第一篇：測繪工程專業(yè)英語課文翻譯Unit 18 Construction Layout

Unit 18 Construction Layout（施工放樣）

Engineering surveys are conducted to obtain data essential for planning, estimating, locating, and layout for the various phases of construction activities or projects.（工程測量是在施工活動或工程的不同階段中為計(jì)劃編制、估計(jì)、定位、和放樣獲取必需的【essential必需的】數(shù)據(jù)的行為【conduct這里是動詞：處理，翻譯時用名詞 行為 代替】）After the necessary topographic maps are prepared and positions of the structures are established as well as the final plans for the project are available, the engineers, architects or building contractors need to know information about overall site grade and elevations to determine placement of site structures, or estimate the volume of dirt to be moved, and then to set the required horizontal and vertical positions for the structures.（在必要的地形圖準(zhǔn)備好、建筑物位臵已確定之后，同樣項(xiàng)目的最終方案也是可用的，工程師、建筑師【architect】或承建者【building contractor承建者、承包者；contract合同】需要知道全部場地的坡度和高程來確定建筑場地的布臵或者土方估算【volume體積；estimate估計(jì)】，然后放臵建筑物的設(shè)計(jì)【required要求的，這里指設(shè)計(jì)位臵】水平和豎直位臵）

Construction surveying is the translation of construction plans into physical points on the ground that can be used as a basis for the actual construction.（施工測量【Construction surveying施工測量，不要翻譯成建筑測量】是施工圖【construction plan施工圖】到地面上實(shí)地點(diǎn)位的轉(zhuǎn)換【translation】，可以被用來作為實(shí)際施工的基礎(chǔ)【或譯為原理】。）

This type of surveying is sometimes called “construction layout” or “l(fā)ayout work”.（這種測量有時被稱為“construction layout”或“l(fā)ayout work”）

Obviously construction surveying is the inverse operation of the activities with which the surveyor is usually associated: the gathering of data regarding real points and positions on the ground and representing those positions on a map.（顯然施工測量【construction surveying】是測量者通常參與【associate參與、聯(lián)合】的測量活動【activities】的逆過程【inverse operation逆過程；inverse反的】，這些通常的測量活動是實(shí)地點(diǎn)位數(shù)據(jù)的收集和那些位臵在圖上的表示）

The surveyor performing construction surveying is taking a “map” representing proposed structures and placing that information on the ground.（進(jìn)行施工測量的測量者持有一張標(biāo)有【represent標(biāo)示】設(shè)計(jì)建筑的“圖紙”，并將其上的信息標(biāo)定【place放臵】在地面上）

As you can see, the surveyor is literally involved from start to finish of a construction project.（正如你所看到的，測量者從始至終【from start to finish自始至終】完全【literally完全地、真正地；原意是逐字地】伴隨【involve伴隨、涉及、包括】施工項(xiàng)目）The results of construction surveying are seen in almost any urban, suburban, and even rural setting.（施工測量的成果能見于幾乎任何城市的、郊外的、甚至鄉(xiāng)村的工程【setting安臵；這里譯為工程】）

Almost any roadway, building, or other man-made structure probably had some amount of construction surveying involved.（幾乎任何道路，建筑，或其它人工建筑物都大概有一些施工測量在內(nèi)）

Construction surveying provides not only the horizontal location of new man-made structures, but also the vertical information required to ensure that surfaces drain or pipes flow as required.（施工測量不只提供新人工建筑物的水平定位，還提供保證表面排水溝渠【drain】或管道【pipe】流動【flow】的豎向的信息）

Construction control: the first on-site job for the construction surveyor is to relocate the horizontal and vertical control used in the preliminary survey.（施工控制：施工測量人員第一項(xiàng)場區(qū)內(nèi)【on site場區(qū)內(nèi)】的工作是重建初測【preliminary survey初測】時的水平和豎直控制）【即工程測量中的定測階段的：恢復(fù)初測控制網(wǎng)】

Generally speaking, the horizontal and vertical control used in the preliminary survey may not be used again in construction surveying.（一般而言，初測的水平和豎直控制在施工測量中不再使用）

Depending on the size and complexity of the project as well as the precision requirements, it may be necessary to reestablish the horizontal and vertical control in the areas of proposed construction.（依靠工程的大小和復(fù)雜性以及設(shè)計(jì)精度，必然【necessary必然的】可以在設(shè)計(jì)【proposed計(jì)劃的、被提議的】建筑物所在場地重建水平和豎直控制）For example, the construction surveyor will establish one or more benchmarks in the general vicinity of the project.（例如，施工測量人員將在大體【general】臨近工程附近【vicinity臨近，附近n.in the vicinity of 在附近】建立一個或多個水準(zhǔn)點(diǎn)）

These benchmarks are placed away from the immediate vicinity of the buildings so they will not be destroyed by the construction operations, and are used to provide vertical control for the project.（這些水準(zhǔn)點(diǎn)被設(shè)臵在離建筑物較遠(yuǎn)的地方【away from遠(yuǎn)離；immediate vicinity緊靠n.直接譯為：離建筑物較遠(yuǎn)】，以免它們被施工工作【operation工作、操作】破壞，并用來提供工程的豎直控制）

Once these are set, the surveyor will then establish a good many less permanent but more accessible benchmarks quite close to the project.（一旦這樣，測量人員將建立一個很多【a good many很多】非永久的【permanent永久的】但是更易接近【accessible易接近的】于工程項(xiàng)目的水準(zhǔn)點(diǎn)）

The location of these less permanent points should be carefully selected so that turning points will ideally not be needed when elevations have to be set at the project.（這些非永久的點(diǎn)位應(yīng)當(dāng)謹(jǐn)慎選取，以保證在對工程高程放樣時盡量【ideally完美地、理想地】不需轉(zhuǎn)點(diǎn)【turning point】）

Such careful selection of the points may result in critical time saving which is so important on construction project.（這些點(diǎn)的這種謹(jǐn)慎的選擇，將會帶來【result in導(dǎo)致，不符合中文習(xí)慣】關(guān)鍵的【critical批評的、危急的，可這里的意思是關(guān)鍵性的，即節(jié)省時間是關(guān)鍵性的】時間的節(jié)省，這在工程的施工工作【construction project】中非常重要）Layout: It is obviously critical for a construction job that the various parts of the structure be placed at the desired elevation.（放樣：這明顯是施工工作中的關(guān)鍵【critical關(guān)鍵的；或者：這明顯對于施工工作來說是關(guān)鍵的】，建筑物的不同部分將放臵【測設(shè)】到設(shè)計(jì)高程上去）

To accomplish this goal the construction surveyor will establish the reference lines or base lines before the actual layout measurements begins.（為了完成這個目的，在實(shí)地放樣測量開始之前施工測量人員將建立參考線或者基線）

For large construction projects, the usual procedure is to set down a main base line down the centerline of the structure, such as the centerline of the bridge.（對于大型施工項(xiàng)目，通常的【usual】做法【procedure程序】是將主基線設(shè)到建筑物的中心線位臵【即，以建筑物中心線為主基線】【set……down放下、設(shè)下】，例如橋中軸線）

The monuments are set along the centerline at each end beyond the area of the construction work.（沿中心線在越過施工場地兩端設(shè)臵標(biāo)石）【還是沿中心線設(shè)臵標(biāo)石，中心線兩端越過施工場地（沿中心線設(shè)臵標(biāo)石，直至越過場地）？】

The monuments along the ends of the line may be occupied by the surveyor and will enable him to check and reset points within the construction areas.（測量者占據(jù)【occupy】基線兩端的標(biāo)石，使得他可以檢查和重現(xiàn)放臵施工場地內(nèi)的點(diǎn)）

The stakes and points set during the process of construction surveying are not usually set at the actual construction point, but usually on some sort of offset.（在施工測量過程中，所設(shè)的測樁和點(diǎn)位通常不在真實(shí)建筑點(diǎn)上，而是通常多少有些【some sort of】偏移【offset】）This is done so that the survey stake is not disturbed by excavation or other activities that will take place at the actual point of construction.（這么做是為了讓測樁不受挖掘或其它在真實(shí)建筑點(diǎn)上會發(fā)生的活動的干擾）

The stakes are marked with an “offset” and a “grade”, which provides the construction crew with the special relationship of the construction stake to the actual point of construction.（測樁偏心設(shè)臵【offset平移 grade斜坡，指的是兩種后果，直接譯為 偏心】，給施工人員提供額外的【special額外的、特殊的】施工樁和實(shí)際建筑點(diǎn)之間的關(guān)系）The “offset” is the distance from the survey stake to the horizontal position of the actual point of construction, and would typically be three feet for curb and gutter to ten feet for underground pipes.（“平移量”是從測樁到實(shí)際建筑點(diǎn)的水平距離，有代表性的如 路邊留3英尺，為地下管道開槽【gutter開槽v.槽n.】10英尺）

Techniques of layout: In construction layout measurement, the data necessary to establish the direction and distance from a control point to locate a construction point can be entered into the instrument via the keyboard or directly from an office computer.（放樣方法：在施工放樣測量中，在控制點(diǎn)為定位建筑點(diǎn)所需的方向和距離數(shù)據(jù)可以經(jīng)由【via】鍵盤或直接通過辦公室計(jì)算機(jī)輸入儀器）

Then the surveyor guides the person holding the prism along the line of computed direction until the distance to the point to be located agrees with the computed distance.（然后測量人員引導(dǎo)【guide】手持棱鏡的人沿計(jì)算出的方向線前行直至到所定點(diǎn)的距離與計(jì)算距離向吻合）

Various techniques may be applied to accomplish this goal.（完成這個目標(biāo)有多種方法）A very popular technique called free station permits the surveyor to set up the total station at any convenient position and then to determine the coordinates and elevation of that instrument position by sighting previously coordinated reference stations.（一個非常流行的方法叫做自由設(shè)站法【free station自由設(shè)站法】，允許測量人員在任何便利的【convenient方便的】地方設(shè)臵全站儀，然后事先【previously】照準(zhǔn)【sighting】已知坐標(biāo)的【coordinated坐標(biāo)已知的】參考位臵，以確定儀器站點(diǎn)的坐標(biāo)和高程）

After the instrument has been set up over this instrument position(a control point)and properly oriented, angles or azimuths from the control point and distances to each layout point may be indicated.（在儀器在站點(diǎn)（控制點(diǎn)）設(shè)臵并適當(dāng)定向【orient】后，從控制點(diǎn)到每個放樣點(diǎn)的角度或方位角和距離就可以被指出【indicate】）

Now many total stations have such functions that the coordinates and elevations of the layout points may be uploaded into the total station, the instrument’s display shows the left/right, forward/back, and up/down movements needed to place the prism in each of the desired positions.（現(xiàn)在許多全站儀有這樣的功能可以將放樣點(diǎn)的坐標(biāo)和高程輸入全站儀，儀器的顯示器【display顯示器】會顯示棱鏡到每個設(shè)計(jì)點(diǎn)需要左/右，前/后，和上/下的移動）

As-built surveys: When the construction surveying has been completed, a final survey is performed.（竣工測量：當(dāng)施工測量完成，最后的測量工作被執(zhí)行）

The final survey includes cross sections and locations that are used for final payments to the contractor and for the completion of an as-built drawing.（最后的測量工作包括橫斷面圖和定位，以用來【be used for用來做】做向承建人【contractor】末期付款【final payment】和完成竣工圖【as-built drawing】用的）

These are the as-built surveys and they are used to check the contractor’s work and show locations of structures and their components(water line, sewer, etc.), which will be needed for future maintenance, changes, and new construction.（這些就是竣工測量，它們被用來檢查承建人的工作和顯示建筑物位臵以及它們的結(jié)構(gòu)（水管，下水道，等等），將用來以后的維護(hù)【maintenance】、改造、和新建。）

第二篇：工程專業(yè)英語課文翻譯

合同規(guī)定，影響現(xiàn)金流量，的承建商必須認(rèn)識到，實(shí)現(xiàn)對某一特定項(xiàng)目的現(xiàn)金流量，將取決于在一定程度上按照合同的約定。的時間收到的收入，這是尤其如此，因此，它是重要的合同文件進(jìn)行仔細(xì)檢查，以充分了解合約條款將影響現(xiàn)金流的項(xiàng)目。考慮幾乎在每一個項(xiàng)目上的一些項(xiàng)目將被討論。付款時間表：該類型的合同規(guī)定的付款時間表的一般性質(zhì)。單價合同，投標(biāo)本身的各種收費(fèi)項(xiàng)目中列舉。收費(fèi)項(xiàng)目的列表給出了一個清晰的信息需要進(jìn)行一個現(xiàn)金流analysis.Of的特別興趣項(xiàng)目，具體包括收費(fèi)項(xiàng)目或明確排除的薪酬項(xiàng)目。對于exrample，動員可以是一個大的成本項(xiàng)目的承包商，在項(xiàng)目的早期發(fā)生。一個人可以許可動員的薪酬項(xiàng)目，僅僅是為了防止承包商承擔(dān)一個大的負(fù)現(xiàn)金流，在項(xiàng)目的早期，有些業(yè)主支付的動員與等量的規(guī)定，被分配到復(fù)員。有些業(yè)主sirrtply不支付動員，聲稱不提高項(xiàng)目本身的價值僅僅存在幾件裝備或一些臨時建筑物。其他項(xiàng)目，并不總是要在合同中的項(xiàng)目包括的模板，scaffoldinig，和支撐。這些物品可能是必不可少的交付項(xiàng)目，但不這樣做，對自己帶來任何價值的項(xiàng)目。例如，如果模板拆除混凝土澆筑前，沒有任何價值被添加到項(xiàng)目中。承包商會，當(dāng)然，必須支付這些項(xiàng)目。為了報銷，承辦商必須簡單地分配這些成本在一些時尚的其他收費(fèi)項(xiàng)目。的分布可能是“一刀切”的費(fèi)用可轉(zhuǎn)移到一定的工資項(xiàng)目，可能會產(chǎn)生更有利的承包商的現(xiàn)金流。這種分配的成本必須小心。

第三篇：測繪工程專業(yè)英語

From the discussion thus far it can be stated with absolute certainty that all measured values contain errors , whether due to lack of refinement in reading , instrumental imperfection or human limitations.Some of these errors result from physical conditions that cause them to occur in systematic way , whereas others occur with apparent randomness.Accordingly , errors are classified as either systematic or random.But before defining systematic and random errors , it is helpful to define mistakes.These three terms are defined as follows:

1、Mistake.Mistake or blunders(gross errors)actually are not errors because they usually are so gross in magnitude compared to the other two types of errors.Carelessness , inattention , improper training , bad habits ,poor judgement , adverse measuring or observing conditions , and various negative attitudes and emotions are the traces or the common reasons for mistakes.They are not classified as errors and must be removed form any set of observations.Typical example of mistakes are omitting a whole tape length when measuring distance , sighting the wrong target in a round of angles , writing down 27.55 for 25.75 in recording.Therefore great care must be taken to obviate them

Mistakes will never be completely eliminated from measurements , but surveyor's careful , attentive , conscientious attitude can reduce the mistakes in most cases.Through proper training and development of good work habits , development and maintenance of positive attitudes , and understanding the theory and practically eliminated.2、systematic errors.Systematic errors are defined as those errors whose magnitude and algebraic sign can be calculated and applied as a correction to the measured quantity , or these errors follow some physical law and thus can be predicted.Some systematic errorsare removed by some correct measurement procedures(e , g, , balancing backsight and foresight distance in differential leveling to compensate for earth curvature and refraction).Others are removed by deriving corrections based on the physical conditions that were responsible for their creation(e ,g , applying a computed correction for earth curvature and refraction on a trigonometric leveling observation).Surveyors should know how to deal with systematic errors.The first requirement is to recognize and accept the possible existence of errors.Next , identify the various sources that might be affecting a reading systematically , then , determine what the system is.Is it a constant , linear, or in proportion to the size of the quantity being measured ? Or , does it follow some other mathematical relationship ? Is there some physics involved ? Once systematic errors discovered and quantified , the errors can be essentially compensated by certain processes of measuring or correctedto reduce their effect.Careful calibration of all instruments is an essential part of controlling systematic errors3、Random errors.Random(also known as a accident)errors are introduce into each measurement mainly because of human and instrument imperfections as well as uncertainties in determining the effects of the environment on measurements.After all mistakes and systematic errors have been removed from the measured values , the random errors remain.In general , random errors are unavoidable and relatively small.They usually do not follow any physical law , but it can be deal with and estimated according to the mathematical laws of probability.Examples of random errors are(a)imperfect centering over a ground point during distance measurement with an EDM instrument ,(b)bubble not centered at the instant a level rod is read , and(c)small errors in reading graduated scales

Understanding the nature of random errors helps to understand why random errors never really

fully corrected , since the observation of the physical phenomena contains personal , random errors.Thus , measurement have “uncertainties” or random errors that remain unquantifiable.Random errorsare dealt with by controlling or managing them.It is a quality control process.They cannot be corrected or eliminated , only minimized and controlled.

第四篇：制藥工程專業(yè)英語 Unit 13 課文翻譯

Unit 13Sterile Products

Sterile Products

Sterile products are dosage forms of therapeutic agents that are free of viable microorganisms.Principally，these include parenteral，ophthalmic，irrigating preparations.Of these, and parenteral products are unique among dosage forms of drugs because they are injected through the skin or mucous membranes into internal body compartment.Thus，because they have circumvented the highly efficient first line of body defense，the skin and mucous membranes，they must be free from microbial contamination and from toxic components as well as possess an exceptionally high level of purity.All components and processes involved in the preparation of these products must be selected and designed to eliminate，as much as possible，contamination of all types，whether of physical，chemical，or microbiologic origin.Preparations for the eye, though not introduced into internal body cavities，are placed in contact with tissues that are very sensitive to contamination.Therefore，similar standards are required for ophthalmic preparations).Irrigating solutions are now also required to meet the same standards as parenteral solutions because during an irrigation procedure，substantial amounts of these solutions can enter the bloodstream directly through open blood vessels of wounds or abraded mucous membranes.Therefore，the characteristics and standards presented in this chapter for the production of large-volume parenteral solutions apply equally to irrigating solutions.Sterile products are most frequently solutions or suspensions，but may even be solid pellets for tissue implantation.The control of a process to minimize contamination for a small quantity of such a product can be achieved with relative ease.As the quantity of product increases，the problems of controlling the process to prevent contamination multiply.Therefore，the preparation of sterile products has become a highly specialized area in pharmaceutical processing.The standards established，the attitude of personnel，and the process control must be of a第13 單元 無菌產(chǎn)品 無菌產(chǎn)品 無菌產(chǎn)品是不含微生物活體的治療劑劑型，其主要包括非腸道用的、眼用的和沖洗用的制劑。這之中，非腸道用產(chǎn)品在藥物劑型當(dāng)中是（較為）特別的因?yàn)樗鼈兪峭ㄟ^皮膚和黏膜被注射到人體內(nèi)部的。這樣，由于它們進(jìn)入了高效率的人體第一道免疫防線——皮膚和黏膜，（所以）它們必須沒有微生物感染和有毒成分，同時又（必須）具有特別高的純度。這些產(chǎn)品的制備過程中涉及到的所有組分和（工藝）流程都必須經(jīng)過選擇和設(shè)計(jì)以盡可能地消除各種類型的污染，無論是來自物理的、化學(xué)的，還是微生物的。眼用制劑盡管沒有被引入到內(nèi)部體腔，但它仍與對污染（物）敏感的組織有接觸，因此，對眼用制劑也要求（與非腸道用制劑）類似的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。沖洗液現(xiàn)在也要求滿足和非腸道用溶液一樣的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，因?yàn)樵跊_洗過程中，大量的沖洗液都可以通過敞開的血管傷口或者擦傷的黏膜組織直接進(jìn)入到血液。因此，本章中描述的有關(guān)非腸道用溶液大批量生產(chǎn)的特點(diǎn)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，對于沖洗液同樣適用。無菌產(chǎn)品通常是溶液或者懸浮液，但甚至也可以是用于組織對端植入的固體藥丸。對于少量的這種產(chǎn)品，使其污染降到最低的工藝控制可以相對容易地實(shí)現(xiàn)。（但）隨著產(chǎn)品量的增加，控制工藝流程從而防止污染的困難也會增加。因而，無菌產(chǎn)品的制備已經(jīng)成為藥品加工里一個高度專業(yè)化的領(lǐng)域。制定的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、人員的態(tài)度和工藝流程的控制都必須有著優(yōu)秀的水平。

superior level.Vehicles

By far the most frequently employed vehicle for sterile

products is water，since it is the vehicle for all natural body

fluids.The superior quality required for such use is

described in the monograph on Water for Injection in the

USP.Requirements may be even more stringent for some

products，however.One of the most inclusive tests for the quality of water is

the total solids content，a gravimetric evaluation of the

dissociated and undissociated organic and inorganic

substances present in the water.However，a less

time-consuming test，the electrolytic measurement of

conductivity of the water，is the one most frequently used.Instantaneous measurements can be obtained by immersing

electrodes in the water and measuring the specific

conductance, a measurement that depends on the ionic

content of the water.The conductance may be expressed by

the meter scale as conductivity in micromhos，resistance in

megohms , or ionic content as parts per million(ppm)of

sodium chloride.The validity of this measurement as an

indication of the purity of the water is inferential in that

methods of producing high-purity water，such as distillation

and reverse osmosis，can be expected to remove

undissociated substances along with those that are

dissociated.Undissociated substances such as pyrogens，however，could be present in the absence of ions and not be

disclosed by the test.Therefore，for contaminants other than

ions，additional tests should be performed.Additional tests for quality of Water for Injection with

permitted limits are described in the USP monographs.When comparing the total solids permitted for Water for

Injection with that for Sterile Water for Injection，one will

note that considerably higher values are permitted for Sterile

Water for Injection.This is necessary because the latter

product has been sterilized，usually by a thermal method，in

a container that has dissolved to some extent in the water.Therefore，the solids content will be greater than for the

nonsterilized product.On the other hand，the 10 ppm total

solids officially permitted for Water for Injection may be

much too high when used as the vehicle for many products.In practice, Water for Injection normally should not have a

conductivity of more than 1 micromho(1 megohm，approximately 0.1 ppm NaCl).溶媒 到目前為止，最常被用于無菌產(chǎn)品的溶媒就是水，因?yàn)樗ㄒ玻┦撬凶匀惑w液的溶媒。該用途所要求的優(yōu)良特性在《美國藥典》的《注射用水》專題論文中有所描述。但對于某些產(chǎn)品來說，要求可能會更為苛刻。水質(zhì)檢驗(yàn)的一種最普遍的測試就是固體總含量，一種對水中解離的和不解離的有機(jī)物和無機(jī)物在重量上的評估。然而，一種用時較少的測試——水導(dǎo)電性的電解測量——則是最常用的（測試方法），它通過把電極浸入水中測出具體的電導(dǎo)率，就可以實(shí)現(xiàn)即刻測量，是一種基于水中離子含量的測量方法。電導(dǎo)率可以通過表頭刻度盤以電導(dǎo)／微姆歐、電阻／兆歐姆或者離子含量／ppm NaCl的形式顯示出來。作為水純度的指示，這種測量方法的正確性只是推理性的，因?yàn)橐恍┥a(chǎn)高純度水的方法，比如蒸餾和反滲透，可以將不解離的物質(zhì)同那些解離的物質(zhì)一起除去。但是不解離的物質(zhì)例如熱原，可以不以離子的形式存在，因而不能被這種方法檢測出來。因此，對于除離子之外的（其他）污染物，還需要進(jìn)行另外的檢測。具有特殊用途的注射用水的水質(zhì)附加測試在美國藥典中有專篇描述。當(dāng)把注射用水和無菌注射用水所允許的固體總含量做比較時，你會發(fā)現(xiàn)無菌注射用水允許有相當(dāng)高的值。這是必要的，因?yàn)楹笳呤墙?jīng)過滅菌的，通常是通過一種熱途徑，在一個在一定程度上溶解于水的容器中。因而，其固體含量會比沒有滅菌的產(chǎn)品要高得多。另一方面，官方對于注射用水所允許的10 ppm的固體總含量，對于許多產(chǎn)品來說，作為溶媒其值可能都太高了。事 實(shí)上，注射用水其電導(dǎo)一般不應(yīng) 該超過1微姆歐（1兆歐，大約 0.1 ppm NaCl）。

Added Substances.添加劑

Substances added to a product to enhance its stability are 添加到產(chǎn)品當(dāng)中用以提高產(chǎn)品穩(wěn)essential for almost every product.Such substances include 定性的物質(zhì)，對于幾乎每種產(chǎn)品solubilizers，antioxidants，chelating agents，buffers，來說都是必不可少的。這樣的物tonicity contributors，antibacterial agents，antifungal 質(zhì)包括增溶劑、抗氧劑、螯合劑、agents，hydrolysis inhibitors，antifoaming agents，and 緩沖劑、tonicity contributor、抗numerous other substances for specialized purposes.At the 菌劑、殺菌劑、水解抑制劑、消same time，these agents must be prevented from adversely 沫劑和許多其他的有專門用途的affecting the product.In general，added substances must be 物質(zhì)。同時，這些組分必須不能nontoxic in the quantity administered to the patient.They 對產(chǎn)品有不利影響。一般來說，should not interfere with the therapeutic efficacy nor with 添加劑必須在病人的給藥量范圍the assay of the active therapeutic compound.They must 內(nèi)是無毒的。它們不應(yīng)該干擾（產(chǎn)also be present and active when needed throughout the 品的）治療效果，也不能干擾有useful life of the product.Therefore，these agents must be 效活性化合物的測定。在產(chǎn)品的selected with great care，and they must be evaluated as to 整個有效期內(nèi)，需要它們時，它their effect upon the entire formulation.-An extensive 們必須存在并且有效。因此，對review of excipients used in parenteral products and the 這些物質(zhì)必須非常小心地進(jìn)行挑means for adjusting pH of these products has recently been 選，而且對它們對整個配方的影published and should be referred to for more detailed 響也必須進(jìn)行評估。一篇關(guān)于用information.在非腸道用產(chǎn)品中的賦形劑和調(diào)節(jié)這些產(chǎn)品pH的方法的綜述，最近已經(jīng)出版，更多的詳細(xì)信息 可參閱之。

Formulation配方

The formulation of a parenteral product involves the 非腸道用產(chǎn)品的配方涉及一個或combination of one or more ingredients with a medicinal 者更多組成部分間的結(jié)合，這些agent to enhance the convenience，acceptability，or 組成部分（各自）都含有一種用effectiveness of the product.Rarely is it preferable to 以提高產(chǎn)品方便性、可接受性或dispense a drug singly as a sterile dry powder unless the 者療效的有效成分。（人們）很少formulation of a stable liquid preparation is not possible.愿意把藥物僅僅以一種無菌的、On the other hand，a therapeutic agent is a chemical 干燥的粉末（的形式）配售，除compound subject to the physical and chemical reactions 非（把它做成）穩(wěn)定的液體制劑characteristic of the class of compounds to which it belongs.的配方是行不通的。Therefore，a careful evaluation must be made of every 另一方面，治療劑（藥物的有效combination of two or more ingredients to ascertain whether or not adverse interactions occur，and if they do，of ways to 的物理和化學(xué)反應(yīng)特性的一種化modify the formulation so that the reactions are eliminated 合物。因此對每一個兩種或更多or minimized.The formulation of sterile products is 組成部分間的結(jié)合都必須有一個challenging，therefore，to the knowledge and ingenuity of 仔細(xì)的評估，弄清楚會不會有不the persons responsible.The amount of information 良反應(yīng)發(fā)生。如果有，則須找到

available to the formulator concerning the physical and 改進(jìn)配方的方法以使反應(yīng)消除或chemical properties of a therapeutic agent，particularly if it is 者降低到最小。因此，無菌產(chǎn)品a new compound，is often quite meager.Information 的配方是對負(fù)責(zé)人員知識和獨(dú)創(chuàng)concerning basic properties muse be obtained，including 性的一個挑戰(zhàn)。配方設(shè)計(jì)師可得molecular weight，solubility，purity，colligative properties，到的關(guān)于治療劑（藥物的有效成and chemical reactivity，before an intelligent approach to 分）物理和化學(xué)性質(zhì)的信息量通formulation can begin.Improvements in formulation are a 常是很少的，尤其當(dāng)治療劑是一continuing‘ process，since important properties of a drug or 種新的化合物時。關(guān)于（治療劑）of the total formulation may not become evident until the 基本性質(zhì)的信息，包括分子量、product has been stored or used for a prolonged time: 溶解度、純度、依數(shù)性和化學(xué)反However，because of the extensive test documentation 應(yīng)性，必須在一種好的組建配方required by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration(FDA)，的方法可以開始之前得到。配方only outstanding formulations can be justified for 的改善是一個連續(xù)不斷的過程，continuance to the state of a maketed product.因?yàn)樗幬锘蛘w配方的一些重要 性質(zhì)只有在貯存或者使用了很長 時間之后才可能會變得明顯。然 而，由于美國食品及藥物管理局 大量的測試要求文件，（使得）只 有那些杰出的配方才能繼續(xù)發(fā)展 成為上市產(chǎn)品。

生產(chǎn)

Production 生產(chǎn)過程包括從配方的各個組成 The production process includes all of the steps from the 部分的積聚和結(jié)合到產(chǎn)品封裝入accumulation and combining of the ingredients of the 用于分售的單個包裝內(nèi)的所有步formula to the enclosing of the product in the individual 驟。和這些過程有緊密聯(lián)系的是container for distribution.Intimately associated with these 搬運(yùn)人員和執(zhí)行這些步驟的設(shè)processes are the personnel who carry them out and the 備。計(jì)劃出來的最理想的過程也facilities in which they are performed.The most ideally 會因?yàn)闆]有正確態(tài)度或沒有接受planned processes can be rendered ineffective by personnel 正確培訓(xùn)的人員或者不能提供一who do not have the right attitude or training，or by facilities 個有效的控制環(huán)境的設(shè)備而變得that do not provide an efficiently controlled environment.無效。

To enhance the assurance of successful manufacturing 為了增加成功的生產(chǎn)操作的保operation，all process steps must be carefully reduced to 證，所有的過程步驟在證明是有writing after being shown to be effective.These written 效的之后都要仔細(xì)地歸納成書面process steps are often called standard.operating procedures 材料，這些書面的過程步驟經(jīng)常(SOPs)⑥.No extemporaneous changes are permitted to be 被稱為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)操作規(guī)程（SOPs）。made in these procedures;any change must go through the 這些規(guī)程是不允許進(jìn)行臨時改動same approval steps as the original written SOP.Further，的;任何改動都必須經(jīng)過和原有extensive records must be kept to give assurance at the end 的書面規(guī)程一樣的證明步驟的證of the production process that all steps have been performed 明。而且，還需要做大量的記錄，as prescribed，an aspect emphasized in the FDA's Good 以便在生產(chǎn)過程的最后用來保Manufacturing Practices.Such in-process control is essential 證：所有的步驟都是按照規(guī)定執(zhí)to assuring the quality of the product，since these assurances 行的。這是美國食品及藥物管理are even more significant than those from product release 局藥品生產(chǎn)質(zhì)量管理規(guī)范中所強(qiáng)

testing.The production of.a quality product is a result of the 調(diào)的一個方面。這些中間控制對continuous，dedicated effort of the quality assurance，于保證產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量來說是必要

production，and quality control personnel within the plant in 的，因?yàn)檫@些保證甚至比產(chǎn)品發(fā)developing，performing，and confirming effective sops.行測試的控制還重要。一件優(yōu)質(zhì)Selected from Lachman Leon et al.The Theory and Practice 產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)，是車間里在開發(fā)、of Industrial Pharmacy, 3rd ed.，Lea and Febiger, 執(zhí)行和確認(rèn)有效標(biāo)準(zhǔn)操作規(guī)程中Philadelphia，1986.的那些品質(zhì)保證、生產(chǎn)和質(zhì)量控 制人員不懈而專注的努力的結(jié) 果。

第五篇：制藥工程專業(yè)英語9單元課文翻譯

Thoughout recorded縱觀歷史記載，細(xì)菌感染的人口定期付出沉重的收費(fèi)。鼠疫菌的“黑死病”鼠疫的1347-1351期間，估計(jì)有25萬人在亞洲和歐洲死亡。美國公共衛(wèi)生服務(wù)統(tǒng)計(jì)為1910年和1920年的節(jié)目，在這個早在本世紀(jì)結(jié)核病死亡每1000名美國居民中的一個。即使在今天，主要是在發(fā)展中國家，結(jié)核分枝桿菌仍然是主要死亡原因由于在單染性病，全世界每年殺害超過三百萬

Such 整個脊椎動物進(jìn)化過程中的這種不懈的微生物攻擊，挑起了一個令人驚訝的復(fù)雜的保護(hù)性免疫系統(tǒng)的進(jìn)化。隨著人類的外觀，最終到達(dá)一個物種可以設(shè)法協(xié)助先天和后天免疫系統(tǒng)，避免感染。通過利用微生物的抗原成分（疫苗和馬血清抗毒素的產(chǎn)生），然后微生物次生代謝產(chǎn)物（抗生素），已成為人類善于預(yù)防和治療許多以前致命的微生物疾病。

Within在短短的幾十年，抗感染藥藥典的可用性突然提供了人類的潛力，以提高他們的生存前景下不斷微生物攔河壩規(guī)避自然的經(jīng)過時間考驗(yàn)的，活的或死的進(jìn)化范式。那些以前會屈服于成員現(xiàn)在可以存活時間較長的疫苗和抗生素的幫助助劑-抗感染免疫系統(tǒng)一起工作。實(shí)際上，人類對這些助劑的就業(yè)可以作為例證在他們的免疫防御系統(tǒng)的自我做作的演變看。

Once當(dāng)爵士亞歷山大·弗萊明發(fā)現(xiàn)青霉素的效用已經(jīng)證明，從發(fā)掘出的天然來源的其他抗生素亂舞緊隨其后。其中一些被證明適用于治療疾病，通常經(jīng)過化學(xué)改性，以提高天然化合物的效力，安全性或藥代動力學(xué)

Alpha

For對于大多數(shù)在過去50年中，看來，醫(yī)學(xué)獲得了強(qiáng)大的手上的細(xì)菌病。某些制藥廠和研發(fā)機(jī)構(gòu)決定減少對抗生素的發(fā)現(xiàn)成果，因?yàn)樗某霈F(xiàn)，醫(yī)生的抗菌軍火庫是充足。但疾病的性質(zhì)已經(jīng)證明并非如此。

The在多種抗生素耐藥病原體的發(fā)病率迅速升級現(xiàn)在提高全球非常嚴(yán)重的問題。這種發(fā)展突出了強(qiáng)大的進(jìn)化能力的細(xì)菌種群的選擇壓力下的抗生素治療。

Resistance抗藥性問題被視為與革蘭氏陰性（例如大腸桿菌）和革蘭氏陽性菌（如金黃色葡萄球菌），但目前關(guān)注的最后一組的病原體。肺炎鏈球菌是呼吸道革蘭氏陽性病原體，僅在美國一年的40000人死亡負(fù)責(zé)。，現(xiàn)在在許多國家，耐青霉素肺炎鏈球菌感染的患病率迅速上升。最糟的情況之一是在匈牙利，其中70％，從1988-1989年測試的兒童肺炎鏈球菌菌株對青霉素耐藥

Bacteria細(xì)菌已經(jīng)進(jìn)化無數(shù)花招挫敗抗生素的行動, 他們停用抗生素水解，酰化，磷酸化，或者核苷酸化反應(yīng)；改變抗生素的目標(biāo)站點(diǎn)或減少細(xì)胞內(nèi)藥物濃度降低細(xì)胞膜的通透性和/或積極抽水細(xì)胞的藥物。with通過分子生物學(xué)和生物化學(xué)技術(shù)，這些耐藥機(jī)制的認(rèn)識提高，藥物化學(xué)家一直試圖繞過一些阻力問題提供目標(biāo)。

A predominant針對內(nèi)酰胺類藥物的主要耐藥機(jī)制（如青霉素），涉及內(nèi)酰胺環(huán)的酶裂解。While雖然藥物甲氧苯青霉素的開發(fā)，因?yàn)樵?961年，短短兩年后，藥物首先到了廣泛使用。MRSA菌株進(jìn)化，使他們有一個額外的藥物靶蛋白參與細(xì)胞壁合成，并改變這種蛋白具有非常低的親和力幾乎所有內(nèi)酰胺。在一些醫(yī)院，TO更的是，大多數(shù)MRSA菌株也有許多其他類抗生素

耐藥，糖萬古霉素的異常。Now現(xiàn)在世界各地，MRSA菌株日本很成問題（60％的金黃色葡萄球菌菌株MRSA），以及西班牙，法國，意大利和美國，與發(fā)病率大于30％

A particularly一個特別令人不安的里程碑是1988年耐萬古霉素腸球菌（VRE）的出現(xiàn)。some一些抗萬古霉素腸球菌現(xiàn)在不回應(yīng)任何可用抗生素。腸球菌已成為最經(jīng)常遇到的第二醫(yī)院獲得性病原體分離。抗萬古霉素產(chǎn)生，因?yàn)?D-丙氨酸-e-乳酸渣（其中萬古霉素結(jié)合知之甚少）已被通常在涉及細(xì)菌的細(xì)胞墻1五肽前體的終點(diǎn)，D-丙氨酸-e-丙氨酸殘基取代合成There 在抗萬古霉素腸球菌糖肽類如萬古霉素抗性基因，將自然轉(zhuǎn)移到金黃色葡萄球菌，已經(jīng)實(shí)驗(yàn)證明可行威廉高貴圣托馬斯醫(yī)院，倫敦現(xiàn)在有一個極大的關(guān)注。作為萬古霉素是治療MRSA感染這種致命的病原體，抗萬古霉素的自然預(yù)期收購不得已的藥物會導(dǎo)致發(fā)人深省的回報預(yù)先抗生素治療失敗的時代，應(yīng)該沒有備用的有效療法可用

Conclusions結(jié)論

人類使用抗生素迅速加快了人類和細(xì)菌之間的動態(tài)演化的相互作用。The新制劑，最近在多藥耐藥的革蘭氏陽性細(xì)菌感染的迅速崛起，全世界敲響了一個響亮的電氣警笛需要新的，有效的治療方法，這里可以提供翻新阿森納的醫(yī)生。

The discovery細(xì)菌通過基因組學(xué)研究新的藥物靶標(biāo)，以及改善我們了解細(xì)菌耐藥性機(jī)制的發(fā)現(xiàn)，按住發(fā)現(xiàn)多藥耐藥細(xì)菌感染治療的新手段的承諾。給予足夠的時間，細(xì)菌會最終是能夠開發(fā)任何新的抗菌劑的阻力。這些藥物可以通過一種新的機(jī)制攻擊病原體有可能降低快速耐藥性的發(fā)展的傾向。