogen A phospholipid with an alkenyl ether substituent on the C-l of glyccrol.Plasmid（質粒）An extrachromosomal, independently replicating, small circular DNA molecule;commonly employed in genetic engineering.Plastid（質體）In plants, a self-replicating organelle;may differentiate into a chloroplast.Platelets（血小板）Small, enucleated cells that initiate blood clotting;they arise from cells called megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.Also known as thrombocytes.Pleated sheet（折疊片）The side-by-side, hydrogen-bonded arrangement of polypeptide chains in the extended 0 conformation.Plectonemic: A structure in a molecular polymer in which there is a net twisting of strands about each other in some simple and regular way.Polar（極性的)Hydrophilic, or “water-loving”;describing molecules or groups that are soluble in water.Polarity:（極性）(1)In chemistry, the nonuniform distribution of electrons in a molecule;polar molecules are usually soluble in water.(2)In molecular biology, the distinction between the 5' and 3' ends of nucleic acids.Poly(A)tail: A length of adenosine residues added to the 3' ends of many mRNAs in eukaryotes(and sometimes in bacteria).Polycistronic mRNA（多順反子mRNA）A contiguous mRNA with more than two genes that can be translated into proteins.Polyclonal antibodies(多克隆抗體)A heterogeneous pool of antibodies produced in an animal by a number of different.B lymphocytes in response to an antigen.Different antibodies in the pool recognize different parts of the antigen.Polylinker（多連接物）A short, often synthetic, fragment of DNA containing recognition sequences for several restriction endomicleases.1 3

Polymerase chain reaction(PCR)（聚合酶鏈式反應）A repetitive procedure that results in a geometric amplification of a specific DNA sequence.Polymorphic（多態性的）Describing a protein for which amino acid sequence variants exist in a population of organisms, but the variations do not destroy the protein's function.Polynucleotide（多核苷酸）A covalently linked sequence of nucieotides in which the 3' hydroxyl of the pentose of one nucleotide residue is joined by a phosphodiester bond to the 5' hydroxyl of the pentose of the next residue.Polypeptide（多肽）A long chain of amino acids linked by pcptide bonds;the molecular weight, is generally less than 10,000.Polyribosome（多核糖體）See polysome.Polysaccharide（多糖）A linear or branched polymer of monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds.Polysome(polyribosome): A complex of an inRNA molecule and two or more ribosomes.P/0 ratio（磷/氧比）The number of moles of ATP formed in oxidative phosphorylation per gO^ reduced(thus, per pair of electrons passed to Oa).Experimental values used in this text are 2.5 for passage of electrons from NADH to(X, and 1.5 for passage of electrons from FADH to 0^, Some textbooks use the integral values of 3.0 and 2.0.Porphyria（卟啉癥）Genetic condition resulting from the lack of one or more enzymes required to synthesize porphyrins.Porphyrin:（卟啉）Complex nitrogenous compound containing four substituted pyrroles covalently joined into a ring;often complexed with a central metal atom.Positive cooperativity（正協同性）A phenomenon of some multisubunit enzymes or proteins in which binding of a ligand or substrate to one subunit.facilitates binding to another subunit.Posttranscriptional processing（轉錄后加工）The enzymatic processing of the primary RNA transcript, producing functional mRNA, tRNA, and/or rRNA molecules.Posttranslational modification（翻譯后修飾）Enzymatic processing of a polypeptide chain after translation from its mRNA.Primary structure（一級結構）A description of the covalent backbone of a polymer(macromolecule), including the sequence of monomeric subunits and any interchain and intrachain covalent bonds.Primary transcript（原初轉錄本）The immediate RNA product of transcription before any posttranscriptional processing reactions.Primase（引物酶）: An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA oligonucleotides used as primers by DNA polymerascs.Primer（引物）A short oligomer(of sugars or nucieotides, for example)to which an enzyme adds additional monomeric subunits.2 3

Primer terminus（引物末端）The end of the primer to which monomeric suhunits are added.Primosome（引發體）An enzyme complex that synthesizes the primers required for lagging strand DNA synthesis.Probe（探針）A labeled fragment of nucleic acid containing a nucleotide sequence complementary to a gene or genomic sequence that one wishes to detect in a hybridization experiment, Processivity（持續合成能力）For any enzyme tliat catalyzes the synthesis of a biological polymer, the property of adding multiple subunits to the polymer without dissociating from the substrate.Prochiral molecule（原手性化合物）A symmetric molecule that can react asymmetrically with an enzyme having an asymmetric active site, generating a chiral product.Projection formulas（透視式）A method for representing molecules to show the configuration of groups around chiral centers;also known as Fischer projection formulas.Prokaryote（原核生物）A bacterium;a unicellular organism with a single chromosome, no nuclear envelope, and no membrane-bounded organelles.Promoter（啟動子）A DNA sequence at.which RNA polymerase may bind, leading to initiation of transcription.Proofreading（校對）The correction of errors in the synthesis of an information-containing biopolymer by removing incorrect monomeric subunits after they have been covalent.ly added to the growing polymer.Prostaglandins（前列腺素）A class of lipid-soluble, hormonelike regulatory molecules derived from arachidonate and other polyunsaturated fatty acids.Prosthetic group（輔基）A metal ion or an organic compound(other than an amino acid)that is covalently bound to a protein and is essential to its activity.Proteasome（蛋白酶體）Supramolecular assembly of enzymatic complexes that.function in the degradation of damaged or unneeded cellular proteins.Protein（蛋白質）A macromolecule composed of one or more polypeptide chains, each with a characteristic sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, Protein kinases（蛋白激酶）Enzymes that transfer the terminal phosphoryl group of ATP or another nucleoside tnphosphate to a Ser, Thr, Tyr, Asp, or His side chain in a target protein, thereby regulating the activity or other properties of that protein.Protein targeting（蛋白質分送）The process by which newly synthesized proteins are sorted and transported to their proper locations in the cell.Proteoglycan（蛋白聚糖）A hybrid macromolecule consisting of a heteropolysaccharidc joined to a polypeptide;the polysaccharide is the major component.3 3

Proto-oncogene（原癌基因）A cellular gene, usually encoding a regulatory protein, that can be converted into an oncogene by mutation.Proton acceptor（質子受體）An anionic compound capable of accepting a proton from a proton donor;that is, a base.Proton donor（質子供體）The donor of a proton in an acid-base reaction;that is, an acid.Proton-motive force（質子推動力）The electrochemical potential inherent in a transmcmbrane gradient of H'1' concentration;used in oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation to drive ATF synthesis.Protoplasm（原生質）A general term referring to the entire contents of a living cell.Purine（嘌呤）A nitrogenous heterocyclic base found in nucleotides and nucleic acids;containing fused pyrimidine and imidazole rings.Puromycin（嘌呤霉素）An antibiotic that inhibits polypeptide synthesis by being incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain, causing its premature termination.Pyranose（吡喃糖）A simple sugar containing the six-membered pyran ring.Pyridine nucleotide（嘧啶核苷酸）A nucleotide coenzyme containing the pyridine derivative nicotinamide;NAD or NADP.Pyridoxal phosphate（磷酸吡哆醛）A coenzyme containing the vitamin pyridoxine(vitamin B(;);functions in reactions involving amino group transfer.Pyrimidine（嘧啶）A nitrogenous heterocyclic base found in nucleotides and nucleic acids.Pyrimidine dimer（嘧啶二聚體）A covalently joined dimer of two adjacent pyrimidine residues in DNA, induced by absorption of LIV light;most commonly derived from two adjacent thymines(a thymine dimer).Pyrophosphatase（焦磷酸酶）See inorganic pyrophosphatase.Q Quantum（量子）The ultimate unit of energy.Quaternary structure（四級結構）The three-dimensional structure of a multisubunit protein;particularly the manner in which the subunits fit together.R R group:(1)Formally, an abbreviation denoting any alkyi group.(2)Occasionally, used in a more general sense to denote virtually any organic substituent(the R groups of amino acids, for example).Racemic mixture(racemate)（外消旋化合物）An equimolar mixture of the u and L stereoisomers of an optically active compound.Radical（自由基）An atom or group of atoms possessing an unpaired electron;also called a free radical.Radioactive isotope（放射性同位素）An isotopic form of an element with an unstable nucleus that stabilizes itself by emitting ionizing radiation.4 3

Radioimmunoassay（放射免疫實驗）A sensitive and quantitative method for detecting trace amounts of a biomolecule, based on its capacity to displace a radioactive form of the molecule from combination with its specific antibody.Rate constant（速度常數）The proportionality constant that relates the velocity of a chemical reaction to the concentration(s)of the reactant(s).Rate-limiting step（限速步驟）(1)Generally, the step in an enzymatic reaction with the greatest activation energy or the transition state of highest free energy.(2)The slowest step in a metabolic pathway.Reaction intermediate（反應中間產物）Any chemical species in a reaction pathway that has a finite chemical lifetime.Reading frame（閱讀框）A contiguous and nonoverlapping set of three-nucleotide codons in DNA or RNA.Recombinant DNA（重組DNA）DNA formed by the joining of genes into new combinations.Recombination(重組)Any enzymatic process by which the linear arrangement of nucleic acid sequences in a chromosome is altered by cleavage and rejoining.Recombinational DNA repair（重組DNA修復）: recombinational processes that are directed at the repair of DNA strand breaks or cross-links, especially at inactivated replication forks.Redox pair（氧還對）An electron donor and its corresponding oxidized form;for example, NADH and NAD"".Redox reaction（氧還反應）: See oxidation-reduction reaction.Reducing agent(reductant)（還原劑）The electron donor in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Reducing end（還原端）The end of a polysaccharide having a terminal sugar with a free anomeric carbon;the terminal residue can act aa a reducing sugar.Reducing equivalent: A general or neutral term for an electron or an electron equivalent in the form of a hydrogen atom or a hydride ion.Reducing sugar（還原糖）A sugar in which the carbonyl Canomeric)carbon is not involved in a glycosidic bond and can therefore undergo oxidation.Reduction（還原）Tlie gain of electrons by a compound or ion.Regulatory enzyme（調節酶）An enzyme having a regulatory function through its capacity to undergo a change in catalytic activity by allosteric mechanisms or by covalent modification.Regulatory gene（調節基因）A gene that gives rise to a product involved in the regulation of the expression of another gene;for example, a gene coding for a represser protein.Regulatory sequence（調節序列）A DNA sequence involved in regulating the expression of a gene;for example, a promoter or operator.5 3

Regulon（調節子）A group of genes or operons that are coordinately regulated even though some, or all, may be spatially distant within the chromosome or genome.Relaxed DNA（松弛DNA）Any DNA that exists in its most stable and unstrained structure, typically B form under most cellular conditions.Release factors（終止釋放因子）See termination factors.Releasing factors: Hypothalamic hormones lhat stimulate release of other hormones by the pituitary gland, Renaturation（復性）Refolding of an unfolded(denatured)globular protein so as to restore native structure and protein function.Replication（復制）Synthesis of daughter nucleic acid molecules identical to the parental nucleic acids.Replication fork（復制叉）The Y-shaped structure generally found at the point where DNA is being synthesized.Replicative form（復制形式）Any of the full-length structural forms of a viral chromosome that serve as distinct replication intermediates.Replisome（復制體）The multiprotein complex that promotes DNA synthesis at the replication fork.Repressible enzyme（阻遏酶）In bacteria, an enzyme whose synthesis is inhibited when its reaction product is readily available to the cell.Repression:（阻遏）A decrease in the expression of a gene in response to a change in the activity of a regulatory protein.Represser（阻遏蛋白）The protein that binds to the regulatory sequence or operator for a gene, blocking its transcription.Residue（殘基）A single unit within a polymer;for example, an amino acid within a polypeptide chain.The term reflects the fact that sugars, nucleotides, and amino acids lose a few atoms(generallytne elements of water)when incorporated in their respective polymers.Respiration（呼吸）Any metabolic process that leads to the uptake of oxygen and tlie release of COg.Respiration-linked phosphorylation（呼吸鏈磷酸化）ATP formation from ADP and Pp driven by electron flow through a series of membrane-bound carriers, with a proton gradient as the direct source of energy driving rotational catalysis by ATPsynthase, Respiratory chain（呼吸鏈）The electron transfer chain;a sequence of electron-carrying proteins that transfer electrons from substrates to molecular oxygen in aerobic cells.Restriction endonucleases（限制性內切酶）Site-specific endodeoxyribonucleases causing cleavage of both strands of DNA at points within or near the specific site recognized by the enzyme;important tools in genetic engineering.Restriction fragment（限制片段）A segment of double-stranded UNA produced by the 6 3

action of a restriction endonuclease on a larger DNA.Restriction fragment length polymorphisms(RFLPs)（限制片段長度多態性）: Variations, among individuals in a population, in the length of certain restriction fragments within which certain genomic sequences occur.These variations result from rare sequence changes that create or destroy restriction sites in the genome.Retrovirus（反轉錄病毒）An RNA virus containing a reverse transcriptase.Reverse transcriptase（反轉錄酶）: An RNA-directed DNA polymerase in retroviruses;capable of making DNA complementary to an RNA.Ribonuclease（核糖核酸酶）A nuclease that.catalyzes the hydrolysis of certain internucleotide linkages of RNA.Ribonucleic acid:（核糖核酸）See RNA.Ribonucleotide（核糖核苷酸）A nucleotide containing D-ribose as its pentose component.Ribosomal RNA（rRNA）（核糖體RNA）A class of RNA molecules serving as components of ribosomes.Ribosome（核糖體）A supramolecular complex of rRNAs and proteins, approximately 18 to 22 imi in diameter;the site of protein synthesis.Ribozymes(核酶)Ribonucleic acid molecules with catalytic activities;RNA enzymes.Rieske iron-sulfur protein（Rieske鐵硫蛋白）A type of iron-sulfur protein in which two of the ligands to the central iron ion are His side chains.These proteins act in many electron-transfer sequences, including oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation.RNA(ribonucleic acid): A polyribunucleotide of a specific sequence linked by successive 3', 5'-phosphodiester bonds.RNA polymerase（RNA聚合酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA from ribonucleoside S'-triphosphates, using a strand of DNA or RNA as a template.RNA splicing（RNA拼接）Removal of introns and joining of exons in a primary transcript.rRNA: See ribosomal RNA.S S-adenosylmethionine(adoMet)（S-腺苷蛋氨酸或活化蛋氨酸）An enzymatic cofactor involved in methyl group transfers.Salvage pathway（補救途徑）Synthesis of a biomolecule, such as a nucleotide, from intermediates in the degradative pathway for the biomolecule;a recycling pathway, as distinct from a de novo pathway.Saponification（皂化作用）Alkaline hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to yield fatty acids as soaps.Sarcomere（肌節）A functional and structural unit of the muscle contractile system.7 3

Satellite DNA（衛星DNA）Highly repeated, nontranslated segments of DNA in eukaryotic chromosomes;most often associated with the centromeric region.Its function is not clear.Saturated fatty acid(飽合脂肪酸)A fatty acid containing a fully saturated alkyl chain.Second law of thermodynamics（熱力學第二定律）The law stating that in any chemical or physical process, the entropy(熵)of the universe tends to increase.Second messenger（第二信使）An effector molecule synthesized within a cell in response to an external signal(first messenger)such as a hormone.Secondary metabolism（次生代謝）Pathways that lead to specialized products not found in every living cell.Secondary structure（二級結構）The residue-by-residue conformation of the backbone of a polymer.Sedimentation coefficient（沉降系數）A physical constant, specifying the rate of sedimentation of a particle in a centrifugal field under specified conditions.Selectins（選擇蛋白）A large family of membrane proteins, lectins(凝集素)that bind oligosaccharides on other cells tightly and specifically, and serve to carry signals across the plasma membrane.SELEX;A method for rapid experimental identification of nucleic acid sequences(usually RNA)that have particular catalytic or ligand-binding properties.Serpentine receptors（蜿蜒受體）A large family of membrane receptor proteins with seven trans-membrane helical segments.These receptors often associate with G proteins to transduce an extracellular signal into a change in cellular metabolism.Shine-Dalgarno sequence（SD序列）A sequence in an mRNA required for binding prokaiyotic ribosomes.SH2 domain;A protein domain that binds tightly to a phosphotyrosine residue in certain proteins such as the receptor tyrosine kinases, initiating the formation of a multiprotein complex that acts in a signaling pathway.Shuttle vector（穿梭載體）A recombinant DNA vector that can be replicated in two or more different host species.See also vector.Sickle-cell anemia（鐮刀型貧血病）A human disease characterized by defective hemoglobin molecules;caused by a homozygous allele coding for the β chain of hemoglobin.Sickle-cell trait（鐮刀性狀）A human condition recognized by the sickling of erythrocytes when exposed to low oxygen tension;occurs in individuals heterozygous for the allele responsible for sickle-cell anemia.Signal sequence（信號序列）An amino acid sequence, often at the amino terminus, that signals the cellular fate or destination of a newly synthesized protein.Signal transduction（信號傳導）The process by which an extracellular signal(chemical, mechanical, or electrical)is amplified and converted to a cellular response.8 3

Silent mutation（沉默突變）A mutation in a gene that causes no detectable change in the biological characteristics of the gene product.Simple diffusion（簡單擴散）The movement of solute molecules across a membrane to a region of lower concentration, unassisted by a protein transporter.Simple protein（簡單蛋白）A protein yielding only amino acids on hydrolysis, Site-directed mutagenesis（定點突變）A set of methods used to create specific alterations in the sequence of a gene.Site-specific recombination（定點重組）A type of genetic recombination that occurs only at specific sequences.Size-exclusion chromatography（分子排阻層析）A procedure for the separation of a mixture of molecules on the basis of size, based on the capacity of porous polymers to exclude solutes above a certain size.Also called gel filtration(凝膠過濾).Small nuclear RNA(snRNA)（小核RNA）Any of several small RNA molecules in the nucleus;most have a role in the splicing reactions that remove introns from mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules.Somatic cells(體細胞)All body cells except the germ-line cells（生殖細胞）.SOS response（應急反應）In bacteria, a coordinated induction of a variety of genes as a response to high levels of DNA damage.Southern blot（Southern印跡法）A DNA hybridization procedure in which one or more specific DNA fragments are detected in a larger population by means of hybridization to a complementary, labeled nucleic acid probe.Specific acid-base catalysis（狹義酸堿催化）Acid or base catalysis involving the constituents of water(hydroxide or hydronium ions).Specific activity（比活力）The number of micromoles(μmol)of a substrate transformed by an enzyme preparation per minute per milligram of protein at 25 °C;a measure of enzyme purity.Specific heat（比熱）The amount of energy(in joules焦耳 or calories)needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a pure substance by 1 oC.Specific rotation（比旋光度）The rotation, in degrees, of the plane of plane-polarized light（平面偏振光）(D-line of sodium，鈉的D線)by an optically active compound at 5 °C, with a specified concentration and light path.Specificity（特異性，專一性）The ability of an enzyme or receptor o discriminate among competing substrates or ligands, Sphingolipid（神經鞘磷脂）An amphipathic lipid with a sphingosine（鞘氨醇）backbone to which are attached a long-chain fatty acid and a polar alcohol.Spliceosome（拼接體）A complex of RNAs and proteins involved in the splicing of mRNAs in eukaryotic cells.Splicing(拼接)See gene splicing;RNA splicing.Standard free-energy change(ΔG?°)（標準自由能變化）The free-energy change for 9 3

a reaction occurring under a set of standard conditions: temperature, 298 K;pressure, 1 atm or 101.3 kPa;and all solutes at 1 M concentration.ΔG?° denotes the standard free-energy change at pH 7.0.Standard reduction potential(?’°): The electromotive force exhibited at an electrode by 1 M concentrations of a reducing agent and its oxidized form at 25 °C and pH 7.0;a measure of the relative tendency of the reducing agent to lose electrons.Steady state（穩態）A nonequilibrium state of a system through which matter is flowing and in which all components remain at, a constant concentration.Stem cells（干細胞）The common, self-regenerating cells in bone marrow(骨髓)that give rise to differentiated blood cells such as erythrocytes and lymphocytes.Stereoisomers（立體異構體）Compounds that have the same composition and the same order of atomic connections, but different molecular arrangements.Sterols（固醇類）A class of lipids containing the steroid nucleus.sticky ends（粘性末端）Two DNA ends in the same DNA molecule, or in different molecules, with short overhanging single-stranded segments that are complementary to one another, facilitating ligation of the ends;also known as cohesive ends.Stop codons（終止密碼）See termination codons.Stroma（葉綠體基質）The space and aqueous solution enclosed within the inner membrane of a chloroplast, not including the contents within the thylakoid membranes.Structural gene（結構基因）A gene coding for a protein or RNA molecule;as distinct, from a regulatory gene.Substitution mutation（堿基替換突變）A mutation caused by the replacement of one base by another.Substrate（底物）The specific compound acted upon by an enzyme.Substrate-level phosphorylation（底物水平磷酸化）Phoyphorylation of ADP or some other nucleoside 5'-diphosphate coupled to the dehydrogenation of an organic substrate;independent of the electron-transfer chain（電子傳遞鏈）.Suicide inhibitor（自殺性抑制劑）A relatively inert molecule that is transformed by an enzyme, at its active site, into a reactive substance that irreversibly inactivates the enzyme.Supercoil（超螺旋）The twisting of a helical(coiled)molecule on itself;a coiled coil.Supercoiled DNA（超螺旋DNA）DNA that twists upon itself because it is under-or overwound(and thereby strained)relative to B-form DNA.Superhelical density（超螺旋密度）: In a helical molecule such as DNA, the number of supercoils(superhelical turns)relative to the number of coils(turns)in the relaxed molecule.Suppressor mutation（抑制基因突變）A mutation that totally or partially restores a function lost by a primary mutation;located at a site different, from the site of the primary mutation, 0 Svedberg(S):(沉降系數)A unit of measure of the rate at which a particle sediments in a centrifugal field.Symbionts（共生體）Two or more organisms that are mutually interdependent;usually living in physical association.Symport（共轉運）Cotransport of solutes across a membrane in the same direction.Synthases（合酶）Enzymes that.catalyze condensation reactions in which no nucleoside triphosphate is required as an energy source.Synthetases（合成酶）Enzymes that catalyze condensation reactions using ATP or another nucleoside triphosphate as an energy source.System（系統）An isolated collection of matter;all other matter in the universe apart from the system is called the surroundings（環境）.T Telomere（端粒）Specialized nucleic acid structure found at the ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes.Template（模板）A macromolecular mold or pattern for the synthesis of an informational macromolecule.template strand（模板鏈）A strand of nucleic acid used by a polymerase as a template to synthesize a complementary strand.terminal transferase（末端轉移酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the addition of nucleotide residues of a single kind to the 3' end of DNA chains.termination codons（終止密碼）UAA, UAG, and UGA;in protein synthesis, signal the termination of a polypeptide chain.Also known as stop codons.termination factors（終止因子）Protein factors of the cytosol required in releasing a completed polypeptide chain from a ribosome;also known as release factors.termination sequence（終止序列）A DNA sequence that appears at the end of a transcriptional unit and signals the end of transcription.Terpenes（萜類）Organic hydrocarbons or hydrocarbon derivatives constructed from recurring isoprene units.They produce some of the scents and tastes of plant products.tertiary structure（三級結構）The three-dimensional conformation of a polymer in its native folded state.Tetrahydrobiopterin（四氫生物喋呤）The reduced coenzyme form of biopterin（生物喋呤）.Tetrahydrofolate（四氫葉酸）The reduced, active coenzyme form of the vitamin folate(葉酸).thiamine pyrophosphate（焦磷酸硫胺素）The active coenzyme form of vitamin B1;involved in aldehyde transfer reactions.Thioester（硫酯）An ester of a carboxylic acid with a thiol or mercaptan.3' end:（3'端）The end of a nucleic acid that lacks a nucleotide bound at the 3' position of the terminal residue.1 4

Thromboxanes（凝血惡烷類）A class of molecules derived from arachidonate（花生四烯酸）and involved in platelet aggregation during blood clotting.Thylakoid（類囊體）Closed cisterna(囊), or disk, formed by the pigment-bearing internal membranes of chloroplasts.thymine dimer（胸腺嘧啶二聚體）See pyrimidine dimer.tissue culture（組織培養）Method by which cells derived from multicellular organisms are grown in liquid media.titration curve(滴定曲線)A plot of the pH versus the equivalents of base added during titration of an acid.Tocopherols（生育酚）Forms of vitamin E.topoisomerases（拓撲異構酶）Enzymes that introduce positive or negative supercoils in closed, circular duplex DNA.Topoisomers（拓撲異構體）Different forms of a covalently closed, circular DNA molecule that differ only in their linking number.Topology（拓撲學）The study of the properties of an object that do not change under continuous deformations such as twisting or bending.Toxins（毒素蛋白）Proteins produced by some organisms and toxic to certain other species.trace element（痕量元素）A chemical element required by an organism in only trace amounts.Transaminases（轉氨酶）See aminotransferases（氨基轉移酶）.Transamination（轉氨作用）Enzymatic transfer of an amino group from an α-amino acid to an α-keto acid.Transcription（轉錄）The enzymatic process whereby the genetic information contained in one strand of DNA is used to specify a complementary sequence of bases in an mRNA chain.transcriptional control（轉錄控制）The regulation of a protein's synthesis by regulation of the formation of its mRNA.Transduction[（能量）轉換、（信息）傳導](1)Generally, the conversion of energy or information from one form to another.(2)The transfer of genetic information from one cell to another by means of a viral vector.transfer RNA(tRNA)（轉移RNA）A class of RNA molecules(M,.25,000 to 30,000), each of which combines covalently with a specific amino acid as the first step in protein synthesis.Transformation(轉化)Introduction of an exogenous DNA into a cell, causing the cell to acquire a new phenotype.Transgenic（轉基因的）Describing an organism that has genes from another organism incorporated within its genome as a result of recombinant DNA procedures.transition state（過渡態）An activated form of a molecule in which the molecule has 2 undergone a partial chemical reaction;the highest point on the reaction coordinate(反應進程圖).Translation（翻譯）The process in which the genetic information present in an mRNA molecule specifies the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis.translational control（翻譯控制）The regulation of a protein's synthesis by regulation of the rate of its translation on the ribosome.translational represser（翻譯阻遏物）A represser that binds to an mRNA, blocking translation.Translocase（轉運酶、移位酶）(1)An enzyme that catalyzes membrane transport.(2)An enzyme that causes a movement, such as the movement of a ribosome along an mRNA.Transpiration（蒸騰作用）Passage of water from the roots of a plant to the atmosphere via the vascular system（脈管系統）and the stomata（氣孔）of the leaves.Transporters（轉運體）Proteins that span a membrane and transport specific nutrients, metabolites, ions, or proteins across the membrane;sometimes called permeases.(透過酶)Transposition（轉座）The movement of a gene or set of genes from one site in the genome to another.transposon(transposable element)（轉座子）A segment of DNA that can move from one position in the genome to another.Triacylglycerol（三酰甘油）An ester of glycerol with three molecules of fatty acid;also called a triglyceride(三酰甘油酯)or neutral fat（中性酯）.tricarboxylic acid cycle（三羧酸循環）See citric acid cycle, triose（丙糖）A simple sugar with a backbone containing three carbon atoms.tRNA: See transfer RNA.tropic hormone(tropin)（促激素）A peptide hormone that stimulates a specific target gland to secrete its hormone;for example, thyrotropin(促甲狀腺素)produced by the pituitary stimulates secretion of thyroxine（甲狀腺素）by the thyroid（甲狀腺）.turnover number（周轉數）The number of times an enzyme molecule transforms a substrate molecule per unit time, under conditions giving maximal activity at substrate concentrations that are saturating.U Ubiquitin（泛蛋白）A small, highly conserved protein that targets an intracellular protein for degradation by proteasomes.Several ubiquitin molecules are covalently attached in tandem to a Lys residue in the target protein by a specific ubiquitinating enzyme.ultraviolet(UV)radiation（紫外輻射）Electromagnetic radiation in the region of 200 to 400 nm.uncompetitive inhibition（反競爭性抑制）The reversible inhibition pattern resulting 3 when an inhibitor molecule can bind to the enzyme-substrate complex but not to the free enzyme.uncoupling agent（解偶聯劑）A substance that uncouples phosphorylation of ADP from electron transfer;for example, 2,4-dinitrophenol（2，4-二硝基苯酚）.Uniport（單向轉運）A transport system that carries only one solute, as distinct from cotransport, unsaturated fatty acid（不飽合脂肪酸）A fatty acid containing one or more double bonds.urea cycle（尿素循環）A metabolic pathway in vertebrates, for the synthesis of urea from amino groups and carbon dioxide;occurs in the liver.Ureotelic（排尿素的）Excreting excess nitrogen in the form of urea.Uricotelic（排尿酸的）Excreting excess nitrogen in the form of urate(uric acid).V Vmax（最大反應速度）The maximum velocity of an enzymatic reaction when the binding site is saturated with substrate, Vector（載體）A DNA molecule known to replicate autonomously in a host cell, to which a segment of DNA may be spliced to allow its replication;for example, a plasmid or an artificial chromosome.Vectorial metabolism（方向性代謝）Metabolic transformations in which the location(not the chemical composition)of a substrate changes relative to a cellular membrane dividing two compartments.Transporters catalyze vectorial reactions, as do the proton pumps of oxidative and photophosphorylation.viral vector（病毒載體）A viral DNA altered so that it can act as a vector for recombinant DNA.Virion（病毒粒）A virus particle.Virus（病毒）A self-replicating, infectious, nucleic acid-protein complex that requires an intact host cell for its replication;its genome is either DNA or RNA.Vitamin（維生素）An organic substance required in small quantities in the diet of some species;generally functions as a component of a coenzyme.W wild type（野生型）The normal(unmutated)phenotype.Wobble（擺動、變偶）The relatively loose base pairing between the base at the 3' end of a codon and the complementary base at the 5' end of the anticodon.X x-ray crystallography（X-射線晶體學）The analysis of x-ray diffraction patterns of a crystalline compound, used to determine the molecule's three-dimensional structure.Z zinc finger(鋅指)A specialized protein motif(基序)involved in DNA recognition by 4 4

some DNA-binding proteins, characterized by a single atom of zinc coordinated(配位)to four Lys residues or to two His and two Lys residues.Zwitterion（兼性離子）A dipolar ion, with spatially separated positive and negative charges.Zymogen（酶原）An inactive precursor of an enzyme;for example, pepsinogen(胃蛋白酶原), the precursor of pepsin（胃蛋白酶）.5 4

第二篇：生物化學雙語教學單詞

H1：genetic code

遺傳密碼

triplet code

三聯體密碼

termination codons / stop codons 終止密碼子 initiation codon / start codon

起始密碼子 degeneracy

簡并性 universality

普遍性 point mutation

點突變 synonym

同義密碼子

wobble base-pairing

擺動堿基配對 open reading frame

開放閱讀框 H2:peptidyltRNA site

肽酰-tRNA位

aminoacyl-tRNA site

氨酰-tRNA位 polyribosome

多核糖體

N-formylmethionine

N-甲酰甲硫氨酸 aminoacyl-tRNA binding

氨酰-tRNA結合 peptide bond formation

肽鍵形成 translocation

轉位 elongation factor（EF）延長因子 release factors（RF）釋放因子 H3 monocistronic單順反子

polycistronic多順反子

cap binding protein

帽結合蛋白

H4 protein targeting

蛋白質導向

signal recognition particle(SRP)

信號識別顆粒 signal peptidase

信號肽酶 multiple membrane-spanning protein

多跨膜蛋白

integral membrane protein

內在膜蛋白 scavenger pathway

消除途徑 chaperone

分子伴侶retention signal

滯留信號

mannose

甘露糖

endosome

內吞體 matrix

基質signal peptide

信號肽

H5 protein glycosylation

蛋白質糖基化

O-linked oligosaccharides

O聯寡糖 N-linked oligosaccharides

N聯寡糖 N-acetylgalactosamine(GalNAc)

N-乙酰半乳糖胺 monosaccharide units

單糖單位 pentasaccharide core structure

五糖核心結構 dolichol phosphate

長醇磷酸 mannose

甘露糖galactose半乳糖 sialic acid

唾液fucose巖藻糖

I1 genomics

基因組學 transcriptomics轉錄組學

proteomics

蛋白質組學

metabolomics

代謝組學 reverse genetics

反向遺傳學 RNA interference

RNA干擾 transgenic organism

轉基因生物

I2 restriction enzyme

限制性核酸內切酶 staggered cut

交錯切割 cohesive end

粘性末端 blunt end

平端 co-inherited

共遺傳 closely linked

緊密連鎖 autoradiography

放射自顯影

restriction fragment length polymorphisms(RFLP)限制性片段長度多態性 I3denaturation 變性melting temperature 解鏈溫度 renaturation復性in situ hybridization 原位雜交 annealing

退火 hybridization

雜交

probe

探針

blotting

印跡 hybrid

雜種

stringency

嚴緊性 radioactive 放射性 nonradioactive

非放射性

I4 clone

克隆 bacteriophage

噬菌體 plasmid

質粒recombinant plasmid 重組質粒 transfection 轉染vector

載體 screening

篩選 DNA library

DNA文庫

lawn

菌苔 plague

噬菌斑 nitrocellulose membrane 硝酸纖維素膜 colony lift

菌落轉移

I5 DNA sequencing

DNA 測序 chemical method

化學法 chain termination method

鏈終止法

oligonucleotide

寡核苷酸 dideoxynucleotide雙脫氧核苷酸

I6 polymerase chain reaction

聚合酶鏈反應

denaturation

變性 annealing

退火 elongation

延伸 quantity PCR

定量PCR

J1 monosaccharide 單糖 disaccharide

雙糖 aldose

醛糖ketose酮糖

pentose

戊糖 hexose

己糖 glucose

葡萄糖galactose半乳糖

mannose

甘露糖 fructose

果糖 reducing sugar 還原糖glycosidic bond

糖苷鍵 epimer差向異構體sugar derivative糖衍生物 structure isomer

結構異構體 stereoisomer

立體異構體

J2 polysaccharide

多糖J3 glycolysis

糖酵解

glycogen

糖原

hexokinase

己糖激酶 starch

淀粉aldolase醛縮酶 oligosaccharide

寡糖mutase變位酶

N-linked oligosaccharide

N-聯寡糖enolase烯醇化酶 O-linked oligosaccharide

O-聯寡糖 glycoprotein

糖蛋白 glycolipid

糖脂

J3phosphoglucoisomerase

磷酸葡萄糖異構酶 phosphofructokinase

磷酸果糖激酶 triose phosphate isomerase磷酸丙糖異構酶 phosphoenolpyruvate磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸

substrate-level phosphorylation 底物水平磷酸化

J4 gluconeogenesis

糖異生

oxaloacetate

草酰乙酸 carboxylation

羧化作用carboxylase

羧化酶 carboxykinase羧激酶citrate

檸檬酸

anaplerotic effect

回補作用malate

蘋果酸 phosphoenolpyruvate（PEP）磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸 phosphoglucoisomerase磷酸葡萄糖異構酶

J5pentose phosphate pathway

磷酸戊糖途徑 ribose 5-phosphate

核糖 5-磷酸

glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase葡萄糖6-磷酸脫氫酶 transketolase轉酮酶transaldolase轉醛酶

J6glycogen

糖原glycogen synthase

糖原合酶

glycogen phosphorylase糖原磷酸化酶glycogen-debranching enzyme 糖原脫支酶 nonreducing end

非還原末端pyrophosphorylase焦磷酸化酶 phosphoglucomutase磷酸葡萄糖變位酶 glycogenin生糖原蛋白

J7 epinephrine

腎上腺素 glucagon

胰高血糖素 blood sugar

血糖 adenylatecyclase腺苷酸環化酶

protein kinase A

蛋白激酶A calcium

鈣

K1 saturated fatty acids

飽和脂肪酸 unsaturated fatty acids

不飽和脂肪酸 palmitate軟脂酸

stearate

硬脂酸 linoleate亞油酸 linolenate亞麻酸

arachidonate花生四烯酸

prostaglandin

前列腺素

K2 acyl-CoA

脂酰 CoA

carnitine肉毒堿 translocase轉位酶 thiolysis硫解

hydration

水合，加水 ketone bodies 酮體

acetoacetate

乙酰乙酸 acetone

丙酮 3-hydroxybutyrate

?-羥丁酸 K3 acyl carrier protein(ACP)

酰基載體蛋白 carboxylation

羧化

malonyl CoA

丙二酸單酰CoA acetyl CoA carboxylase

乙酰CoA羧化酶 phosphopantetheine磷酸泛酰巰基乙醇 condensation

縮合 dehydration

脫水 thioesterase硫脂酶 desaturase去飽和酶

K4triacylglycerol

三酰甘油（脂肪）glycerol

甘油

free fatty acid

自由脂肪酸 diacylglycerol二酰甘油

lipase

脂酶 bile salt

膽汁鹽

hormone-sensitive lipase

激素敏感脂酶 K5cholesterol

膽固醇 steroid

類固醇 bile salt

膽汁鹽 HMG CoA reductase羥甲戊二酰CoA還原酶 ricket佝僂病

osteomalacia軟骨癥

第三篇：生物化學雙語教學的探討

生物化學雙語教學的探討

【摘 要】“雙語教學”是21世紀全球教育改革的重要內容之一，在醫學院校推行生物化學雙語教學具有多方面的現實意義。本文從教師、學生以及教學方法三個方面闡述了醫學生物化學雙語教學中存在的問題，并就解決辦法提出了建議。

【關鍵詞】雙語教學 醫學院校 生物化學

【中圖分類號】G642.0 【文獻標識碼】A 【文章編號】1674－4810（2011）24－0013－02

“雙語教學”是21世紀全球教育改革的重要內容之一。從目前的臨床醫學和科研工作來看，語言不足已成為國內學者對外交流的障礙，由于專業英語語言能力不足，許多優秀的科研成果得不到國外同行的認可和共享；從教學角度看，國外醫學教材如果經過翻譯再在教學中使用，會造成學生獲取新知識的時間遠遠落后于知識更新的周期。基于這些問題的存在，實施雙語教學可作為解決此矛盾的一條重要途徑。

作為新興的醫學本科院校，我院一直致力于加強學校的本科教學工作，提高教學質量，并根據自身發展需求以及新時期對學生能力素質的要求，不斷摸索好的教育教學改革方法，其中重要的一項便是實行雙語教學。下面就已開設的生物化學雙語教學中出現的問題及解決方法進行探討。

一 雙語教學的定義

所謂雙語教學，是指以母語和一門外語兩種語言作為教學用語的教學模式。各國各地區因母語不同而有所區別，我國雙語教學的具體定位是漢語和英語，并在此基礎上兼顧其他語種。2002年，教育部高教司在下發的《普通高等學校本科教學水平評估方案（試行）》中，第一次將雙語教學的課程定義為采用外文教材并用外語授課的課時占該課程總課時的50%以上。

目前，雙語教學的模式主要有以下三種類型：（1）沉浸式雙語教學。這種類型的教學模式要求完全用外語進行教學，母語不用于教學中，使學生完全沉浸于弱勢語言中。（2）過渡式雙語教學。這種類型的教學模式要求在學生剛進入學校時，部分或全部科目使用母語教學，一段時間后，逐步轉變為全部科目使用外語教學。其最終目的仍然是向沉浸式的教學模式過渡。（3）保留式雙語教學。這種類型要求在學生剛進入學校時使用母語教學，以后逐步部分科目使用外語教學，部分科目仍用母語教學。由于語言環境的限制，目前國內大多數院校仍采取保留式雙語教學，我院也不例外。

二 我院生物化學教學推行雙語教學的必要性

1．醫學事業的不斷發展迫切需要雙語復合型人才

高等醫學教育是國際公認的通用性、可比性較強的專業教育領域，對醫學工作者的素質和能力的要求基本一致，因而高等醫學教育也存在很多共通之處。面對公眾健康問題和越來越嚴峻的全球疫病防疫形勢，人們逐漸意識到跨越國界的國際醫療合作的重要性，對醫療從業人員的知識、能力結構提出了新的要求。醫學作為專業性極強的學科，其相關工作是一般外語人才無法替代的，因此，社會迫切需要醫學院校培養一大批既懂得專業知識又具有相當外語水平的復合型醫學人才。

2．生物化學課程的特點要求在教學過程中使用雙語

在世界范圍內對醫學生物化學進行比較后發現，使用英語進行生物化學的科學研究、生產活動、教學及教材編寫等都處于領先地位，這對我國在生物化學領域中的發展有一定的借鑒和指導意義。原版教材的引入也可節省翻譯所消耗的時間及減少內容方面的損失，使學生及時地了解到最新的研究進展，跟上時代發展的腳步。

同時，英語國家在醫學生物化學領域的學科發展、學術交流及科研方法等方面處于主流地位，可作為生物化學學習、進修及培訓的理想國家，這也使得用英語開展生物化學雙語教學具有現實意義。

三 雙語教學過程中存在的問題及解決方法

1．教師方面

雙語教學是提高教學效果、培養高素質人才的有效途徑，而保證這一目標實現的基本條件是承擔雙語教學教師的能力。目前在我國一些醫學院校中，能使用英語上課的教師非常少，特別是對于生物化學這樣一門復雜難懂的學科，要讓任課教師用英語清楚地說明四大營養物質代謝的過程以及調控機制等，確實有很大難度。雙語教學對教師的要求非常之高，不僅專業知識要精深，還必須能用熟練、準確的英語來表達專業知識以及分析專業術語和詞匯。既使有些老師在課前做了細致的準備，在課堂上能夠把課件上的內容流利地講述出來，但遇到與同學互動的環節，回答學生提問時，由于受到語言的限制，很難用英語應對突發事件。聘請外教，也必須要求懂得漢語，這樣才有利于理解學生在學習中可能出現的困難，并及時解決。

我院是一所新興的本科院校，青年教師所占比例較大，真正能做到雙語教學的教師少之又少。為了解決這一問題，學校一方面利用現有師資中聽、說、讀、寫能力較好的教師定期進行英語培訓，提高英語水平；另一方面充分利用留學者及國外來訪者，多與他們進行交流，了解國際醫學領域一些最新的知識和技術，為進行雙語教學方面做好充分的準備。

2．學生方面

學生的外語水平也是決定雙語教學能否順利進行的一個重要因素。生物化學雙語教學不僅要求教師有良好的英語能力，也要求學生有一定的英語基礎，除了公共英語要達到CET-4以上水平外，還應掌握一定量的專業英語詞匯。但是由于本院學生的英語水平參差不齊，師生之間的課堂互動不如單語教學，教學效果低于預期，不僅造成教師教學的成就感降低，還使得學生在學習過程中的思維主動性、連貫性、創造性被阻斷，影響對本門課程的學習興趣。因此，學生的接受能力和教師的授課能力同等重要，只有老師和學生都具有一定的英語能力，雙語教學才能做得更好。

學生課前預習對提高雙語教學課堂效率非常重要。生物化學專業知識本來就晦澀難懂，若要求學生用英語思維，并在短暫的課堂時間內完全理解老師用英語傳授的專業知識，難度可想而知。單純也將傳統被動式的教學模式應用于雙語教學課堂，勢必收獲甚微，因此學生必須采取積極主動的態度融入雙語教學中去，教師也可在課后提出幾個與下節課內容相關的問題，讓學生在尋找答案的過程中做好預習準備。

3．教學方法

傳統教學中常用的講授法、演示法、啟發式等不能適應雙語教學課堂。在教學方法上，我們應著眼于現代化，構建集課堂教學、多媒體教學、網絡教學為一體的多維立體教學平臺，充分利用計算機輔助教學手段，制作雙語CAI課件，使之具有雙語性特點，做到關鍵詞、主要內容有英漢對照，并有標準英文發音。此外，還可配上適量圖片或小段英文視頻、錄像、實物演示等，力爭使課堂氣氛活躍，增強學生的積極性和參與性，從而達到預期的教學目的。

參考文獻

［1］何興祥、劉偉、沈清燕等.醫學雙語教學探析［J］．中華醫學教育雜志，2004.（3）：32～33

［2］李萍、夏新娟.大學雙語教學探討［J］．重慶交通學院學報（社科版），2002.2（3）：77

［3］李俊偉.高等院校專業課程開展雙語教學的若干問題分析［J］．中國高等醫學教育，2004.3：14～15

［4］初國良、汪華僑、彭映基等．推進解剖學雙語教學 培養高素質醫學人才［J］．解剖學研究，2002.4：313～314

［5］陳晶瑛.高校開展“雙語教學”的現狀、問題與對策［J］．經濟師，2005.1：119～120

［6］熊靜、黎宇寧.雙語教學實踐初探［J］．咸寧學院學報，2005.4：149～150

〔責任編輯：王以富〕

第四篇：淺談高等院校雙語教學在生物化學課程中的應用 OK最后

淺談高等院校雙語教學在生物化學課程中的應用

摘要: 本文就雙語教學在生物化學課程中的應用,從介紹什么是雙語教學,到探索生物化學課程的雙語教學的課程體系與評價體系。探討高等院校雙語教學在生物化學課程中的應用。關鍵詞:雙語教學 生物化學課程 雙語教學模式探索

21世紀已經到來，以加強外語和計算機為新世紀人才特征的教育教學、課程改革方興未艾，“大德育”、“探究型學習”、“雙語教學”等新概念成為“熱門主題”，成為推進“素質教育”的又一著陸點。其中“雙語教學”是最引人注目的視點。1 雙語教學

雙語教學：雙語教學就是將母語以外的另外一種語言直接應用于語言學科以外的其他各種學科的教學，使第二語言的學習與各學科知識的獲取同步進行。

在中國，雙語教學是指除漢語外，用一門外語作為課堂主要用語進行學科教學，目前絕大部分是用英語。它要求用正確流利的英語進行知識的講解，但不絕對排除漢語，避免由于語言滯后造成學生的思維障礙；教師應利用非語言行為，直觀、形象地提示和幫助學生理解教學內容，以降低學生在英語理解上的難度。中國不象新加坡、加拿大、印度是一個雙語國家，語言環境并不是中外并重，所以中國的雙語教學環境決定了它的目的性，屬于“外語”教學

3范疇，而不是“第二語言”的教學范疇。中國的雙語教學只能是上述界定中的“保持型雙語教學”。

生物化學雙語教學是指教師貫徹雙語課優勢互補、相互促進的教學思想，即，在生物化學教學中同時使用兩種語言—— 母語及第二外語來組織、安排、實施教學活動，使生物化學知識與專業外語運用產生有機融合，并在這種全新教學模式所形成的特殊氛圍中，讓學生在學習生物化學知識的同時，高效率地加強專業外語的學習與掌握，使學生初步具備直接閱讀生物化學及相關專業的外文版教材、外文期刊等資料的能力；而且可促使學生多渠道了解國外本專業最新的學術動態和各種學術觀點，擴大學生的專業視野；同時使學生利用最新的外文資料進行小型的學術研究。

雙語教學最初源于國外，它在國外的發展已有較長的歷史，在理論與實踐兩個方面都有長足的進步。而在我國，雙語教學發展的歷史較短，目前的高校所進行的雙語教學改革多數尚處于實踐摸索階段，國外的經驗和實踐只能作為參考，并不能照搬照抄。即使國內高校實施雙語教學也取得了不少成績，但由于校情不同，面臨的學生對象不一樣，因此也不能照搬他們的做法，且國內雙語教學提出的有關雙語教學的觀點過于宏觀、針對性不強，因此也不便完全采納，本論文旨在廣泛閱讀文獻的基礎上和針對本省高職院校的實際情況，特別是本校的實際情況，以生物化學課程為突破口，探索適合綜合高職院校生物化學課程雙語教學的模式，以期對生物化學雙語教學的實施起到實質性的指導和推動作用。2.進一步深化生物化學課程改革，提高學生和教師的專業英語技能。①研究教材：學習生物化學理論課教學大綱，統一教學章節的重點和難點，加強課題組間的交流與互助，一起面對教材上的難點，逐個分解難點。②寫出設計詳細的講稿：在雙語教學的初始階段，雙語講稿需要十分全面、系統和詳盡。課堂上所有教學內容，包括每一個問題，每一個段落，每一個細節都要在講稿中。特別是問題之間、段落之間的過渡性語言，要用醒目的英語寫在教案中。③精心設計每一個教學問題，這些問題即要反映專業知識又要與我們周圍生活實際有關聯。④制作課件時盡量將表達語句較長的句子分解成幾個短句，并通過網絡收集盡量多的相關章節圖片，使內容更形象生動。⑤ 強調預習：要求學生在上每一章之前都要將該章中的專業詞匯記下來，并查其含義和發音，由學委檢查同學預習情況，記入平時成績中。我們認真分析不同章節的內容特點與難易程度，探索適合每一章節的教學模式。3.1 問題式教學的探索

如在講信息分子代謝這一章時，我們給學生留了8個問題，要求學生回去后針對這些問題，認真閱讀教材，結合網絡資源，完成下面的問題。我們并不是要求學生給出完全正確的答案，而是督促學生帶著問題用心閱讀教材，并向學生推薦一些有關信息分子的英文學習網站

3.2 討論式教學的探索

“討論式”課堂教學是在教師的引導下，學生以小組或全班為單位，通過討論或辯論，發現問題、獲得知識、培養能力的一種課堂教學形式。

4.深入研究，不斷反思，構建生物化學雙語教學的課程體系與評價體系。4.1.課程體系的構建

生物化學是高職生物技術專業的一門專業基礎課，理論課課時原先僅有42個學時，如何在有限的時間內傳授生物化學的基本理論，需要根據專業培養的計劃特點，優化理論教學體系，調整理論教學內容，本著少而精的原則，合理取舍精減教學內容。同時又保證本課程的重點核心內容得到講解。這樣安排雖然能在較短的時間內完成教學內容，但教學效果有待提高。所以，重新構建新的生物化學課程體系。首先，要遵循循序漸進性。

從語言習得的銜接角度來看考慮，專業雙語課程的開設在大學的第三學期（包括第三學期）之后比較合理，因為前三個學期始終貫穿著公共基礎課大學英語的學習，為英語教學在雙語教學的實際應用，這樣英語就不只是學習的目標,它更是達到其他專業知識學習目的和手段，使學生真正學會把英語當成一個幫助自己獲取各種知識的實用工具，更好地促進自己在專業領域的研究和實踐活動，這才是英語學習的真正意義所在；而專業英語的學習為開啟雙語教學做了必要的鋪墊，使學生能夠閱讀、理解、翻譯和應用專業文獻，對自己本專業的知識有一個基本的了解。另一方面，雙語課的開始,也可以較好地起到英語教學的過渡和銜接作用，從而有效地保證學生完成從英語學習階段到英語使用階段的過渡。大四上半學期，通過畢業論文設計，要求學生通過互聯網查閱中英文資料，完成畢業論文的前半部分內容（課題研究的意義，國內外研究的現狀），并翻譯論文的摘要，這是對學生雙語教學的一次鍛煉和小型檢閱。從專業知識的掌握難易程度上考慮，生物化學涉及的專業知識要比分子生物學和生物技術專業知識較易，因此適合作為專業雙語教學初始課程。

其次，遵循專業知識的系統完整性。

現在開設的雙語課程，絕大多數比較孤立，因人設課較多。在實際教學中，生物化學與多門課程之間內容上有著密切的聯系，結果導致：一方面學生因知識銜接不上而造成理解上的困難，另一方面因雙語課程的孤立性，使所學的專業雙語知識在其它課程中得不到應用，形成不了雙語教學的氛圍，致使學生的學習效率大大降低。因此，在選擇和安排雙語教學課程時，要注意整個課程體系的全方位建設，注意各門課程之間在知識內容方面的銜接性，決不能把雙語教學課程單單作為一門孤立的課程來進行傳授，不能以降低整個學科教學質量為代價來換取一門孤立的雙語教學課程質量的提高。4.2.雙語教學質量評價體系的構建

雙語教學的評價，是雙語教學過程中必不可少的環節，它是檢驗雙語教學效果、檢驗雙語教師的業務水平、工作態度、教學方法、學生學習情況的必要手段，是檢驗教學質量高低的重要措施。

以雙語教學的形式和手段，培養學生的閱讀能力、計算能力、寫作能力、電腦信息處理運

用能力、現代交際能力和其它必要的生存常識，已經成為當今學生和家長們所追求的熱點2。參考文獻

1.孔璐 余和芬 潘穎 孫林 于培蘭 馬惠蘋 賀旭, 醫學生物化學與分子生物學實行雙語教學的思考,科技信息,2008 2.王洋洋, 雙語教學的理論與實踐研究, 四川文理學院學報2006

第五篇：生物化學雙語教學的嘗試與問題分析

生物化學雙語教學的嘗試與問題分析

南方醫科大學基因工程研究所

曹東林 李凌 彭翼飛

為了適應新時代的要求,貫徹教育部關于加強高等院校本科教學工作提高教學質量的若干意見,近年來醫學院校開始在醫學教育中推行雙語教學,以培養具有較強國際競爭力的高級醫學人才。生物化學是我校雙語教學課程之一,在教學過程中我們積累了一定的經驗,同時也發現了許多的不足和問題。1.雙語教學的內涵及目的

雙語教學(Bilingual Teaching)是指除漢語外,用一門外語多為英語作為課堂主要用語進行學科的教學，它不僅僅是指學生聽老師用英語上課,更強調的是師生之間用英語進行課堂教學的交流和互動,逐漸培養學生用外語思考，解決問題的能力。即雙語教學的最終目標是使學生能同時使用母語和外語進行思維,根據實際需要在這兩種語言間進行自由切換。它要求用準確、流利的外語進行知識的講解,但不絕對排除漢語,以避免由于語言障礙造成學生對專業知識的理解困難而影響教學效果。

2.生物化學雙語教學的應用體會 2.1 強調醫學雙語教學的必要性和可行性

開課前花一點時間來調查和開一個較短時間的動員會，強調醫學雙語教學的必要性和可行性，對激發學生學習興趣和建立信心大有幫助。世界上權威的醫學期刊、書籍及計算機檢索數據庫基本上都以英語出版,真正意義上的國際會議,多以英語進行交流，要想緊跟世界醫學發展的步伐，不斷提出科研的新思路，抑或在國際權威醫學期刊上投一篇文章都得熟練運用英語及一些語言技巧來表達你的思想才有可能錄用。醫學院校實行雙語教學是培養高級醫學人才的需要，也是我國生命科學盡快與國際接軌的需要。隨著我國對英語教學越來越重視,教學質量逐年提高,醫學院多數學生都具有扎實的英語基礎、較高的英語讀寫能力,大學英語四、六級的通過率已較高，為醫學雙語教學的實施提供了有利條件。在醫學教育中實施雙語教學,不斷給醫學生予英語語言刺激,讓學生逐漸習慣用英語思維,從而提高學生的國際交流能力。2.2注重因材施教，強調教學互動性

開課前與同學進行充分的交流,獲取了詳細的反饋信息,制定一個合適的中英文講授比例,做到因材施教。授課時要注意時間效率，隨時注意學生的反應,詢問學生對本部分講解是否能較好理解,以便了解學生的吸收程度,并及時調整上課的語速和進度。讓學生及時對難懂或不懂之處提問,以決定是否復述重點內容,必要時重點或難點內容可用中文復講解，但母語的使用要控制在最低限度，而對于涉及重點或難點內容的有關詞匯及英美人的習慣用法得反復講解。亦可結合本校的教學目標和學生外語實際水平,編寫雙語教學講義和雙語教學大綱,并提前發給學生預習。預習時將教材中涉及較難的醫學詞匯單獨標識出來,并加以中文釋義,提前擴大學生醫學外語詞匯量。還要專門組織老師編寫了雙語教學考試命題辦法和考核辦法、英語試卷庫和答題示范等。雙語教學應強調師生間的互動,主張教學環境、教學資源等全方位的第二語言的交互,只有當英語在醫學知識教學過程中得到廣泛運用和交流,兩種不同的語言能在學生的思維與交流中自由熟練切換的時候,我們才可以認為雙語教學獲得了成功。2.3 多樣的教學手段與靈活的考核相結合

為了激發同學們的興趣，我們對教學手段和考核的方式都進行了不少的嘗試。首先，選擇的課件均是自己考慮成熟制作的多媒體課件,也有借鑒或直接選用國外已經出版的英語醫學教學課件，對其中的優缺點了然于心。其次，利用多樣化的教學手段如圖片、多媒體、錄像等,盡量把生物化學中的抽象概念具體化、直觀化、簡單化,以幫助學生更好地理解生物化學中的專業知識。再次，充分利用網絡技術，尤其是我校自己的局域網,通過FTP或文件共享等方式做到多媒體課件上網,方便學生隨時查詢,遞交作業。另外還開設教學論壇,公開自己的email地址，方便學生提出問題和解決問題；至于考核方式也進行必要的改革，合理的考核模式是教學的指揮棒,所以在教學中應根據雙語教學的特點,不再單純采用傳統的試卷考核,而是采用綜合多次課業成績、課堂的口語問答及課終閉卷考試來進行，避免“一卷定終身”。3.生物化學雙語教學的存在的問題 3.1 師資水平直接影響了雙語教學的推廣

教師的外語水平是決定雙語教學質量的關鍵因素。雙語教學要求師資水平很高,不僅要懂得專業知識,還要掌握外文。又由于醫學專業的特殊性,其專業詞匯相對較長較多,記憶難度較大，對于大多數專業課老師來說,生活在漢語環境里,雖然接觸外語較多,也有一定的聽說讀寫能力,但思維方式仍然是漢語思維,在教學中很難進行中英文自由轉換。目前,大部分老師只不過是采用專業英語名詞代替專業中文名詞,課堂教學時對外文教材中的內容進行翻譯、講解為主。3.2 學生的外語水平和語言環境也是影響教學效果不可忽視的因素

學生英語基礎較差，水平參差不齊。盡管醫學院校的大學生學了近十年的英語,掌握了相當量的公共英語和專業英語詞匯, 四、六級通過率不斷上升，也系統地學習了語法知識,但仍存在聽不懂,看得慢現象,更無法用外語直接進行交流、對話。另外性格上總是羞于表達自己，課堂上顯得沉悶了些。我們生活在一個幾乎完全被漢語包圍的語言環境里,學了多年英語,仍然是啞巴英語,這在中國是普遍存在的問題，這很值得深思，更應該引起教育主管部門及學校領導的重視，創造和提供良好的學習外語環境和設備。

3.3 缺乏優秀的雙語教學教材,疏于教學信息的管理

雙語教學最好使用外文原版的教材,然而,目前國際上通用的教材價格昂貴,一般院校很難承受高額的教材費用。故不同教師使用的教材有的是國外原版教材,有的是節選外文教材,也有的是教師自編的講義,版本和內容不統一,教學隨意性較大。另外,教材難易程度的不同也影響了雙語教學的實際效果；而對教學信息缺乏有效整理是很多院校存在的普遍問題。對雙語教學的課程實施全面跟蹤,以便及時發現和解決雙語教學過程中的問題,認真聽取學生意見和建議,重視學生信息反饋,完善信息網絡，這對于穩步推進雙語課程建設是非常重要的一環。然而，遺憾的是很多時候僅僅是草草收場，敷衍了事，滿足于完成教學任務。總之,雙語教學在我國高校尚處于試驗和起步階段,我們缺乏成熟的雙語教學理論和教學經驗,需要在教學中不斷地摸索和總結。在教學中出現許多問題和不足是難免的,相信不久的將來,雙語教學將步入正軌,逐漸形成自己特有的教學模式。

參考文獻：

[1] 教育部關于加強高等學校本科教學工作提高教學質量的若干意見的通知[S].教育部[2001]4號,2001.[2] 張曉波,陳超,黃國英,等.醫學雙語教學的發展、模式及策略[Ｊ].醫學教育探索,2004,3(4):42～44.[3] 趙翔宇.試析高校雙語教學的必要性及其存在的問題[J].中國地質教育,2005,(3):122-124 [4] 倪銀星,祝之明,陳 靜.芻議醫學院校的雙語教學[J].西北醫學教育，2006，（1）：48～50