第一篇：外文文獻(xiàn)報(bào)告格式

科技文獻(xiàn)檢索報(bào)告 篇二：文獻(xiàn)綜述、開題報(bào)告、外文翻譯格式要求暨模板

文獻(xiàn)綜述、開題報(bào)告、外文翻譯格式要求

一、文檔格式 1.打印格式

紙張統(tǒng)一用a4紙，頁面設(shè)置：上：2.7；下：2.7；左：2.7；右：2.7；頁眉：1.8；頁腳：1.85。文檔網(wǎng)絡(luò)，每行42字符，每頁40行；段落格式為：多陪行距，1.25陪，段前、段后均為0磅。

一、二級標(biāo)題可適當(dāng)選擇加寬，設(shè)置為：段前、段后均為6磅。頁腳設(shè)置為：插入頁碼，居中。

2.字體設(shè)置

文檔標(biāo)題采用楷體_gb2312，三號(hào)字體，加粗，居中。

一級標(biāo)題采用楷體_gb2312，四號(hào)字體，加粗，左側(cè)頂格。

二級標(biāo)題采用宋體，小四號(hào)字體，加粗，縮進(jìn)兩個(gè)中文字符。

三級標(biāo)題采用宋體，小四字體，縮進(jìn)兩個(gè)中文字符。

正文采用小四號(hào)宋體字，數(shù)字用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字，字母和數(shù)字用times new roman。

二、文獻(xiàn)綜述

文獻(xiàn)綜述要求字?jǐn)?shù)在4000字以上，采用學(xué)院統(tǒng)一格式，文檔標(biāo)題根據(jù)題目類型，標(biāo)題用“嘉興學(xué)院南湖學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文文獻(xiàn)綜述”或“嘉興學(xué)院南湖學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文獻(xiàn)綜述”。頁面設(shè)置和字體設(shè)置按照上述文檔格式要求編輯。應(yīng)按要求認(rèn)真填寫。

（1）文獻(xiàn)綜述應(yīng)包括綜述題目、綜述正文、文獻(xiàn)資料等幾方面內(nèi)容；（2）文獻(xiàn)綜述時(shí)，應(yīng)系統(tǒng)地查閱與自己的研究方向有關(guān)的國內(nèi)外文獻(xiàn)，通常閱讀文獻(xiàn)不少于15篇，其中外文文獻(xiàn)不少于2篇；

（3）文獻(xiàn)綜述中，學(xué)生應(yīng)說明自己研究方向的發(fā)展歷史，前人的主要研究成果，存在的問題及發(fā)展趨勢等；

（4）文獻(xiàn)綜述要條理清晰，文字通順簡練；

（5）資料運(yùn)用恰當(dāng)、合理。文獻(xiàn)引用用方括號(hào)[ ]括起來置于引用詞的右上角；（6）綜述中要有自己的觀點(diǎn)和見解。鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生多發(fā)現(xiàn)問題、多提出問題，并指出分析、解決問題的可能途徑

注意：主題部分的一級標(biāo)題題目，應(yīng)結(jié)合畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的主題來編寫。

三、開題報(bào)告

開題報(bào)告要求字?jǐn)?shù)在4000字以上，采用學(xué)院統(tǒng)一格式。文檔標(biāo)題根據(jù)題目類型，標(biāo)題用“嘉興學(xué)院南湖學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文開題報(bào)告”或“嘉興學(xué)院南湖學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)開題報(bào)告”。頁面設(shè)置和字體設(shè)置按照上述文檔格式要求編輯。應(yīng)按要求認(rèn)真填寫，且務(wù)必于畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）環(huán)節(jié)正式開始前完成。

四、外文翻譯

要求本科生畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）必須翻譯每篇2000單詞以上的外文翻譯二篇，外文翻譯包括外文文獻(xiàn)原文和譯文，外文原文要盡可能與所做課題緊密聯(lián)系，避免翻譯資料選取的隨意性，譯文要符合外文格式規(guī)范和翻譯習(xí)慣。

文檔標(biāo)題根據(jù)題目類型，標(biāo)題用“嘉興學(xué)院南湖學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯”或“嘉興學(xué)院南湖學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯”。頁面設(shè)置和字體設(shè)置按照上述文檔格式要求編輯。

“abstract：”（小四號(hào)times new roman，加粗，頂格），同行接英文摘要原文，五號(hào)times new roman字體。

“keywords：”（小四號(hào)times new roman，加粗，頂格），同行接關(guān)鍵詞，關(guān)鍵詞之間用逗號(hào)分割，用五號(hào)times new roman字體。篇三：畢業(yè)論文的選題報(bào)告、外文翻譯及文獻(xiàn)綜述的格式和要求

機(jī)械與材料工程學(xué)院關(guān)于畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文獻(xiàn)綜述的寫作要求

為了進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)化學(xué)生搜集文獻(xiàn)資料的能力，熟悉專業(yè)文獻(xiàn)資料查找和資料積累方法，提高對文獻(xiàn)資料的歸納、分析、綜合運(yùn)用能力，提高獨(dú)立工作能力和科研能力，并為科研活動(dòng)奠定扎實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。根據(jù)學(xué)校要求，畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)必須查閱一定的文獻(xiàn)資料實(shí)施文獻(xiàn)綜述寫作制度。為了進(jìn)一步規(guī)范文獻(xiàn)綜述的寫作，現(xiàn)將文獻(xiàn)綜述寫作要求明確如下：

一、撰寫文獻(xiàn)綜述的基本要求

文獻(xiàn)綜述是針對某一研究領(lǐng)域或?qū)ｎ}搜集大量文獻(xiàn)資料的基礎(chǔ)上，就國內(nèi)外在該領(lǐng)域或?qū)ｎ}的主要研究成果、最新進(jìn)展、研究動(dòng)態(tài)、前沿問題等進(jìn)行綜合分析而寫成的、能比較全面的反映相關(guān)領(lǐng)域或?qū)ｎ}歷史背景、前人工作、爭論焦點(diǎn)、研究現(xiàn)狀和發(fā)展前景等內(nèi)容的綜述性文章。“綜”是要求對文獻(xiàn)資料進(jìn)行綜合分析、歸納整理，使材料更精練明確、更有邏輯層次；“述”就是要求對綜合整理后的文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行比較專門的、全面的、深入的、系統(tǒng)的評述。

二、撰寫文獻(xiàn)綜述的基本注意事項(xiàng)

1、文獻(xiàn)綜述是一篇相對獨(dú)立的綜述性學(xué)術(shù)報(bào)告，包括題目、前言、正文、總結(jié)等幾個(gè)部分。

題目：一般應(yīng)直接采用《文獻(xiàn)綜述》作為標(biāo)題，經(jīng)指導(dǎo)教師批準(zhǔn)也可以所研究題目或主要論題加“文獻(xiàn)綜述”的方式作為標(biāo)題。

前言：點(diǎn)明畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的論題、學(xué)術(shù)意義以及其與所閱讀文獻(xiàn)的關(guān)系，簡要說明文獻(xiàn)收集的目的、重點(diǎn)、時(shí)空范圍、文獻(xiàn)種類、核心刊物等方面的內(nèi)容。

正文：無固定格式，文獻(xiàn)綜述在邏輯上要合理，可以按文獻(xiàn)與畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）主題的關(guān)系由遠(yuǎn)而近進(jìn)行綜述，也可以按年代順序綜述，也可按不同的問題進(jìn)行綜述，還可按不同的觀點(diǎn)進(jìn)行比較綜述。總之要根據(jù)畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的具體情況撰寫，對畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）所采用的全部參考文獻(xiàn)分類、歸納、分析、比較、評述，應(yīng)特別注意對主流、權(quán)威文獻(xiàn)學(xué)術(shù)成果的引用和評述，注意發(fā)現(xiàn)已有成果的不足。

結(jié)論：對全文的評述做出簡明扼要的總結(jié)，重點(diǎn)說明對畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）具有啟示、借鑒或作為畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）重要論述依據(jù)的相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)已有成果的學(xué)術(shù)意義、應(yīng)用價(jià)值和不足，提出自己的研究目標(biāo)。2．要圍繞畢業(yè)論文主題對文獻(xiàn)的各種觀點(diǎn)作比較分析，不要教科書式地將與研究課題有關(guān)的理論和學(xué)派觀點(diǎn)簡要地匯總陳述一遍。3．評述（特別是批評前人不足）時(shí)，要引用原作者的原文（防止對原作者論點(diǎn)的誤解），不要貶低別人抬高自己，不能從二手材料來判定原作者的“錯(cuò)誤”。4．文獻(xiàn)綜述結(jié)果要說清前人工作的不足，襯托出作進(jìn)一步研究的必要性和理論價(jià)值。5．采用了文獻(xiàn)中的觀點(diǎn)和內(nèi)容應(yīng)注明來源，模型、圖表、數(shù)據(jù)應(yīng)注明出處，不要含糊不清。

6．文獻(xiàn)綜述最后要有簡要總結(jié)，并能準(zhǔn)確地反映主題內(nèi)容，表明前人為該領(lǐng)域研究打下的工作基礎(chǔ)。

7．所有提到的參考文獻(xiàn)都應(yīng)和所畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）研究問題直接相關(guān)。8．文獻(xiàn)綜述所用的文獻(xiàn)，與畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的論題直接相關(guān)，與畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的參考文獻(xiàn)數(shù)量完全一致；重要論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)不得以教材、非學(xué)術(shù)性文

獻(xiàn)、未發(fā)表文獻(xiàn)作為參考文獻(xiàn)，應(yīng)主要選自學(xué)術(shù)期刊或?qū)W術(shù)會(huì)議的文章，其次是教科書或其他書籍。至于大眾傳播媒介如報(bào)紙、廣播、通俗雜志中的文章，一些數(shù)據(jù)、事實(shí)可以引用，但其中的觀點(diǎn)不能作為論證問題的依據(jù)。

三、撰寫文獻(xiàn)綜述的其他事項(xiàng) 1．一篇畢業(yè)論文應(yīng)完成一篇文獻(xiàn)綜述，字?jǐn)?shù)規(guī)定不少于2000字。2．文獻(xiàn)綜述所用的文獻(xiàn)，至少要求15篇，且外文的至少要求2篇。3．文獻(xiàn)綜述應(yīng)包括綜述題目、綜述正文、文獻(xiàn)資料等幾方面內(nèi)容。4．文獻(xiàn)綜述所引用的參考文獻(xiàn)書寫格式應(yīng)符合gb7714－1987《參考文獻(xiàn)著錄規(guī)則》。常用參考文獻(xiàn)的書寫格式如下：

期刊類格式：作者．文章名．期刊名稱，出版年份，卷號(hào)（期號(hào)）：起止頁碼．

書籍類格式：作者．書名．版次（第一版應(yīng)省略）．出版地：出版者，出版年份：起止頁碼．

論文集類格式：著者．題名．編者．論文集名．出版地：出版者，出版年份：起止頁碼．

學(xué)位論文類格式：作者．題名．保存地：保存單位，年份．

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文獻(xiàn)綜述封面及正文見附件

一、附件二

本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文獻(xiàn)綜述

小二號(hào)黑體，居中 xxxxxxxxxxxxx 文獻(xiàn)綜述題目(二號(hào)黑體，居中)三號(hào)黑體，居中

學(xué) x x x 學(xué) 號(hào)：專 業(yè)：班 級：x x x 指導(dǎo)教師：x x x 小二號(hào)黑體，居中 按本科專業(yè)目錄填寫

二o一o 三號(hào)黑體，居中

文獻(xiàn)綜述

前言

本篇畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）題目是《從供應(yīng)鏈的角度淺談光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)的問題與對策》。太陽能光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)作為清潔能源的主要來源，已經(jīng)越來越受到政府、企業(yè)、研究機(jī)構(gòu)乃至個(gè)人的重視，為了發(fā)現(xiàn)光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)在現(xiàn)代中國的利用意義和價(jià)值，實(shí)現(xiàn)人與自然的可持續(xù)發(fā)展，本文著力研究光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)供應(yīng)鏈的兩端：上游供應(yīng)鏈即多晶硅的采購，下游供應(yīng)鏈即太陽能光伏產(chǎn)品的銷售物流。面對光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)“兩頭在外”的尷尬局面，即原料的采購和產(chǎn)品的銷售很大程度上依存于國外市場，本文從供應(yīng)鏈的角度，利用圖書資料、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)信息、企業(yè)調(diào)查等方法，探求中國光伏企業(yè)的未來發(fā)展方向，最后又以南京中電集團(tuán)為例，簡述該企業(yè)在光伏行業(yè)中未來的發(fā)展之路。

正文

能源的緊缺，已經(jīng)成為目前世界范圍內(nèi)的熱門話題。從長遠(yuǎn)戰(zhàn)略上考慮，開發(fā)和利用太陽能成為了各國可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略的重要組成部分。太陽能是一種既豐富又無污染的可再生能源，通過太陽能電池將光能轉(zhuǎn)化成電能，也就是我們所說的太陽能光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)。世界各國都對太陽能光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)給予了前所未有的重視。國家發(fā)改委能源研究所專家預(yù)測，我國太陽能電池裝機(jī)容量的年增長率有望超過40%。到2020年，系統(tǒng)年產(chǎn)值將接近3000億元。與此相應(yīng)，我國光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)必然會(huì)有極大的發(fā)展空間。

1、光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)供應(yīng)鏈的基本情況

整個(gè)光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)主要包括多晶硅原料、太陽能電池、集成組件、發(fā)電工程四個(gè)相關(guān)的行業(yè)。供應(yīng)鏈主要包括硅材料（主要是多晶硅）的生產(chǎn)和供應(yīng)，電池片制造—組件—系統(tǒng)封裝與應(yīng)用，光伏產(chǎn)品的分銷。其中，進(jìn)入壁壘最高的環(huán)節(jié)為太陽能級晶體硅的生產(chǎn)，由于其技術(shù)與工藝上的難度，目前基本被國際上7大廠家壟斷，這屬于產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈上游環(huán)節(jié)。多晶硅的需求主要來自于半導(dǎo)體和太陽能電池。按純度要求不同，分為電子級和太陽能級。其中，用于電子級多晶硅占55％左右，太陽能級多晶硅占45％，隨著光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)的迅猛發(fā)展，太陽能電池對多晶硅需求量的增長速度高于半導(dǎo)體多晶硅的發(fā)展，預(yù)計(jì)從2008年，太陽能多晶硅的需求量將超過電子級多晶硅。

2、光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展趨勢

由于光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)巨大的發(fā)展前景以及現(xiàn)階段硅材料供不應(yīng)求引起的價(jià)格大幅上漲，許多投資者和政府、企業(yè)對該行業(yè)表示出極大的興趣。資料顯示，2005年，每公斤多晶硅價(jià)格僅為66美元，到2007年12月，已上升為每公斤400美元的天價(jià)。在剛剛過去的2007年，多晶硅引起了市場的充分關(guān)注。在市場缺口加大、價(jià)格不斷上揚(yáng)的刺激下，國內(nèi)又一次涌現(xiàn)出投資多晶硅項(xiàng)目熱潮。

在這股熱潮下，一部分專家指出，中國面臨著大量產(chǎn)能上馬將逐漸填補(bǔ)供給缺口，但未來可能存在過剩的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)；還有一部分專家則認(rèn)為，過剩節(jié)點(diǎn)難以預(yù)測拐點(diǎn) 最終取決未來太陽能需求。但是不容忽視的是，某些地區(qū)不顧當(dāng)?shù)氐膶?shí)際情況，追逐眼前利益，有盲目上馬多晶硅項(xiàng)目的趨勢。

3、光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)的從供應(yīng)鏈角度所存在的問題

概括來說，是以下3種情況。上游供應(yīng)鏈——賣方市場，中游供應(yīng)鏈——兩頭在外，下游供應(yīng)鏈——買方市場。

具體來說，國內(nèi)多晶硅生產(chǎn)企業(yè)在產(chǎn)業(yè)化方面的差距主要表現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)方面： 3.1 產(chǎn)能低，上游和中游供需矛盾突出。2005年中國太陽能用單晶硅企業(yè)開工率在20％－30％，半導(dǎo)體用單晶硅企業(yè)開工率在80％－90％，無法實(shí)現(xiàn)滿負(fù)荷生產(chǎn)，多晶硅技術(shù)和市場仍牢牢掌握在美、日、德國的少數(shù)幾個(gè)生產(chǎn)廠商中，嚴(yán)重制約我國產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展。3.2 上游硅材料企業(yè)生產(chǎn)規(guī)模小。現(xiàn)在公認(rèn)的最小經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)模為1000噸/年，最佳經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)模在2500噸/年，而我國現(xiàn)階段多晶硅生產(chǎn)企業(yè)離此規(guī)模仍有較大的距離。工藝設(shè)備落后，同類產(chǎn)品物料和電力消耗過大，三廢問題多，與國際水平相比，國內(nèi)多晶硅生產(chǎn)物耗能耗高出1倍以上，產(chǎn)品成本缺乏競爭力。3.3 行業(yè)供應(yīng)鏈及地區(qū)供應(yīng)鏈不夠健全。地方政府和企業(yè)項(xiàng)目投資多晶硅項(xiàng)目，存在低水平重復(fù)建設(shè)的隱憂。3.4 下游市場在外。技術(shù)和市場被國外控制，存在“兩頭在外”的尷尬局面。中國光伏產(chǎn)業(yè)采購成本高，銷售利潤薄，有趨向于“代工生產(chǎn)”的趨勢。

4、如何解決問題 4.1 發(fā)展壯大我國多晶硅產(chǎn)業(yè)的市場條件已經(jīng)基本具備、時(shí)機(jī)已經(jīng)成熟，篇四：調(diào)研報(bào)告和外文翻譯格式

畢 業(yè)

設(shè) 計(jì)

調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告

題 目: 院系名稱： 土木建筑學(xué)院 專業(yè)班級：工程管理040×班

學(xué)生姓名： 學(xué) 號(hào)：

日 1．調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告適合于工程管理專業(yè)完成畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)類題目的學(xué)生（招投標(biāo)文件編制、施工組織設(shè)計(jì)、工程量清單、可行性研究等），并作為畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯委員會(huì)對學(xué)生答辯資格審查的依據(jù)材料之一。此報(bào)告應(yīng)在指導(dǎo)教師指導(dǎo)下，由學(xué)生在畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作前期內(nèi)完成，經(jīng)指導(dǎo)教師簽署意見及所在專業(yè)審查后生效。2．調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告內(nèi)容必須用黑墨水筆工整書寫或按教務(wù)處統(tǒng)一設(shè)計(jì)的電子文檔標(biāo)準(zhǔn)格式（可從教務(wù)處網(wǎng)頁上下載）打印，禁止打印在其它紙上后剪貼，完成后應(yīng)及時(shí)交給指導(dǎo)教師簽署意見。3．調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告應(yīng)按論文的格式成文，調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告應(yīng)是對擬完成的設(shè)計(jì)題目的一個(gè)或多個(gè)相似工程或相應(yīng)的文檔資料進(jìn)行的認(rèn)真考察并適度參與完后完成的總結(jié)，主要內(nèi)容應(yīng)該涵蓋擬建工程（文檔資料）的基本材料、特點(diǎn)和難點(diǎn)，以及得到的體會(huì)。調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告可適度有一些參考文獻(xiàn)，主要是關(guān)于同類研究的工程進(jìn)展和異同點(diǎn)，以及對擬完成的設(shè)計(jì)借鑒意義。4．有關(guān)年月日等日期的填寫，應(yīng)當(dāng)按照國標(biāo)gb/t 7408—94《數(shù)據(jù)元和交換格式、信息交換、日期和時(shí)間表示法》規(guī)定的要求，一律用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字書寫。如“2006年11月20日”或“2006-11-30”。

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)調(diào)研（開題）報(bào)告 篇五：文獻(xiàn)綜述、開題報(bào)告、外文翻譯格式要求暨模板 嘉興學(xué)院

文獻(xiàn)綜述、開題報(bào)告、外文翻譯格式要求

一、文檔格式 1.打印格式

紙張統(tǒng)一用a4紙，頁面設(shè)置：上：2.7；下：2.7；左：2.7；右：2.7；頁眉：1.8；頁腳：1.85。文檔網(wǎng)絡(luò)，每行42字符，每頁40行；段落格式為：多陪行距，1.25陪，段前、段后均為0磅。

一、二級標(biāo)題可適當(dāng)選擇加寬，設(shè)置為：段前、段后均為6磅。頁腳設(shè)置為：插入頁碼，居中。

2.字體設(shè)置

文檔標(biāo)題采用楷體_gb2312，三號(hào)字體，加粗，居中。

一級標(biāo)題采用楷體_gb2312，四號(hào)字體，加粗，左側(cè)頂格。

二級標(biāo)題采用宋體，小四號(hào)字體，加粗，縮進(jìn)兩個(gè)中文字符。

三級標(biāo)題采用宋體，小四字體，縮進(jìn)兩個(gè)中文字符。

正文采用小四號(hào)宋體字，數(shù)字用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字，字母和數(shù)字用times new roman。

二、文獻(xiàn)綜述

文獻(xiàn)綜述要求字?jǐn)?shù)在4000字以上，采用學(xué)院統(tǒng)一格式，文檔標(biāo)題根據(jù)題目類型，標(biāo)題用“嘉興學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文文獻(xiàn)綜述”或“嘉興學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文獻(xiàn)綜述”。頁面設(shè)置和字體設(shè)置按照上述文檔格式要求編輯。應(yīng)按要求認(rèn)真填寫。

（1）文獻(xiàn)綜述應(yīng)包括綜述題目、綜述正文、文獻(xiàn)資料等幾方面內(nèi)容；（2）文獻(xiàn)綜述時(shí)，應(yīng)系統(tǒng)地查閱與自己的研究方向有關(guān)的國內(nèi)外文獻(xiàn)，通常閱讀文獻(xiàn)不少于15篇，其中外文文獻(xiàn)不少于2篇；

（3）文獻(xiàn)綜述中，學(xué)生應(yīng)說明自己研究方向的發(fā)展歷史，前人的主要研究成果，存在的問題及發(fā)展趨勢等；

（4）文獻(xiàn)綜述要條理清晰，文字通順簡練；

（5）資料運(yùn)用恰當(dāng)、合理。文獻(xiàn)引用用方括號(hào)[ ]括起來置于引用詞的右上角；

（6）綜述中要有自己的觀點(diǎn)和見解。鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生多發(fā)現(xiàn)問題、多提出問題，并指出分析、解決問題的可能途徑

注意：主題部分的一級標(biāo)題題目，應(yīng)結(jié)合畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的主題來編寫。

三、開題報(bào)告

開題報(bào)告要求字?jǐn)?shù)在4000字以上，采用學(xué)院統(tǒng)一格式。文檔標(biāo)題根據(jù)題目類型，標(biāo)題用“嘉興學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文開題報(bào)告”或“嘉興學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)開題報(bào)告”。頁面設(shè)置和字體設(shè)置按照上述文檔格式要求編輯。應(yīng)按要求認(rèn)真填寫，且務(wù)必于畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）環(huán)節(jié)正式開始前完成。

四、外文翻譯

要求本科生畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）必須翻譯每篇2000單詞以上的外文翻譯二篇，外文翻譯包括外文文獻(xiàn)原文和譯文，外文原文要盡可能與所做課題緊密聯(lián)系，避免翻譯資料選取的隨意性，譯文要符合外文格式規(guī)范和翻譯習(xí)慣。

文檔標(biāo)題根據(jù)題目類型，標(biāo)題用“嘉興學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯”或“嘉興學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯”。頁面設(shè)置和字體設(shè)置按照上述文檔格式要求編輯。“abstract：”（小四號(hào)times new roman，加粗，頂格），同行接英文摘要原文，五號(hào)times new roman字體。

“keywords：”（小四號(hào)times new roman，加粗，頂格），同行接關(guān)鍵詞，關(guān)鍵詞之間用逗號(hào)分割，用五號(hào)times new roman字體。

第二篇：食品安全外文文獻(xiàn)

Food safety is affected by the decisions of producers, processors, distributors, food service operators, and consumers, as well as by government regulations.In developed countries, the demand for higher levels of food safety has led to the implementation of regulatory programs that address more types of safety-related attributes(such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy(BSE), microbial pathogens, environmental contaminants, and animal drug and pesticide residues)and impose stricter standards for those attributes.They also further prescribe how safety is to be assured and communicated.Liability systems are another form of regulation that affect who bears responsibility when food safety breaks down.These regulatory programs are intended to improve public health by controlling the quality of the domestic food supply and the increasing flow of imported food products from countries around the world.Common to the adoption of new regulations by developed countries is the application of risk analysis principles.Under these principles, and in line with the World Trade Organization’s(WTO’s)Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures(SPS Agreement), countries should base their regulatory actions on scientific risk assessment.In addition, a country should be able to clearly link its targeted level of protection, based on a scientifically assessed risk level, to its regulatory goals and, in turn, to its standards and inspection systems.Finally, the risk management options chosen should restrict trade as little as possible.Despite similarities in approach among developed countries, to date they have made only mixed progress toward aligning their regulatory requirements.Countries are struggling with the task of identifying key risk issues and choosing regulatory programs to control those risks.They emphasize different risks, apply different levels of precaution, and choose different regulatory approaches.The regulatory systems of countries are a mix of old laws and newer regulations that frequently do not apply consistent standards across products, risks, or countries of origin.Finally, countries may be tempted to use food safety regulations as a means of protecting domestic industries from foreign competition.These features of food safety regulation in developed countries have several implications for developing countries.First, they determine access to growing markets for food exports, particularly high-value fresh commodities such as those discussed in other briefs in this collection.When standards differ, this can create additional barriers for developingcountry exporters.Second, these features determine the issues that will be addressed in international forums, such as the Codex Alimentarius Commission.Third, they create expectations among developing-country consumers regarding acceptable levels of safety and set examples for emerging regulations in developing-country food systems.This brief reviews emerging regulatory approaches and the implications for developing countries.REGULATORY APPROACHES Countries regulate food safety through the use of process, product(performance), or information standards.Process standards specify how the product should be produced.For example, Good Manufacturing Practices specify in-plant design, sanitation, and operation standards.Product(performance)standards require that final products have specific characteristics.An example is the specification of a maximum microbial pathogen load for fresh meats and poultry.Finally, information standards specify the types of labeling or other communication that must accompany products.While these categories provide a neat breakdown, in practice most countries use a combination of approaches to regulate any particular food safety risk.For example, specifications for acceptable in-plant operations may be backed up with final product testing to monitor and verify the success of safety assurance programs.Labeling that instructs final consumers on proper food handling techniques may further back up these systems.MAJOR REGULATORY TRENDS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ? Stronger public health and consumer welfare emphasis in decisions by regulatory agencies.The increasing use of the risk analysis framework for regulatory decision-making focuses attention on the effective control of public health risks as the ultimate goal of regulations, rather than intermediate steps such as assuring that accepted practices are used in production.This in turn leads to a focus on the food supply chain, on identifying where hazards are introduced into it, and on determining where those hazards can be controlled most cost effectively in the chain.This approach is referred to as “farm to table” or “farm to fork” analysis.When the supply chain extends across international borders, risk analysis may encompass farm or processing practices in developing countries.? Adoption of more stringent safety standards, with a broader scope of standards.Food safety standards are becoming more stringent in developed countries on two fronts.First, in many cases food safety attributes that were previously regulated are being held to more precise and stringent standards.For example, rather than assuring meat product safety simply through process standards, those products may be required to meet specific pathogen load standards for E.coli or Salmonella.Similarly, tolerances for aflatoxin may be lowered as more information and better testing become readily available.Second, the scope of standards is broadening, as new risks become known.For example, the European Union, the United States, and other countries have instituted strict feeding restrictions to avoid the spread of BSE in cattle.In addition, the European Union has recently established a regulatory program to control human exposure to dioxins through the food supply.These evolving standards create continuing challenges for producers and regulatory agencies in exporting countries.? Adoption of the HACCP approach to assuring safety.During the 1990s, developed countries made a strong shift toward requiring the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point(HACCP)approach to assuring food safety.Under HACCP, companies are responsible for analyzing how hazards such as food-borne pathogens may enter the product, establishing effective control points for those hazards, and monitoring and updating the system to assure high levels of food safety.These HACCP systems are usually predicated on the processing plant having an adequate system of sanitary operating procedures already in place.HACCP does not prescribe specific actions to be taken in a plant: the company chooses its methods for controlling hazards.HACCP systems make clear that the central responsibility for assuring safety belongs to a company;the regulator’s job is often shifted from one of direct inspection to providing oversight for the company’s operation of its HACCP plan.Since HACCP is primarily a process standard for company-level activity, inspection to assure compliance is challenging for imported products coming from plants in other countries.Some countries, such as those in the European Union, have mandated HACCP for all levels of the food supply chain, while others such as the United States have mandated it for specific sectors(meat slaughter and processing, for example).? Adoption of hybrid regulatory systems.Mandatory HACCP may be combined with performance standards for finished products.The performance standards(a minimum incidence of Salmonella in finished products, for example)provide a check on whether the HACCP plan is performing adequately.The increased use of performance standards has been facilitated by the development of more accurate and speedier testing procedures, particularly for pathogens.Eventually such tests may make it easier for exporters to demonstrate and verify a particular level of safety.食品安全受生產(chǎn)者、加工者、經(jīng)銷商、餐飲服務(wù)經(jīng)營者決策的影響，也受到消費(fèi)者和政府法規(guī)的影響。在發(fā)達(dá)國家，對更高水平的食品安全的需求導(dǎo)致監(jiān)管的程序需要處理更多類型的與安全相關(guān)的屬性（如牛海綿狀腦病(BSE)、病原微生物、環(huán)境污染物和動(dòng)物的藥物和農(nóng)藥殘留）并且執(zhí)行施加更嚴(yán)格的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。他們還進(jìn)一步規(guī)定安全是如何被確保和傳達(dá)的。責(zé)任制度是當(dāng)食品安全發(fā)生問題的時(shí)候誰負(fù)有責(zé)任的另一種管理形式。這些監(jiān)管程序旨在通過控制國內(nèi)糧食供應(yīng)量和不斷增加來自世界各地的進(jìn)口食品來改善公共衛(wèi)生。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析原理是由發(fā)達(dá)國家共同通過的新條例的應(yīng)用。根據(jù)符合《世界貿(mào)易組織協(xié)定》和《 實(shí)施動(dòng)植物衛(wèi)生檢疫措施的協(xié)議》（SPS 協(xié)定）這些原則，國家應(yīng)該以監(jiān)管行為為基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行科學(xué)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評估。此外，一個(gè)國家應(yīng)當(dāng)有能力在其科學(xué)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的評估的基礎(chǔ)上，明確將其對產(chǎn)品的保護(hù)能力與其制定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和檢查系統(tǒng)聯(lián)系起來，進(jìn)而達(dá)到其監(jiān)管目的。最后，選擇風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方案應(yīng)該盡可能減少貿(mào)易。到目前為止，在發(fā)達(dá)國家采取了相似的方法，在調(diào)整他們的監(jiān)管要求方面取得了一定的進(jìn)展。各個(gè)國家都在努力確定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)問題的關(guān)鍵，并且選擇相應(yīng)的監(jiān)管程序來控制這些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。他們強(qiáng)調(diào)不同的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，需要運(yùn)用不同等級的預(yù)防措施，也需要選擇不同的監(jiān)管方法。國家的監(jiān)管制度混合了舊的法律和新的法規(guī)，通常不適用于貫穿產(chǎn)品、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)或原籍國的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。最后，國家可能會(huì)使用食品安全法規(guī)作為保護(hù)國內(nèi)工業(yè)免受外國競爭的一種手段。發(fā)達(dá)國家食品安全監(jiān)管的這些特點(diǎn)對發(fā)展中國家的食品安全監(jiān)管有多方面的啟示。首先，他們決定增長食品出口市場，特別是高價(jià)值新鮮的商品，在此集合中與其他概要一起討論。當(dāng)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不同時(shí)，就可以為發(fā)展中國家出口制造更多的障礙。其次，這些特征決定了在食品法典委員會(huì)等國際論壇將討論的問題。第三，他們在發(fā)展中國家糧食系統(tǒng)中創(chuàng)建發(fā)展中國家消費(fèi)者關(guān)于可接受水平的安全和新興規(guī)章設(shè)定的舉例寄予了厚望。這個(gè)概要回顧了新興的監(jiān)管方式及對發(fā)展中國家的影響。監(jiān)管辦法：各國通過使用流程、產(chǎn)品（性能）或信息標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)范食品安全。工藝標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)定如何生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)品。例如，良好的生產(chǎn)規(guī)范中規(guī)定了工廠的設(shè)計(jì)，衛(wèi)生和操作標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。產(chǎn)品（性能）標(biāo)準(zhǔn)要求最終產(chǎn)品要有特定的特性。一個(gè)例子就是一個(gè)最大的微生物病原體負(fù)載的新鮮肉類和家禽的規(guī)范。最后，信息標(biāo)準(zhǔn)指定的標(biāo)簽，必須伴隨著產(chǎn)品類型的其他交流。雖然這些類別為靈活的故障作好了準(zhǔn)備，但是在實(shí)踐中大多數(shù)的國家都會(huì)使用各種方法的組合來控制特定食品安全的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。例如，工廠運(yùn)營中的規(guī)范可能得到最終產(chǎn)品的測試，一次來監(jiān)測和核查安全保證項(xiàng)目的成功。標(biāo)簽的指示最終會(huì)使消費(fèi)者對正確的食物處理技術(shù)系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行進(jìn)一步的支持。主要所監(jiān)管的趨勢都在發(fā)達(dá)國家，強(qiáng)有力的公眾健康和消費(fèi)者福利重點(diǎn)，是由監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)所決定的。監(jiān)管監(jiān)管決策的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析框架越來越多地使用，增加關(guān)注的公共衛(wèi)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的有效控制才是制度的終極目標(biāo)，而不是像用于被確保用于生產(chǎn)地做法這種中間步驟。這反過來導(dǎo)致焦點(diǎn)在食品供應(yīng)鏈中，它有被確定的危害，并確定在哪里可以最控制這些危險(xiǎn)成本并且有效地在供應(yīng)鏈中。這種方法稱為“農(nóng)場到餐桌”或“農(nóng)場到餐桌”分析。當(dāng)供應(yīng)鏈延伸跨越國屆的時(shí)候，包括農(nóng)場或處理做法的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析可能會(huì)在發(fā)展中國家。? 采用更嚴(yán)格的安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，具有更廣泛的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)范圍。發(fā)達(dá)國家的食品安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)日趨變得更加嚴(yán)格。首先，在許多情況下以前是如何規(guī)定食品安全的屬性被提升至到更精確和更嚴(yán)格的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。舉個(gè)例子，不是確保肉類產(chǎn)品安全只是通過程序標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，而是這些產(chǎn)品可能需要滿足特定病原體荷載標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為大腸桿菌或沙門氏菌。同樣，隨著更多的信息和更好的檢測變得隨時(shí)可用，就一降低堆黃曲霉毒素的公差。其次，因?yàn)樾碌娘L(fēng)險(xiǎn)變得已知，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的范圍正在擴(kuò)大。例如，歐洲聯(lián)盟、美國和其他國家制定了嚴(yán)格的飼養(yǎng)限制，以避免瘋牛病傳播。此外，歐洲聯(lián)盟最近成立一個(gè)監(jiān)管的程序來控制人類通過食品供應(yīng)所接觸的二惡英（化學(xué)污染物）。這些不斷發(fā)展的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為生產(chǎn)國和出口國的管理機(jī)構(gòu)創(chuàng)造持續(xù)的挑戰(zhàn)。? 通過 HACCP 方法保證安全。在上世紀(jì)90年代，發(fā)達(dá)國家作出強(qiáng)烈轉(zhuǎn)向要求保證食品安全的危害分析關(guān)鍵控制點(diǎn)(HACCP)方法。按照 HACCP，公司負(fù)責(zé)分析如何把食源性致病菌危害盡可能輸入產(chǎn)品，有效的控制要點(diǎn)和監(jiān)測和更新系統(tǒng)，以保證高水平的食品安全。這些 HACCP 系統(tǒng)通常取決于加工廠有適當(dāng)?shù)牡轿坏男l(wèi)生操作程序制度。HACCP并沒有規(guī)定所采取的設(shè)備具體的行動(dòng)，公司選擇其控制危害的方法。HACCP 系統(tǒng)明確保證安全中心責(zé)任屬于公司；從直接檢驗(yàn)之上，監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)的工作經(jīng)常被轉(zhuǎn)移到監(jiān)督為公司的操作提供其 HACCP 計(jì)劃。由于 HACCP是以公司活動(dòng)級別的過程主要標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，檢查以確保來自工廠的其他國家的進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品遵從法規(guī)，是具有挑戰(zhàn)性的。一些國家，例如在歐洲聯(lián)盟，有授權(quán) HACCP 為各級食品供應(yīng)鏈，而其他如美國是授權(quán)具體門（例如，肉類屠宰和加工）。? 通過混合監(jiān)管系統(tǒng)。強(qiáng)制性HACCP可能結(jié)合成品性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（例如，在成品沙門氏菌的發(fā)生率最低）的提供對 HACCP 計(jì)劃是否充分執(zhí)行進(jìn)行了檢查。通過更準(zhǔn)確和更快的測試程序，特別是對病原菌的發(fā)展促進(jìn)了增加的使用性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。最終這種測試可能方便出口商證明和核實(shí)特定級別的安全。

第三篇：外文文獻(xiàn)注釋規(guī)范

外文文獻(xiàn)注釋規(guī)范

引證外文文獻(xiàn)，原則上以該文種通行的引證標(biāo)注方式為準(zhǔn)。

引證英文文獻(xiàn)的標(biāo)注項(xiàng)目與順序與中文相同。責(zé)任者與題名間用英文逗號(hào)，著作題名為斜體，析出文獻(xiàn)題名為正體加英文引號(hào)，出版日期為全數(shù)字標(biāo)注，責(zé)任方式、卷冊、頁碼等用英文縮略方式；期刊文章題名為正體加英文引號(hào)，登載的刊物題名為斜體。

單頁為p.79.兩頁以上為pp.79-90.兩個(gè)p

示例1：專著

Randolph Starn and Loren Partridge, The Arts of Power: Three Halls of State in Italy, 1300-1600, Berkeley: California University Press, 1992, pp.19-28.示例2： 譯著

M.Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, trans.by William Marsden,Hertfordshire: Cumberland House, 1997, pp.55, 88.示例3： 主編

T.H.Aston and C.H.E.Phlipin(eds.), The Brenner Debate.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, p.35.示例4： 析出文獻(xiàn)

R.S.Schfield, “The Impact of Scarcity and Plenty on Population Change in England,” in R.I.Rotberg and T.K.Rabb(eds.), Hunger and History: The Impact of Changing Food Production and Consumption Pattern on Societ，Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, p.79.示例5： 期刊

Heath B.Chamberlain, “On the Search for Civil Society in China”, Modern China, vol.19, no.2(April 1993), pp.199-215.

第四篇：財(cái)務(wù)風(fēng)險(xiǎn) 外文文獻(xiàn)

外文文獻(xiàn)

The Important Of Financial Risk

Sohnke M.Bartram Gregory W.Brown and Murat Atamer

Abstract:This paper examines the determinants of equity price risk for a largesample of non-financial corporations in the United States from 1964 to 2008.Weestimate both structural and reduced form models to examine the endogenous natureof corporate financial characteristics such as total debt debt maturity cash holdingsand dividend policy.We find that the observed levels of equity price risk areexplained primarily by operating and asset characteristics such as firm age size assettangibility as well as operating cash flow levels and volatility.In contrast impliedmeasures of financial risk are generally low and more stable than debt-to-equity ratios.Our measures of financial risk have declined over the last 30 years even as measuresof equity volatility e.g.idiosyncratic risk have tended to increase.Consequentlydocumented trends in equity price risk are more than fully accounted for by trends inthe riskiness of firms’ assets.Taken together the results suggest that the typical U.S.firm substantially reduces financial risk by carefully managing financial policies.As aresult residual financial risk now appears negligible relative to underlying economicrisk for a typical non-financial firm.Keywords：Capital structure； financial risk； risk management；corporate finance1

1.Introduction

The financial crisis of 2008 has brought significant attention to the effects offinancial leverage.There is no doubt that the high levels of debt financing by financialinstitutions and households significantly contributed to the crisis.Indeed evidenceindicates that excessive leverage orchestrated by major global banks e.g.through themortgage lending and collateralized debt obligations and the so-called “shadowbanking system” may be the underlying cause of the recent economic and financialdislocation.Less obvious is the role of financial leverage among nonfinancial firms.To date problems in the U.S.non-financial sector have been minor compared to thedistress in the financial sector despite the seizing of capital markets during the crisis.For example non-financial bankruptcies have been limited given that the economicdecline is the largest since the great depression of the 1930s.In fact bankruptcyfilings of non-financial firms have occurred mostly in U.S.industries e.g.automotive manufacturing newspapers and real estate that faced fundamentaleconomic pressures prior to the financial crisis.This surprising fact begs the question“How important is financial risk for non-financial firms” At the heart of this issue isthe uncertainty about the determinants of total firm risk as well as components of firmrisk.Recent academic research in both asset pricing and corporate finance hasrekindled an interest in analyzing equity price risk.A current strand of the assetpricing literature examines the finding of Campbell et al.2001 that

firm-specificidiosyncratic risk has tended to increase over the last 40 years.Other work suggeststhat idiosyncratic risk may be a priced risk factor see Goyal and Santa-Clara 2003among others.Also related to these studies is work by Pástor and Veronesi 2003showing how investor uncertainty about firm profitability is an important determinantof idiosyncratic risk and firm value.Other research has examined the role of equityvolatility in bond pricing e.g.Dichev 1998 Campbell Hilscher and Szilagyi2008.However much of the empirical work examining equity price risk takes the riskof assets as given or tries to explain the trend in idiosyncratic risk.In contrast thispaper takes a different tack in the investigation of equity price risk.First we seek tounderstand the determinants of equity price risk at the firm level by considering totalrisk as the product of risks inherent in the firms operations i.e.economic or businessrisks and risks associated with financing the firms operations i.e.financial risks.Second we attempt to assess the relative importance of economic and financial risksand the implications for financial policy.Early research by Modigliani and Miller 1958 suggests that financial policymay be largely irrelevant for firm value because investors can replicate manyfinancial decisions by the firm at a low cost i.e.via homemade leverage andwell-functioning capital markets should be able to distinguish between financial andeconomic distress.Nonetheless financial policies such as adding debt to the capitalstructure can magnify the risk of equity.In contrast recent research on corporate riskmanagement suggests that firms may also be able to reduce risks and increase valuewith financial policies such as hedging with financial derivatives.However thisresearch is often motivated by substantial deadweight costs associated with financialdistress or other market imperfections associated with financial leverage.Empiricalresearch provides conflicting accounts of how costly financial distress can be for atypical publicly traded firm.We attempt to directly address the roles of economic and financial risk byexamining determinants of total firm risk.In our analysis we utilize a large sample ofnon-financial firms in the United States.Our goal of identifying the most importantdeterminants of equity price risk volatility relies on viewing financial policy astransforming asset volatility into equity volatility via financial leverage.Thusthroughout the paper we consider financial leverage as the wedge between assetvolatility and equity volatility.For example in a static setting debt provides financialleverage that magnifies operating cash flow volatility.Because financial policy isdetermined by owners and managers we are careful to examine the effects of firms’asset and operating characteristics on financial policy.Specifically we examine avariety of characteristics suggested by previous research and as clearly as possibledistinguish between those associated of the company(i.e.factors determining economic risk)and those associated with financing the firm(i.e.factors determining financial risk).We then allow economic risk to be a determinant of financial policy in the structural framework of Leland and Toft(1996),or alternatively, in a reduced form model of financial leverage.An advantage of the structural model approach is that we are able to account for both the possibility of financial and operatingimplciations of

some factors(e.g.dividends),as well as the endogenous nature of the bankruptcy decision andfinancialpolicy in general.Our proxy for firm risk is the volantility if commonstock returns derived from calculating the standard deviation of daliyequity returns.Our proxies for econmic risk are designed to capture the essentialcharactersiticsof the firm’s operations and assets that determine the cash flow generating process for the firm.For example,firm size and age provide measures of line of –businessmaturity;tangible assets(plant,property,and equipment)serve as a proxy for the ‘hardness’of a firm’s assets;capital expenditures measure captial intensity as well as growth potential.Operatingprofitability and operatingprofit volatilityserve as measures of the timeliness and riskiness of cash flows.To understand how financial factors affect firm risk,we examinetotal debt,debtmaturity,dividend payouts,and holdings of cash and short-term investments.The primary resuit or our analysis is surpriing:factors determining economic risk for a typical company exlain the vast majority of the varation in equity volatility.Correspondingly,measures of implied financial leverage are much lower than observed debt ratios.Specifically, in our sample covering 1964-2008 average actual net financial(market)leverage is 1.50 compared to our estimates of between 1.03 and 1.11(depending on model specification and estimation technique).This suggests that firms may undertake other financial policise to manage financial risk and thus lower effective leverage to nearly negligible levels.These policies might include dynamically adjusting financial variables such as debt levels,debt maturity,or cash holdings(see,for example , Acharya,Almeida,and Campello,2007).In addition,many firms also utilize explicit financial risk management techniques such as the use of financial dervatives,contractual arrangements with investors(e.g.lines of credit,call provisions in debt contracts ,or contingencies in supplier contracts),spcial purpose vehicles(SPVs),or other alternative risk transfer techniques.The effects of our ecnomic risk factors on equity volatility are generally highly statiscally significant, with predicted size and age of the firm.This is intuitive since large and mature firms typically have more stable lines of business,which shoule be reflected in the volatility.This suggests that companties with higher and more stable operating cash flows are less likely to go bankrupt, and therefore are potentially less risky.Among economic risk variables,the effects of firm size ,prfit volatility,and dividend policy on equity volatility stand out.Unlike some previous studies,our careful treatment of the endogeneity of financial policy confirms that leveage increases total firm risk.Otherwise,fiancial risk factors are not reliably to total risk.Given the large literature on financial policy , it is no surprise that financial variables are , at least in part , determined by the econmic risks frims take.However, some of the specific findings are unexpected.For example , in a simple model of capital structure ,dividend payouts should increase financial leverage since they represent an outflow of cash from the firm(i.e.,increase net debt).We find that dividends are associated with lower risk.This suggests that paying dividends is not as much a product of financial policy as a characteristic of a firm’s operations(e.g.,a mature company with limited growth opportunities).We also estimate how

sensitivities to different risk factors have changed over time.Our result indicate that most relations are fairly stable.One exception is firm age which prior to 1983 tends to be positively related to risk and has since been consisitently negatively related to risk.This is related to findings by Brown and Kapadoa(2007)that recent trends in idiosyncratic risk are related to stock listings by younger and riskier firms.

第五篇：交通運(yùn)輸外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)

交通事故分析的可能性和局限性

S.Oppe 關(guān)鍵字：后果;目的;描述;限制;關(guān)注;事故分析;可能性

摘要：交通事故的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字，尤其國家一級的數(shù)據(jù)對監(jiān)控和預(yù)測事故的發(fā)展，積極或消極檢測事故的發(fā)展，以及對定義安全目標(biāo)和評估工業(yè)安全特別有益。事故分析是應(yīng)用非常有限的分析，是前瞻性分析和回顧性分析，能夠?qū)π麻_發(fā)的交通安全系統(tǒng)和特殊過程的安全措施進(jìn)行評價(jià)。目前迫切需要一個(gè)將實(shí)時(shí)事故分析與研究相結(jié)合的行為。將自動(dòng)檢測和視頻錄制相結(jié)合的研究交通事故的科研論文會(huì)比較容易接受。這種類型的研究最終會(huì)對交通理念有個(gè)完善的認(rèn)識(shí)。

1．簡介

本文主要是基于個(gè)人的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，研究有關(guān)交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由這些經(jīng)驗(yàn)推導(dǎo)出的哲學(xué)思考就像通過研究和統(tǒng)計(jì)得出的實(shí)踐觀點(diǎn)。而這些調(diào)查數(shù)字已經(jīng)在其他地方發(fā)表了。

在缺少直接觀察的事故中，許多方法論問題的產(chǎn)生，導(dǎo)致不能直接測試對結(jié)果持續(xù)討論。通過看事故視頻來討論是富有成效的。事實(shí)證明，用來解釋事故的大部分有關(guān)信息就是事故中缺少的記錄。深入研究還無法回憶起所有的必要的用來測試有關(guān)事故發(fā)生的假設(shè)數(shù)據(jù)。尤其是車-車相撞發(fā)生的車禍，這是在荷蘭城市道路交叉口錄制的視頻，一輛從岔路駛來的汽車與主干路的汽車相撞，下列問題可以問：為什么汽車來自次干路上，突然加速后又幾乎停止，撞上了在左側(cè)主路的一輛汽車呢？為什么沒有注意到正在駛來的車？是不是因?yàn)閮绍噺挠疫咇倎恚緳C(jī)因?yàn)榍懊娴慕徊鏋樗麄兲峁┝丝赡苄远锝镉?jì)較？難道他向左看過，但他認(rèn)為停在拐角處的綠色貨車能讓他停下來？當(dāng)然，交通狀況并不復(fù)雜。目前這個(gè)事故中沒有騎自行車或行人在擁擠路口分散他的注意。如果停著的綠色車能夠在五分鐘內(nèi)消失，這兩輛車可能就不會(huì)相撞。在事故發(fā)生的相關(guān)條件下，幾乎不可能觀察下一個(gè)交通行為，因?yàn)榻煌ㄊ鹿适遣豢深A(yù)見的。由于新的視頻設(shè)備和自動(dòng)檢測事故設(shè)備的不斷發(fā)展，如在收集數(shù)據(jù)方面不需要很高的成本就能變得越來越逼真。必要的增加數(shù)據(jù)類型也能更好的解釋交通中存在的危險(xiǎn)因素。關(guān)于事故分析的可能性和限制性的問題是不容易回答的，我們不能確切的分析交通事故。因?yàn)槭鹿史治龊w了每一個(gè)活動(dòng)中的不同背景，并根據(jù)不同的信息來源范圍來補(bǔ)充資料，特別是收集事故的數(shù)據(jù)，背景資料等，我們首先要看看在交通安全領(lǐng)域的活動(dòng)周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性與限制。這些行為主要是與交通系統(tǒng)的安全管理有關(guān)，有些則是相關(guān)的研究活動(dòng)。

應(yīng)該用下面的步驟來加以區(qū)分： ——檢測交通安全問題；

——描述問題和它的主要特征； ——分析其原因分析和改進(jìn)建議； ——選擇和執(zhí)行安全措施； ——評價(jià)所采取的措施。

雖然這個(gè)周期可以由同一人或一群人做出來，而問題在每個(gè)階段（政治/管理或科學(xué)）都有不同的背景。我們用事故分析來描述這一階段。做這個(gè)決定是重要的。很多關(guān)于分析結(jié)果的方法的討論由于忽視之間的區(qū)別而成為徒勞的。政治家或道路管理人員對道路的個(gè)別事故不是很留意。他們對事故的看法往往都是一視同仁，因?yàn)榭偟慕Y(jié)果比整個(gè)事故中的每個(gè)人的因素重要。因此，每次事故看做一個(gè)個(gè)體，之間相互協(xié)調(diào)就會(huì)達(dá)成安全的結(jié)果。

研究人員研究事故發(fā)生時(shí)一連串事件中每個(gè)人的興趣。希望從中得到關(guān)于每次事故的詳細(xì)信息并能發(fā)現(xiàn)其發(fā)生的原因和有關(guān)的條件。政治家們希望只是因?yàn)榧?xì)節(jié)決定行動(dòng)。在最高一級事故總數(shù)減少。信息的主要來源是國家數(shù)據(jù)庫及其統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)處理系統(tǒng)。對他來說，統(tǒng)計(jì)意外數(shù)字及其統(tǒng)計(jì)的波動(dòng)來進(jìn)行事故分析。這適用于事故分析中的交通安全領(lǐng)域。因此，我們將首先描述了事故的這些方面。2．事故的性質(zhì)和它們的統(tǒng)計(jì)特性

事故基本概念是意外，不管是其發(fā)生的原因還是引起事故出現(xiàn)的過程。兩個(gè)簡單的假設(shè)通常是來描述交通事故的形成過程：

-事故發(fā)生的概率與以往發(fā)生的事故之間是獨(dú)立；-事故發(fā)生在時(shí)間上是同性質(zhì)的

如果這兩個(gè)假設(shè)成立，那么事故是泊松分布。第一個(gè)假設(shè)與大多數(shù)的批判不符。事故是罕見的事件，因此不會(huì)受到以前事故的影響。在某些情況下，有一個(gè)直接的因果鏈（例如，大量的車開到一起）這一系列的事故被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)個(gè)體事故但包含許多的車。這個(gè)假設(shè)并不適用于統(tǒng)計(jì)人員傷亡。傷亡人數(shù)往往與同一事故有關(guān)，因此，獨(dú)立性假設(shè)不成立。第二個(gè)假設(shè)乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空間或在不同地點(diǎn)發(fā)生的的事故同樣具有可能性。然而，假設(shè)需要很長一段時(shí)間并且沒有緩繳期。其性質(zhì)是根據(jù)理論的假設(shè)。如果其短時(shí)間內(nèi)能成立，那么它也適用于長時(shí)間，因?yàn)椴此煞植甲兞康目偤停词顾麄兊牟此陕适遣煌模矊儆诓此煞植肌τ谶@些時(shí)期的總和泊松率則等于為這些地方的泊松率的總和。假設(shè)與一個(gè)真正的情況相比較計(jì)數(shù)，無論是從一兩個(gè)結(jié)果還是總情況來看都有一個(gè)基本情況比較符合。

例如，對比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天，下一個(gè)星期的一天發(fā)生的交通事故。如果條件是相同的（同一時(shí)間，交通情況相同，同樣的天氣條件等），那么由此產(chǎn)生的意外數(shù)字是相同的泊松過程的結(jié)果。這一假設(shè)可以通過估算進(jìn)行測試的兩個(gè)觀測值的基礎(chǔ)上（估計(jì)是兩個(gè)值的平均值）的速度參數(shù)。概率理論能夠

考慮到這兩個(gè)觀察值的平均，用于計(jì)算的平等假設(shè)的可能性。這是一個(gè)相當(dāng)強(qiáng)大的統(tǒng)計(jì)過程。泊松假設(shè)是研究了很多次，來獲得證據(jù)支持。它已經(jīng)應(yīng)用于許多情況，數(shù)的差異表明在安全性的差異然后確定是否發(fā)生意外。這一程序的主要目的是檢測在安全分歧。這可能是一個(gè)時(shí)間上的差異，或不同的地方或不同的條件。這種差異可以指導(dǎo)改進(jìn)的過程。由于主要關(guān)注的是，以減少意外的發(fā)生，這種分析可能導(dǎo)致對治療中最有前途的領(lǐng)域。為這樣一個(gè)測試應(yīng)用程序的必要條件是，那意外的數(shù)字進(jìn)行比較是大到足以證明存在的分歧。在許多地方情況下，一個(gè)應(yīng)用程序是不可能的。事故黑點(diǎn)分析往往阻礙了這一限制，例如，如果應(yīng)用這種測試，找出事故是否在特定的位置數(shù)是高于平均水平。該程序的描述，也可以使用，如果發(fā)生意外乃根據(jù)數(shù)的特點(diǎn)找到有前途的安全目標(biāo)。不僅聚集，而且還與分類泊松假設(shè)成立，而意外數(shù)字可以相互測試的泊松假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)。這種測試是相當(dāng)麻煩的，因?yàn)槊總€(gè)特定的情況下，每一個(gè)不同的泊松參數(shù)，即，對所有可能結(jié)果的概率必須計(jì)算應(yīng)用測試。然后，泊松分布近似為正態(tài)分布，均值和方差等于泊松參數(shù)。一旦均值和方差的正態(tài)分布，給出了所有的測試可以改寫了標(biāo)準(zhǔn)零均值和

方差的正態(tài)分布條件。沒有任何更多的必要計(jì)算，但測試統(tǒng)計(jì)，需要利用表繪制。3.行車安全政策事故統(tǒng)計(jì)的應(yīng)用

分析那些假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上描述的測試程序的類型及其優(yōu)點(diǎn)。這種應(yīng)用最好的例子是為一個(gè)國家或地區(qū)進(jìn)行超過一年的安全監(jiān)測，用事故的總體數(shù)據(jù)（最終的特定類型，如死亡事故）與前幾年的數(shù)據(jù)相比較。根據(jù)數(shù)年的事故序列，能夠分析出它的發(fā)展趨勢，并大致預(yù)測以后幾年的事故數(shù)量。一旦建立了這樣一種趨勢，那么在誤差范圍內(nèi)未來一年或幾年都可以預(yù)見。從一個(gè)給定趨勢的偏差也可以進(jìn)行預(yù)測新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年進(jìn)行的分析。我們將討論這個(gè)事故類型分析更詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容。

1、該測試應(yīng)用推廣到高階分類。Foldvary和Lane（1974），在衡量強(qiáng)制佩戴安全帶的效果，誰是最早應(yīng)用于值的4路表高階相互作用的總卡方分配的。

2、測試不局限于總體影響，但卡方值就可以分解模型內(nèi)子假說。另外，在雙向表，卡方總可以分解成零件表互動(dòng)的作用。對1的優(yōu)勢。和2。比以前的情況是，這對許多相互關(guān)聯(lián)的（子）表和相應(yīng)的智廣場卡方檢驗(yàn)是由大量分析，取而代之的是一個(gè)一卡方的確切劃分。

3、投入更多關(guān)注的是參數(shù)估計(jì)。例如，在卡方分割使人們有可能以測試有關(guān)行參數(shù)的線性或二次限制或趨勢的不連續(xù)性。

4、分析的單位是從數(shù)到廣義加權(quán)計(jì)數(shù)。這對于道路安全分析，那里一段時(shí)間，道路使用者的數(shù)量，地點(diǎn)或公里數(shù)的車輛往往是必要的修正有利。最后一個(gè)選項(xiàng)是沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)在許多統(tǒng)計(jì)軟件包。安徒生1977年給出了一個(gè)用于道路雙向安全分析表的例子。工資保障運(yùn)動(dòng)的一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)程序。這一級沒有說明事故原因分

析。它會(huì)嘗試檢測安全問題需要特別注意。所需的基本信息包括事故數(shù)字，來形容不安全總額，暴露的數(shù)據(jù)來計(jì)算風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，并找到一個(gè)高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的情況下或（團(tuán)體）道路使用者。

4.事故分析研究目的

交通安全的研究是有關(guān)的事故及其后果的發(fā)生。因此，人們可能會(huì)說，研究對象是意外。然而研究人員的興趣較少集中在這個(gè)最后的結(jié)果本身，而是多在進(jìn)程更多的結(jié)果（或不結(jié)果）的事故。因此，最好是把作為他的研究對象，在流量的重要事件。一個(gè)在交通意外的過程，結(jié)果是，該實(shí)際發(fā)生是由研究者未落觀測研究的主要問題。

調(diào)查一宗交通意外，他將努力重建了間接來源的事件，如涉及的道路使用者，所提供的資料或目擊者有關(guān)情況，車輛，道路和司機(jī)的特點(diǎn)。因此這不是科學(xué)獨(dú)特的，也有一個(gè)間接的研究對象的研究更多的例子。但是，第二個(gè)困難是，該研究的對象不能被誘發(fā)。有系統(tǒng)的控制實(shí)驗(yàn)手段研究只對問題方面的可能，而不是問題本身。

間接觀察和缺乏系統(tǒng)的控制組合使調(diào)查人員很難發(fā)現(xiàn)在什么情況下造成事故的因素。雖然研究人員主要是在事故處理領(lǐng)導(dǎo)有興趣，他幾乎完全信息的后果，它的產(chǎn)品，意外。此外，事故背景是復(fù)雜的。一般來說，可分為以下幾個(gè)方面：

-考慮到交通系統(tǒng)，交通量和組成國家，道路使用者，他們的速度，天氣條件下，路面情況，車輛，道路使用者和他們的相互作用的演習(xí)，意外可以或無法預(yù)防。

-由于發(fā)生事故，也對這樣的速度和車輛質(zhì)量的因素，大量的不同，碰撞角度，對道路使用者和他們的脆弱性，影響等位置的保護(hù)，傷害是嚴(yán)重或或多或少物質(zhì)損失是多還是少可觀。雖然這些方面不能獨(dú)立研究從理論的角度看，它也從由此產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果的優(yōu)勢，區(qū)分交通情況有潛在危險(xiǎn)的數(shù)字，是由有一個(gè)意外的可能性，在這種潛在的危險(xiǎn)局勢，給定一個(gè)特定事故。

這個(gè)概念框架是對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的關(guān)于個(gè)別道路使用者，以及上級的決定控制器的決定制定的一般基礎(chǔ)。在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的數(shù)學(xué)公式，我們需要一個(gè)明確的概率空間的介紹，基本事件（的情況），可能導(dǎo)致事故組成，每個(gè)類型的事件的概率，最終收在一次事故中，最后的具體成果，損失，鑒于事故的類型。

另一種方法是看事故特征組合，然后找出關(guān)鍵因素。這種類型的事故分析是通過分析事故的共組或子群來開展。事故本身是一個(gè)研究的單位，但也要研究道路因素：道路位置，道路設(shè)計(jì)（如一個(gè)彎道）等。

原文出處：SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam（會(huì)議記錄），記錄者，S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT

ANALYSIS

S.Oppe Keyword：Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet：Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5

bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7

number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and

corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.