第一篇：國際貿易雙語教案Chap024 (15)（范文）

Chapter 14Trade Policies for Developing Countries

One possible approach to the problem of declining primary product prices is to form international cartels to raise their prices.OPEC did this for oil in the 1970s.The analysis of a cartel as a group that has monopoly power because it controls a large part of the world’s production indicates the limits to this power and why cartels usually erode over time.Demand becomes more elastic over time, new competing supplies from outside the cartel enter the market, increasing the noncartel supply elasticity and decreasing the cartel’s market share, and cheating by cartel members often increases over time.The oil price increase from 1999 through 2005 indicates that OPEC still has some power, but other factors also seem to be important in this price rise.Outside of oil, the prospects for even temporary success of primary product cartels seem poor, and there are currently no effective cartels.14-2 Chapter 14Trade Policies for Developing Countries

2.The four arguments in favor of ISI are the infant-industry argument, the developing-government argument, the chance to improve the terms of trade for a large importing country, and economizing on market information.The conditions under which ISI is likely to be better than alternative strategies include the following.First, being a large country is probably important, not only for the terms of trade effect, but also because a large domestic market makes it possible for a number of domestic firms to compete for sales while still achieving scale economies.Second, conditions favoring the maturing of infant industries, such as a trainable labor force or spillovers from technology brought into domestic production, are probably important.Third, it is probably useful for the government to have poor ability to raise revenues using more broadly based taxes, so that tariff revenues are important to the government budget.Fourth, it is probably useful that poor information makes evaluation of opportunities for successful export products difficult.ISI should be accompanied by investment in training and education, investment in domestic infrastructure such as roads and other domestic transportation facilities, and a competent and honest civil service.Two forces are likely to drive toward a deteriorating terms of trade—a decrease in the prices of the primary product exports relative to the prices of the manufactured good imports.First, the global demand for primary products is likely to rise more slowly than the global demand for manufactured goods will rise, as global incomes rise, because primary products have lower income elasticities of demand(Engel’s Law).Second, new synthetic substitutes are likely to be developed for some of the primary products, lowering global demand for the primary products.Two forces are likely to drive toward an improved terms of trade.First, natural limits could restrain global supply of some primary products.Second, slow growth in primary-product productivity is likely to limit cost decreases, so primary product prices do not fall as much as(or rise more than)the cost and prices of manufactures that experience more rapid productivity growth.In addition, more rapid quality improvements in manufactured products effectively increase the country’s terms of trade.4.14-4 Chapter 14-Trade Policies for Developing Countries

6.First, taxing exports of primary products could improve the country’s international terms of trade, if the country is large enough to affect international prices(the optimal export tax, the counterpart of the optimal import tariff presented in Chapter 8, and the national equivalent of the international cartel analyzed in this chapter).If there are net national gains, they are likely to be largest in the first years after the export tax is imposed, before the monopoly power of the country is eroded(in ways shown in the discussion of an international cartel).Second, taxing exports of primary products will induce resource reallocations to other production sectors, including manufactured goods that can replace imports and perhaps develop into new export industries.Third, the revenues from the export tax can be used to pay for national public goods like education and infrastructure.Or, these revenues can be used to subsidize infant industries that can develop into mature, internationally competitive industries in the future.Drawbacks loom large in practice.First, the country may lack monopoly power, in which case the export tax just distorts domestic resource allocation and creates deadweight losses.Second, the government often lacks information about which new industries to encourage.Third, the additional revenues are often siphoned off to the private wealth of government officials.The prediction is that the shift to an outward oriented policy will result in an increase in India’s growth rate, so that it is among the higher growth rates for developing countries.The data shown in Figure 14.1 is consistent with the prediction.India’s rate of growth of per capita GDP was 4.2 percent, among the higher growth rates shown for developing countries.8.10.a.Unilaterally taxing grain exports has the advantage of being collectible by a small customs staff at the nation’s major border crossings, as in the developing-government argument.The export-tax revenues could be invested in public goods such as health, education, and infrastructure, or they could be used to subsidize other promising sectors of the economy.However, Ukraine probably cannot force up the world price of grain, because it is not large enough, given severe competition from other grain exporters.So the export tax probably would cause only misallocation of domestic resources.b.An international grain cartel is politically unlikely and would break down almost immediately, given competition from suppliers that would stay outside the cartel and cheating by members of the cartel.c.This classic infant-industry argument has possibilities, but all of Chapter 10’s doubts about its wisdom are reinforced by this chapter’s recitation of the evidence about how poorly ISI has worked in practice.14-5

第二篇：國際貿易雙語教案Chap024 (16)

Chapter 15Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements A useful framework for understanding why MNEs exist stresses five elements.First, firms face inherent disadvantages in operating affiliates in foreign countries.Second, to overcome the disadvantages and to be successful with its FDI, a firm must have some firm-specific advantages not held by its local competitors in the foreign country.These advantages may be technologies, marketing assets, managerial capabilities, or access to large amounts of financial capital.Third, location factors, such as comparative advantage or government barriers to trade, influence where production should occur(export or FDI).Fourth, there may be advantages to using the firm’s advantages internally within the MNE, rather than incurring the transactions costs and risks of selling or renting these assets to independent firms(license or FDI).Fifth, FDI can be part of global oligopolistic rivalry.(The box on CEMEX shows the roles of firm-specific assets and oligopolistic rivalry in the growth of this MNE based in Mexico.)

The taxation of the profits of multinational firms raises important issues.Although the details are overwhelming, the general approach to how the profits are taxed is that the profits of the foreign affiliates are taxed by the host country and the profits of the parent company on its own activities are taxed by the home country.To minimize total taxes paid worldwide, multinationals can try to locate activities in low-tax countries.More controversially, multinational firms can use transfer pricing on transactions that occur within the global organization to show more of their profits in countries where they will be lightly taxed.Governments know this incentive.They often attempt to police transfer pricing to assure that transfer prices are similar to market prices, but this determination is often difficult, so the firms have some scope to manipulate transfer pricing.Multinational firms are active in international trade in goods and services, and about one-third of world trade is intra-firm trade between units of multinational firms in different countries.Although some FDI is a substitute for trade, because local production replaces products that otherwise would be imported, FDI and trade are also often complements.This is especially true when multinational firms exploit differences in comparative advantages by locating different stages of production in different countries.It can also be true when better local marketing by an affiliate leads to increased sales of some products that the multinational firm produces in other countries, even if other parts of the firm’s product line are produced locally by the affiliate.Most studies conclude that FDI overall is somewhat complementary to international trade in products.Economic analysis indicates that the home(or source)country can receive net benefits from its outward FDI, because the gains to the owners of the MNEs exceed the losses to workers and other providers of resource inputs.There are several other sources of possible loss to the home country.The government may lose tax revenues as profits are now shown in foreign affiliates.Positive externalities may be lost when the activities are shifted out of the country.The multinationals may gain too much influence over the country's foreign policies.While there are some arguments for the home county to tax or restrict outbound FDI, the actual policies of the major home countries are neutral to mildly supportive toward outward FDI.15-2 Chapter 15Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements The basic analysis of the effects of migration indicates that the receiving country gains economic well-being.There are several other possible effects of immigration.First, immigrants often bring external benefits through knowledge spillovers.Second, immigrants can bring external costs through increased congestion and crowding.Third, immigrants can raise social frictions based on bigotry, which can become severe during periods when the rate of immigration is high.In addition, in a number of receiving countries the fiscal effects of immigration have become increasingly controversial.The box “Are Immigrants a Fiscal Burden?” summarizes recent studies for the United States and Sweden.For a receiving country like the United States, the fiscal effects of immigration depend on whether providing government goods and services to the immigrants requires an expansion in spending on these goods and services, in order to maintain the same level of consumption value to natives in the country.Presumably, any transfer payments received by immigrants are an expansion of government expenditures, but the effects on other government goods and services are debatable.One way to examine this is to look at a snapshot for a single year.The net effect is not easy to determine.Another way to look at this is to examine the net effects over the entire lifetimes of immigrants and their descendants.One careful recent study of the United States concludes that the average net fiscal effect is slightly negative for the typical immigrant and substantially positive for the immigrant’s descendants.In addition, the study concludes that the net fiscal effect of the immigrant depends on the immigrant’s level of education, used as indicator of labor skill and earnings potential.Immigrants with a high school education or less impose a net cost;immigrants with some college provide a net benefit.Because the average education and earnings of immigrants has been declining relative to those of natives, for the United States since about 1980, the fiscal balance is probably shifting toward immigrants being a fiscal burden.The analysis has implications for the policies used by receiving countries to limit immigration.First, the types of immigrant admitted have an impact on which native group suffers loss.Second, the types of immigrants admitted have an impact on the net fiscal effects.To gain greater fiscal benefits(and to minimize the negative impact on low-skilled native workers who already have low earnings), the receiving country should skew its immigration policies to favor young adults with some college education.However, for countries like the United States, this would mean shifting away from other worthy goals pursued by their current immigration policies, including family reunification and assisting refugees.Tips

Figure 15.1 has quite a bit of information that can be used to generate class discussion, including the identity of the major home countries(why these are the major home countries?), the relatively small amount of FDI into developing countries and more generally what countries and regions host most FDI(why?), and the specific pattern of FDI for each home country(why?).Migration is a sensitive topic, and any presentation needs to keep its scientific standards up, by distinguishing what is known or plausibly estimated from what is common folklore.15-4 Chapter 15Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements

c.FDI.Additional purchases of ownership of a foreign company by the U.S.investor that then owns more than 10 percent of the foreign affiliate.d.The $100,000 is FDI, because the Brazilian affiliate is owned by the U.S.firm.The loan from the Brazilian bank is not FDI because it is not foreign, and because it is not direct(the Brazilian bank does not own equity in the Brazilian company).8.Labor groups seek restrictions on the flow of direct investment out of the United States because outward FDI tends to lower labor income.This reduction may occur for three major reasons.First, the FDI is shifting jobs out of the United States, so some U.S.workers lose as they become unemployed.Second, the general decrease in demand for labor puts downward pressure on wage rates.Third, the bargaining power of unionized labor is reduced when companies can threaten to shift production out of the United States.Unions cannot bargain so effectively to gain higher wages.Standard economic analysis shows that the losses to labor generally are more than offset by the gains to the owners of the companies undertaking the FDI.This standard analysis suggests that labor is mainly defending its special interest.But, there are other possible effects that would favor restricting outbound FDI in the national interest of the home country.The home government may lose tax revenue when profits are shown in foreign affiliates, and external technological benefits may shift out of the country.If these other effects are large enough, then the opposition of U.S.labor to outward FDI may also be in the national interest.10.First, in 1924, the United States passed a law that severely restricted immigration, using a system of quotas by national origin.Second, the Depression, with its very high rates of labor unemployment, probably reduced the economic incentive to immigrate, because potential immigrants would expect that it would be very difficult to find employment.12.The reduction in the annualized cost of migration would lead to more migration(the number of migrants would be greater than 20 million).In the new equilibrium, with a smaller gap(c), the wage rate after migration would be greater than $3.20 in the South, and less than $5.00 in the North.Each of the areas of gain and loss(a, b, d, e, and f)would be larger.14.This statement is probably false.The migrants do improve their economic well-being.But once they leave they are no longer part of the sending country.The sending country can lose in two ways.First, analysis of the labor-market effects of emigration indicates that, while workers remaining in the sending country gain, employers and others in the sending country lose more, so the net effect on the sending country is a loss.Second, the net fiscal effect of emigration is probably a loss for the sending country.The emigrants have often received education paid for by the government, but the emigrants shift to paying taxes to the receiving-country government once they leave.We should also note one major way that the sending country can gain—emigrants often send back remittances to relatives and friends.The overall effect on the sending country is then unclear, but a loss is likely unless remittances are large.15-6 Chapter 15-Multinationals and Migration: International Factor Movements 16.Here are several arguments.First, Japan is already a crowded place, with many Japanese living in densely populated metropolitan areas(especially Tokyo).Allowing more immigrants will add to the external costs of congestion, because most immigrants will want to live and work in urban areas.Second, increased immigration will add to social frictions.It will not be easy to change Japanese attitudes against foreigners.Instead, the immigrants are likely to face substantial discrimination based on prejudice.Japan’s policy must be decided with this reality in mind.Third, the immigrants easily could be a net fiscal burden.If the policy is not suitably selective, Japan will receive many immigrants who have little education and low labor skills.These immigrants will pay low taxes, but they will receive substantial benefits from Japanese government programs, including government-financed medical care.Fourth, the native groups that will lose from increased immigration include lower skilled Japanese workers who already have low earnings.The Japanese government should not institute a policy change that harms the least well off within the country, even if it might bring net gains to the country overall.15-7

第三篇：國際貿易專業雙語教學研究

國際貿易專業雙語教學研究

摘要:國際貿易專業推行雙語教學是順應我國高等教育與國際接軌和改革發展和培養國際化高級人才的需要。本文從國際貿易專業的性質出發，分析了該專業實施雙語教學的必要性。同時，對該專業實施雙語教學的模式、目標體系以及教學實踐環節進行探討，以期能促進國際貿易專業雙語教學工作的開展。

關鍵詞:國際貿易;雙語教學;教學方法

隨著我國對外開放日益深入, 國際貿易規模飛速發展,市場對國際貿易的從業人員提出了更高的要求。從業人員不但要熟練貿易業務, 而且還要會外語。雙語教學必須從源頭、從學校抓起。國際貿易專業開展“雙語教學”的目的不在于推進專業英文教學, 而是要培養學生成為在應用外語中更新知識、開拓視野, 在工作中更好地交流的“ 面向國際市場競爭、具備國際經營頭腦”的國際商務參與者和管理者。

自2004 年大部分開設國際貿易專業的高校多在國際貿易課程中推行雙語教學改革。在專業課程中推行雙語教學，依據專業特點，課程在學生專業知識結構中的地位與作用，具體結合課程教學大綱，設置雙語教學這種課堂組織形式的教育教學目標，從而選擇適當的教學方法與技巧，使系統的專業知識學習與學生英語語言能力提高有機結合，達到更好的教學效果，應該是可行的思路，本文結合自己的教學體會，對這一問題做初步探討。

一、國際貿易專業開展雙語教學的必要性

1.推動“雙語教學”是國際貿易專業適應我國教育教學改革的大環境的需要

2001年教育部頒發的《關于加強高等學校本科教學工作提高教學質量的意見》(教高字[2001]4號)中就提出，“本科教育要創造條件使用英語等外語進行公共課和專業課教學。對高新技術領域的生物技術、信息技術等專業,以及為適應我國加入WTO后需要的金融、貿易、法律等專業,更要先行一步,力爭3年內,外語教學課程達到所開課程的5%-10%?！?2005年1月,教育部在《關于進一步加強高等學校本科教學工作的若干意見》(教高[2005]1號)文件中再一次明確提出“要提高雙語教學課程的質量,繼續擴大雙語教學課程的數量”的要求。

2.國際貿易專業課推行雙語教學是適應WTO的要求的需要

隨著世界經濟的一體化進程的加快與世界文化的融合,要求通過提高高校國際貿易學的雙語教學,培養既有豐富專業知識,熟悉中國國情,又有較好外語水平,精通WTO規則和世界經濟的國際化的人才。從這個意義上講,國際貿易專業課雙語教學勢在必行。在國際貿易學專業推行“雙語教學”的目的不在于推進專業英文教學,其真正目的在于培養學生――未來的商務人士、創業者,應用外語在工作中交流,或應用外語在專業上學習,更新知識,自我提高能夠具備同合作伙伴、國際競爭對手溝通和對抗的能力,真正成為“面向國際市場競爭、具備國際經營頭腦”的國際商務參與者和管理者。上述人才培養目標的實現,離不開與國際先進教學模式的接軌,離不開對西方先進管理思想與方法的研究和借鑒,更離不開英語這一國際貿易通用語言的運用和英語思維能力的培養。

二、國際貿易實務開展雙語教學的主要模式

國際貿易實務的教學內容具有國際性, 其教學目標具有外向性的特點。國際貿易實務教學目標的涉外性和教學內容的國際性,決定了該課程進行雙語教學的必要性。同時,國際貿易實務雙語教學不僅是貿易全球化發展趨勢的必然要求, 而且也是培養國際性、復合型經濟人才的需要。具體而言,在實踐中, 開展國際貿易實務存在三種模式。

1.簡單滲透型

在國際貿易教學中以中文授課為主, 用英語講授一些國際貿易術語, 并穿插使用一些常規的課堂用語, 學生的考試采用中文形式。這種模式對教師的英語水平要求不高, 適合英語基礎和接受能力相對薄弱的學生。從教學效果上看, 學生容易形成系統的以中文為媒介的知識體系,而英文掌握的只是零散的一些專業詞匯。雙語教學的最高目標是在專業文獻的使用上、專業實務具體操作上能夠做到雙語自由轉換。這種雙語教學模式由于中英兩種語言的比重十分不平衡,教學過程中英文信息量不足,所培養的學生就其專業的英文知識而言十分有限, 很難達到雙語教學的真正目標要求。這顯然是簡單滲透型的雙語教學模式的不足之處。

2.過渡型(混合型)

在雙語教學中以英語為主,采用英語板書和原版教材, 在英語授課的同時輔以中文解釋和說明,學生的作業、考試用英語出題,但用中文回答。這是目前我國國際貿易雙語教學中采用最多的一種模式,穿插過渡型雙語教學模式的優點在于雙語的比重趨向均衡,采用這種教學模式與上種模式相比,教學過程中的英語信息量有了明顯增加,但是對教師和學生要求相對提高了,特別是學生必須具備較高的英文水平,否則很難感知英文教材,更難聽懂英文講授。

3.浸入型(全英語型)

在雙語教學中基本上使用英語,采用原版專業教材,課堂板書用英文,學生的作業、考試用英文出題, 學生答題一般用英語。這種模式的特點是對教師和學生的外文水平都有較高的要求。

以上三種方式各有所長。浸沒式雙語教學讓學生有一個很好的語言環境, 因此教學效果較好, 但是對老師和學生的要求都比較高, 尤其是語言環境的創造有諸多困難。過渡式雙語教學將第二語言逐步引入教學全過程維持式雙語教學則是將第二語言作為教學語言的同時, 繼續用母語來維持學生理解的一種的教學模式, 這兩種模式比較適合雙語教學的起始階段, 但母語與非母語的比重難以把握。在我們的教學實踐中, 主要采用以英語浸沒式教學法為主, 輔以參與法的教學模式。

三、國際貿易專業雙語教學的目標體系

雙語教學的目標體系是國際貿易專業教學目標的重要組成部分, 它包括雙語教學的課程體系、雙語教學的能力體系兩大部分。雙語教學的課程體系包括國貿專業知識、國貿專業英語素養兩部分。雙語教學的能力體系包括英語應用能力和社會適應能力兩部分。

1.國際貿易專業雙語教學的總目標

通過雙語教學, 不僅要求學生掌握專業知識和英語技能, 更要重視學生對專業知識與英語技能的應用。通過本專業的學習, 學生將提高專業知識水平, 加深對國際貿易業務的理解；學會運用外語技能, 增強學生外貿業務的實踐能力和創新能力；增強學生人際交往技能和團隊意識；樹立學生的自信心, 激發學生的潛能, 增強其就業競爭能力。

2.國際貿易專業雙語教學課程目標

雙語教學課程目標是雙語教學目標體系的重要組成部分, 包括國貿專業知識、國貿專業英語素養兩大部分, 它涵蓋了國際貿易專業學生必修的全部專業知識課程。在雙語教學安排上從兩大塊來完成這兩部分的教學任務, 一部分國貿專業知識的中文講授包含了五大主干課程, 另一部分國貿專業英語素養的雙語講授包含了四大主干課程。

雙語教學課程的目標分類方法有利于教師實施課程標準, 使整個課程目標落到實處。雙語教學的實施是在國貿專業知識掌握的基礎上來開展的, 學生在學習相關專業知識的基礎上進行國貿實務的雙語學習, 將有助于學生的理解, 減少許多國貿專業詞匯帶來的學習障礙。

雙語教學課程體系目標兩大部分是互相聯系的整體,每個部分各有側重。國貿專業知識目標要求學生熟練掌握貿易理論、專業國貿知識和貿易慣例, 培養學生全球貿易觀念, 掌握基本的國際貿易技能和方法。

3.國際貿易專業雙語教學能力目標

雙語教學能力體系目標主要指學生通過雙語的學習所獲得的用英語處理國貿實務的技能, 它包括英語應用能力和社會適應能力兩大部分。實現雙語教學能力體系目標, 一方面可通過校內實驗室模擬國貿實務操作環境的測評、模擬國貿場景交易的測評、單證制作及審核測試、函電寫作測試等來反映學生雙語學習所獲得的能力水平；另一方面也可通過校外的實訓實習基地參與國貿實際業務各環節的實踐來測評學生的社會適應能力。

四、國際貿易專業課堂雙語教學的探討

1.在教學組織中貫徹教育目標

涉外經濟活動人才經常從事國際經濟業務，有更多的時間和機會接觸英語國家的思想觀念，行為方式等。我門常常把培養國際性人才作為國際貿易專業人才培養的高境界，這是因為我們深知，在經濟全球化日益形成的今天，以開放的心態面向世界的重要性。因此，在雙語課教學中，我們應該首先樹立學生“民族性最鮮明的，也最富有國際性”的觀念，把我們國家處理國際經濟、外交關系的基本原則貫穿于教學中，講清楚社會、經濟、文化進步中的開放與保持民族意識，民族認同感，民族自尊、自豪的關系，使我們的專業教育目標通過教學實現。

2.正確設立課堂教學目標，以專業知識為主線組織英文書面信息呈現，以母語為主，闡釋復雜深奧觀點

我們知道，課堂教學是實現課程教育教學目標的一個環節。專業課的雙語教學不同于大學英語等公共英語課教學，語言只是工具。依據課程教學大綱，每一次課堂教學時間內，基本教學目標是掌握系統的專業知識，而不是形成英語的聽說讀寫譯等語言能力。為此，宜采用英文呈現有關專業知識的書面信息。

3.注意調動學生的積極性，破除學生害怕出錯、不敢自由表達的畏懼心理，樹立學生表達思想的信心

在第二語言不熟練，或者沒有經常性使用時，每要表達一定意思，總會出現先出考慮語法對不對的現象，這樣反而妨礙了思想的表達。為此，課堂上要鼓勵學生大膽開口，不怕出錯，凡不涉及基本概念，基本理論思想被曲解，就不糾正學生，盡量避免使用試錯、負強化等教學手段，而是通過正強化，總結等方式來傳達正確信息。

4.嚴格使用學習評估方法

蘭伯特(Lambert)的態度/動機模式(attitude/motivation model)認為，在雙語學習方面，性向和態度是兩個重要的、相對獨立的影響因素；雙語學習不僅需要某種認知能力，而且需要一種積極的態度；態度關系到動機。因此，雙語能力基于性向、態度、動機的程度以及態度與動機之間的關系。依據這種理論，雙語教學應該采用英文試題進行考試，這樣不僅能夠使學生明確學習要求的嚴肅性，而且可以利用學生重視考試的心理，強化課堂學習的直接動機。

課堂教學組織技巧是教師使有組織的教育形式在明確的教學目標，有重點的內容組織，系統并賦予連貫性的師生互動下收到實際效果的主要途徑，也是教師“教育藝術”的展示平臺，各個教師可能有自己的獨特做法和經驗，但是，從整體上把握專業培養目標，把其作為處理教學中語言能力形成與系統專業知識講述的大原則，有助于組織起知識傳授與技能形成相融合的課堂教學環境。

參考文獻：

[1]姜 瑾:雙語教學面面觀[J].天津外國語學院學報,2003,(1).[2]王振宇 鄧 弘:國際貿易主干課程雙語教學的思考[J].江西教育科研,2004.(3).[3]羅鄭勝:國際經濟與貿易專業（本科）培養目標及知識、能力、素質結構分析.鄭州經濟管理干部學院學報，2005(12).[4]石碧濤:雙語教學實驗環節探索―――以《國際貿易實務》為例[J].高教探索,2007(6).[5]馬小輝:國際貿易專業雙語教學實踐及問題研究[J].黑龍江教育,2007,(4).[6]陳燕:國際貿易專業課推行雙語教學的SWOT分析[J].甘肅聯合大學學報(社會科學版).2008,(5).

第四篇：國際貿易雙語教案Chap024 (14)（xiexiebang推薦）

Chapter 13Trade and the Environment

In our formal analysis we begin with the case in which pollution caused by an activity within the country has effects only on this country.We use tools similar to those that we developed in Chapter 10.If the country simply allows the pollution to occur, with no government policy to limit the negative externality, we show that free trade can make the country worse off, and that the country can export the wrong products.This occurs because of the marginal external costs, in our example resulting from pollution that accompanies domestic production of the export good.A government policy that taxes pollution or production that causes pollution(or that establishes suitable property rights)can reverse these effects, assuring that the country exports and imports the appropriate products and gains from free international trade.Domestic producers subject to the pollution-related tax may complain that other countries, especially the countries that become the suppliers of the country’s imports, are not imposing a comparable pollution-related tax on their firms.They may complain that the foreign firms are engaged in “eco-dumping.” From the perspective of the importing country, lax foreign controls should not matter to its well-being, as long as the foreign pollution does not affect it.The analysis of transborder pollution raises new issues.We use the example of production activity in one country that pollutes a river flowing into a neighboring country.The best solution would balance the gains to the polluting country from dumping waste into the river with the costs of pollution to the receiving country.Generally, this best solution is less pollution than the amount that occurs with no government policy, but more than zero pollution.However, the government in the polluting country may resist imposing a pollution tax(or some other way to limit pollution by its firms), because it bears the national costs while the other country gets the national benefits.If international negotiations fail, what should the receiving country do? It cannot tax the foreign pollution or even the foreign production that causes pollution.If the receiving country imports the product from the polluting country, it could try to reduce the foreign production and pollution by restricting its imports.The country will gain if its benefits from lower foreign pollution exceed the usual deadweight losses of protection.(If instead the receiving country is an exporter of this product to the polluting country, it could subsidize its exports.)However, the WTO generally interprets its environmental exceptions narrowly, so it is not clear that the WTO would uphold the import restriction(or export subsidy), if the polluting country complained to the WTO.The difficulty of addressing transborder pollution is also shown through a discussion of the slow progress that NAFTA has made in attempting to ameliorate environmental problems along the Mexico-U.S.border.13-2 Chapter 13Trade and the Environment The chapter concludes with the presentation of the results of a recent IMF study that estimates what a sensible global approach to global warming would look like.A policy response consistent with the specificity rule is to tax consumption(or production)of fossil fuels on a global scale.The IMF concludes that such a global approach could stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a reasonable level with only modest costs in terms of foregone production of regular products(results summarized in the new Figure 13.6).The economics are promising, so the challenge is negotiating such a global agreement.Tips

The material of this chapter lends itself to additional examples.The instructor can introduce extra material in lecture, in class handouts, or in additional readings.Some examples include the threat to the marine population of the Galapagos, water quality and air quality along the Rio Grande, the U.S.diversion of water in the Colorado River before it gets to Mexico, or the paper factory in Uruguay that is opposed by Argentina.You may also find useful global data available on the Web site of the World Resources Institute, cited in Appendix A of the textbook.As interesting examples are included in the discussion, we recommend keeping economic principles in full view.It is useful to remind students that: ? incentive distortions and imperfect property rights are crucial causes of environmental problems, whether these problems are international or not;? there are two basic policy approaches—the(Pigovian)tax-and-subsidy approach, and the(Coasian)property-rights approach;? we keep discovering new uses for the specificity rule introduced in Chapter 10;and ? this rule almost never recommends trade policy as a first-best approach to environmental problems.An instructor may want to consider an assignment in which students(working individually or in groups)report on a country’s environmental problems and policies or report on an international environmental issue.Suggested answers to questions and problems(in the textbook)2.Disagree.The distortion caused by pollution is the result of the difference between the private costs and the social costs of the activity that creates the pollution.Because the person choosing to take an action that creates pollution does not care about the external costs of the pollution, he tends to create too much pollution.Free trade does not alter the fact the there will remain a gap between private cost and the social cost(inclusive of the cost of pollution).13-4 Chapter 13Trade and the Environment 10.The success of the Montreal Convention in limiting CFCs was largely due to these facts:(a)the scientific evidence that CFCs were depleting the ozone was clear;(b)relatively few countries and companies accounted for most of the world’s production of CFCs, limiting the number of negotiating parties;(c)these countries are located at high latitudes, where the danger of ozone depletion was greatest;(d)these countries are rich and therefore relatively willing to make economic sacrifices to protect the environment;and(e)reasonable substitutes for CFCs became available.The conditions surrounding the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are not as favorable.The science that links greenhouse gases to global warming and its effects is less certain.The burning of fossil fuels does concentrate somewhat in the richer countries, especially the United States, but all countries burn fuels and release greenhouse gases, and the emissions are growing fastest in some of the developing countries.There are no reasonable and acceptable substitutes that can be used on a large scale to replace the burning of fossil fuels for energy and heat.Because the conditions are less favorable, the negotiations over an agreement to limit the emission of greenhouse gases have been relatively unproductive.13-6

第五篇：雙語教案

來自九年義務教育初中化學教科書

Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Outline: 1.physical properties of carbon dioxide 2.chemical properties of carbon dioxide 3.Uses of carbon dioxide

15化學1班

譚雪鋒 2015364138 2017/4/21Good morning, everyone.Welcome to my classroom.Let’susknow an important gas.Every day we need to breath, what is gas of breath outside? Can you guess it, my dear student?

Yes, it is carbon dioxide.Carbon Dioxide is important for living things, so what important properties does it have? Who can tell me its physical properties?(As some students said, it is…colourless)First,Look at the picture.When carbon dioxide is poured into a paper bag.Watch if the two paper bags still balance.Why?From the experiment we know that carbon dioxide is a colorless gas and the bag fill with carbon dioxide is tilted, which shows carbon dioxide has a higher density than air.That is reason why… Besides,Usually,about 1 volume of carbon dioxide dissolve in 1 volume of water.My dear, look at the experiment.Place two burning candles on each of a 2-step holder made of a galvanized iron sheet.Put the holder inside a beaker(as shown in picture)and pour carbon dioxide along the beaker’s wall.Pay attention to what happens to the burning candles when the carbon dioxide is poured.What does the experiment show? Who can tell me? In the experiment, the candle flame go out.And the candle on the lower step goes out first.The experiment show two things:first, carbon dioxide does not burn, nor help burning;second, carbon dioxide has a bigger density than air.After learn many properties of carbon dioxide,you may be a little tired.Now,let’s enjoy the interesting experiment.Bubble carbon dioxide into a test tube filled with a solution of purple litmus.Watch how litmus solution changes color.After that, heated it and watch again the litmus changes color.After watch the video, we can easily know the color changed red.Why it can change red? Who knows?(that is because carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid(H2CO3)).Good jod!

Ok, let’s continue to watch.When carbon dioxide is blown into a clear limewater, what does it will be? Who can tell me why?(clear limewater become cloudy, because white precipitates of calcium carbonate are made)Yes,you are right.After know about physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide, we need to know about its uses.As we know, carbon dioxide is used for put out fires.it is also used in industry for manufacture.and gas fertilizer.Moreover, dry ice can be used to preserve food or artificial rainfall.Last but not important, plants need carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.Finally, let’s us do a summary.At this calss, we know about carbon dioxide’s physical properties and chemical properties.Besides, we also know the uses of carbon dioxide.and many interesting experiments.Class is over, thank you!