第一篇:供應商質量管理文獻翻譯(外文翻譯,中英對照)
互利共贏的供應商質量控制
前言
近年來,隨著對供應鏈的重視,供應商管理正逐漸成為企業和學術界的關注對象,IS09000族標準以及QS 9000標準都對供應商的管理提出了相應的要求,與供應商管理有關的研究成果正逐漸增多,一些軟件巨頭也推出了供應商關系管理的軟件,但是在這些研究成果和應用軟件中,涉及到的供應商質量控制的內容只是一些最基本的要求,而供應商質量控制恰恰是供應商管理的最基本、最重要的內容。另一方而,質量管理界對質量控制的研究取得了大量的成果,遺憾的是這些成果大多依然局限于企業的內部控制,僅僅研究從企業內部各環節如何改善產品的質量,而基于供應鏈的角度來研究質量控制的成果尚不多見。因此,系統地研究經濟全球化形勢下供應商質量控制的理論與方法,將有助于推動我國企業產品質量的快速提高和供應鏈競爭優勢的形成與鞏固。
1、質量與企業共存
質量一直是一個隨著時代的變化而不斷變化的概念,人們對質量的認識也往往因關注點不同而有所不同。如,早在1908年,通用汽車公司的工程師們在皇家汽車俱樂部會員們的面前拆解了3輛凱迪拉克轎車,并把這些零件混在一起,而后從中選擇零件重新組裝成車,然后駕車絕塵而去。這令在場的會員極為震驚,認為凱迪拉克車質量之高令人驚嘆。顯然在當時,汽車零件具有互換性是一種了不起的質量特性,這也是福特公司的N型車和T型車取得輝煌成功的重要原因。時至今日,即使農用三輪車的零部件也具有極高的互換性,零部件的標準化和互換性已經是理所當然的事情,不再是吸引顧客的重要質量特性。可見質量的內涵是不斷變化的。那么究竟什么是質量呢?(1)市場竟爭就是企業間對“顧客”的爭奪,在日益激烈的“顧客”爭奪戰中,質量、價格、交付(交付日期、方式和手段)和服務是企業常用的四個法寶,其中質量是根本,離開質量其他三項將變得毫無意義,因此可以說質量己成為市場競爭的焦點。它反映了產品是否能夠反映顧客需求、能否滿足顧客需求,從面決定了產品的市場前途。有鑒于此,質量己成為一項全球性運動,世界上所有優秀企業無一不把質量作為企業戰略的關鍵內容,從戰略的角度來規劃質量。
(2)對于企業經營者來說,認識到質量對企業的重要意義只是經營企業的第一步,重要的是如何利用科學的方法來保證產品和服務的質量,使顧客滿意,來保證過程和工作的質量來獲互利共炭的供應商質量控制得良好的業績。
眾所周知,企業管理是社會生產力發展到一定程度的歷史產物,質量管理作為企業管理的組成部分,同樣也是社會發展的客觀要求,特別是顧客處于主導地位的今天,要使顧客滿意,就必須有過硬的產品質量和服務質量,這就要求企業積極推行先進的質量管理理論與方法,不斷進行質量管理創新。
2、企業與供應商質量控制
隨著生產社會化的不斷發展,企業的生產活動分工越來越細,專業化程度越來越強,促使生產技術水平越來越高,產品質量得到大幅度改善。通常,某一產品不可能由一個企業從最初的原材料開始加工直至形成顧客最終使用的產品,往往是通過多個企業分工協作來完成。另外,先進生產方式的廣泛應用,如準時生產、敏捷制造、零庫存等,使企業與供應商的關系愈加緊密,企業與供應商的關系也由單純的買賣關系向互利共底的合作關系演變。
ISO 9000族標準自1987年誕生以來受到了世界各國的一致追捧,全球約50多萬家企業通過ISO 9001質量管理體系認證足以說明這套管理標準在引領國際管理潮流方面的巨大成功。在備受企業歡迎的新版標準ISO 9000:2000中,互利的供應商關系被作為八項質量管理原則之一,充分體現了供應商關系管理在企業經營實踐中的作用和價值。企業要貫徹這一原則,就必須從思l 想上認識到供應商的重要性,重視與供應商良好關系的培育,并采取有力措施與之建立一種互利共贏的合作性關系。
3、供應商選擇
選擇合適的供應商是對供應商進行質量控制最有效手段,如果供應商選擇不當,無論后續的控制方法多么先進、控制手段多么嚴格,都只能起到事倍功半的效果。因此要對供應商進行質量控制首先必須科學合理地選擇供應商。
(1)企業在生產經營過程中,所需要的原材料和零部件不可能都由自己生產提供,決定其中哪些應由供應商提供不是一個簡單的買不買的問題,因為這涉及企業的業務流程,甚至涉及到企業與供應商之間的業務流程再造,屬于企業戰略層次的問題。因而對零部件的自產和外購的選擇必須綜合考慮企業的經營環境、企業自身實際情況以及供應商的總體情況。
1)經營環境分析
企業對于零部件自產還是外購的決策需要建立在對其經營環境的準確分析和把握的基礎之上。企業所在行業的整體狀況與發展態勢、國家宏觀經濟形勢、企業產品的社會需求現狀及未來預側等因素都會影響到企業產品的產銷量。而預期的企業產銷量是企業進行各項決策如互利共贏的供應商質量控制投資規模、設備配置的主要依據,也是企業零部件自產與外購決策的重要依據。另外,競爭對手的零部件自產與外購情況也是企業進行決策的重要參考依據。
2)市場供應情況
零部件的社會供應狀況也是企業決定自產還是外購的重要依據。企業與其供應商的關系的實質就是相互依存的關系,正如一家勢力雄厚、規模巨大的企業會吸引很多供應商在其周圍投資設廠一樣,具有完善配套供應商的區域也常常吸引大的企業甚至跨國公司前來投資辦廠。某種零部件的社會供應能力、價格、質量和服務水平在很大程度上影響著企業的自產與外購決策。因此,企業應全面了解其產品中零部件的社會供應情況,注意從互聯網上、展覽會、供應商來信等渠道收集供應商的企業介紹、產品樣本、獲獎證書、代理商授權書、營業執照、產品實物質量水平以及市場行情等方面的信息。然后,按照供應商提供物資種類,可分別建立原材料、零部件、包裝材料等不同類別的潛在供應商檔案。
(2)供應商的檢測設備是供應商賴以測量、分析和改進的基礎條件。如果供應商不具備必要的檢測手段,就無法提供真實準確的質量數據,供應商的質量控制就如空中樓閣。所以,在初選供應商時,了解供應商的檢測設備的配備情況和先進程度同樣是十分必要的。
(3)過程能力指數和過程性能指數是反映供應商生產過程質量保證能力的兩個重要參數。過程能力指數反映供應商短期的過程能力滿足公差要求的程度。過程性能指數反映供應商長期的過程能力滿足公差要求的程度。供應商是否進行過程能力指數和過程性能指數的計算分析,可以在一定程度上反映其是否在生產過程中進行了預防控制。過程能力指數和過程性能指數的變化則可以反映供應商的質量保證能力和質量改進潛力的大小,在很大程度上反映供應商的實力和管理水平。因此,調查供應商的過程能力指數和過程性能指數是選擇供應商的重要依據。
4、供應商的質量控制
質量管理的一項重要原則是“過程方法”,企業為了有效運作,必須識別并管理許多相互關聯的過程,特別是這些過程之間的相互作用。供應商是過程管理的源頭之一,是過程輸入的重要因素,因而,供應商提供的產品質量如何,對于企業的過程質量、體系質量和產品質量具有舉足輕重的作用。
(1)產品開發設計階段,根據不同產品的不同要求,在產品開發設計建議書或產品設計開發任務書中提出先行試驗項目和課題,有針對性地為采用新原理、新結構、新材料、新工藝,進行先行試驗,為了確保試驗的效果和以后批量生產的需要,這一階段的一項重要工作就是對供應商進行初步控制,確保在新產品設計的各個階段以及批量生產時,都能夠有適合新產品或新服務需要的合格供應商。
l(2)企業在批量生產過程中,對供應商的質量控制主要包括監控供應商的過程能力指數和過程性能指數、監控供應商的測量系統、審核供應商的質量管理體系、進貨質量檢驗、推動供應商的質量改進、以及來自供應商的不合格品的處置和質量問題的解決等活動。
1)批量生產階段,供應商提供的產品或服務的質量直接決定了企業向顧客提供的產品或服務的質量特性,企業在供應商合作的過程中,應監控供應商的質量保證能力的變化,為了使監控有效,企業應就此與供應商達成一致,并遵循協商一致的標準和程序進行。監控的目的一般有兩個,一是防止供應商的質量保證能力出現下降的情況,確保最終產品或服務的質量,實現顧客滿意;二是與供應商共同發現改進的機會,尋找改進的切人點,在更高層次上創造價值。
由于在批量生產階段供應商大批量連續供貨,采購產品的質量、價格、供貨的及時性等對企業產品的質量和企業實現其經營方針、目標都有十分重要的作用,為了更加科學地評價和選擇供應商,這一階段的供應商評價應盡量采用定量分析的方法。根據產品和服務的不同,定量分折的方法也不同,以下簡單介紹常用的過程能力分析、測量系統分析、質量管理體系評價、水平對比法和優秀模式等方法。
①供應商過程能力分析
過程能力是指過程加工質量方面的能力,而不是加工數量方面的能力。在批量生產階段,為了保證批量生產的產品滿足顧客的需求和期望,供應商生產過程的穩定性就十分重要了,決定供應商是否有能力穩定地連續提供符合質量要求的產品的眾多因素中,供應商的過程能力是一個決定性的因素。因為當供應商的過程能力不足時,供應商提供合格產品只是個良好的愿望,即便是加大檢驗力度,也只能是在短期內有效,難以持續。所以,對過程能力不足,短期改進無望的供應商,應該停止合作。
②供應商測量系統分析
企業對供應商的質量控制,包括對供應商的選擇、評價和控制,都離不開數據和對數據的分析,缺少足夠的數據,僅僅靠經驗和直覺對供應商進行選擇和評價,其風險是不言而喻的。對供應商的評價和控制所使用的數據大多是由測量提供的,如果測量數據失真或誤差很大,都會導致采購行為的缺陷或失敗。因此,在批量生產階段,為了確保采購的質量,應該對供應商的測量系統進行監控。
2)與供應商的溝通
與供應商溝通的方式是多種多樣的,但是這些方式的目的是一致的,企業和供應商共同關注顧客,建立企業和供應商共同滿意的融洽的合作伙伴關系,共同對產品和服務進行持續的改進,以便及時、有效地適應市場的變化。滿足顧客的需求和期望,實現企業和供應商共同的價值,共同追求并實現卓越。
(3)不合格品的判定、分析和處置
雖然有了以上各種控制措施,但是不合格品的出現仍然是正常現象,除單件或少數幾件產品、安全性要求較高的產品等少數產品以外,在許多情況下不合格品的出現是難以完全避免的。這時候就要根據不合格的性質、對最終產品的影響程度、供應商的信譽等因素對不合格品進行必要的評審,然后采取適當的措施處置不合格品,以防止不合格品的非預期使用或交付當出現不合格品以后,要分析產生不合格的囚素,采取糾正和預防措施。防止不合格的再次發生。對由于異常因素發生的不合格品,供應商要采取相應的措施,消除這些異常因素。
1)一致的技術標準和抽樣方案
使用、提出和制定規格的部門必須合理地描述出擬采購的產品是什么,以便使供應商得到準確的理解,使采購人員能夠準確地采購所需的產品。根據ISO 9001:2000標準的要求和企業的實際情況,這些技術標準一般是由設計、采購、管理、生產等部門制定,但在采購的實施時,采購部門要使用這些標準,因此.采購部門從一開始就應該介入這些標準的策劃、起草和修訂,否則,一旦這此標準止式發布實施,可能會使采購部門處于被動的地位,給采購工作帶來麻煩。
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2)不合格品的質量責任
當采購產品出現超出技術規范規定界限的不合格時,企業和供應商應在協商的原則下確定不合格產品的原因、商定解決產品質量的辦法,并據此進行改進。當企業與供應商對不合格的認定分歧很大,雙方無法協商解決,需要訴諸法律時,不合格產品質量責任的性質就發生了變化,必要時不排除需要追究某一方的法律責任。所以對產品技術要求和其他采購信息,企業一定要表述清除、完整、準確,并經過授權人員評審后再與供應商溝通,在與供應商達成一致的前提下再簽訂合同,并妥善保存采購、檢驗文件和記錄。
3)不合格品的控制
當出現不合格品,如果是抽樣檢驗,且不合格品的數量小于或等于合格判定數時,這種不合格屬于正常現象,只要將不合格品更換成合格品,就應該判定交驗批合格,企業應根據文件要求接受該批產品。這些個別的不合格產品可能屬于正常波動引起的不合格,可以不必專門查找原因供應商可以作為止常的質量改進,逐步提高過程能力,減少這些不合格。
5、供應商的契約化控制
為了保證顧客對產品與服務的滿意,企業必須對產品形成的全過程進行嚴格的管理與控制。為了使整個供應鏈中每一個環節,即合作伙伴,明確他們對質量的責任與義務,并保證實現,伙伴之間必須以契約的形式形成承諾,并按照承諾的內容測量質量與服務。這里所說的契約僅指得到相關方簽署的,規定供應鏈各環節之間質量責任的文件化條款,包括合同和協議。嚴肅合理的契約對雙方不僅起到可靠的約束作用,而且可以有效保護雙方的利益。
(1)保證契約內容與標準、法規和企業制度的統一性
契約可引用或借鑒既定的法律、法規或規章制度、標準等。如可規定進廠檢驗抽樣標準執行GB2828 抽樣標準;電器產品安全性能必須符合GB4706等。如發現有與相關法律、法規、標準、制度不一致之處,發現方應及時提出修改。如在執行過程中發現不一致,發現方應及時通知不知情方,并按符合法律、法規、標準、制度的方式執行。
(2)契約內容應實際有效
起草與簽署契約時,必須考慮產品形成過程中的實際情況,考慮契約執行的可操作性。有些協議在制定時可能需要考慮的因素較多,規定需較為詳細,但如果過于繁瑣,缺乏可操作性,反而起不到應有的作用。例如,某公司需從供應商采購大量的加工軸承用的鋼材。由于軸承對材料要求較嚴,加工精度較高,公司為保證質量,在協議中要求對方對每一批材料進行化學成分分析和物理性能試驗。供應商如果引進整套試驗設備,勢必耗費大量的成本,同時要配備相應的技術人員。如果不增加資源配置,那么每次都要送社會檢驗機構檢驗,支付昂貴的試驗費用。象這種契約,如果供應商仔細審驗的話,他就會考慮進行利潤-成本-風險分析,在價格上提高要求。這種協議履行起來就有較大難度,同時也容易引起一些不必要的糾紛,不利于供應鏈的穩固和質量價值鏈的形成。
(3)契約應明確雙方的權利和責任,鼓勵供應商的持續改進與創新
契約中應明確供需雙方的權利和責任,同時也應規定必要的獎懲性條款,一方面約束供應商的質量行為,另一方面鼓勵供應商不斷提高產品質量。對供應商的獎懲包括兩種類型。其一是因質量責任的劃分而產生的獎懲;其二是根據業績考核而產生的獎懲。在實際的操作中,適當的獎勵可能會產生意想不到的管理效果。某供應商的產品在顧客手中出現了較為嚴重的質量問題,企業立即通知供應商分析原因,采取整改措施。供應商接通知后,積極地派人到現場進行協助調查和分析,使問題很快得到了解決。本來根據雙方的協議規定,該供應商除應承擔全部質量責任外,還應承擔數額不菲的罰款。但企業考慮到該供應商是自己的重要供應商,一直合作很順利,質量穩定,決定獎勵供應商對質量問題的快速反應和積極的態度,免除了所有的罰款。結果年終評定發現該供應商的產品合格率比上年有較大幅度的提高。
(4)契約的內容應公正、公平
l 契約應是經過雙方充分協商達成的共識,不應只是一方對另一方的宣言或要求,內容要經過雙方認可和確認。另外,契約內容應涵蓋從產品開發、試制、檢驗、包裝運送到不合格品處理、售后服務的全過程,所以契約可包含多個層次,如供貨合同、質量保證協議、技術協議、售后服務協議等。
6、供應商的業績評定與動態管理
供應商作為產品實現的重要資源之一必然要講求其有效性。2000版ISO9000標準就把管理體系的有效性作為一個重點來考慮,因此對供應商進行業績評定十分重要,它是進行動態管理、擇選劣汰的依據。
(1)評定方法
按照采購要求,對關鍵材料、主要材料和次要材料定期進行質量缺陷分級評定。規定關鍵參數的缺陷分記為3分,主要缺陷為2分,次要缺陷為1分。一批材料中根據規定的抽樣方法最大分數為6分。質量工程師據此對供應商進行等級評定,并向供應商發出通知。這種方法操作簡單,節省人力,但評價指標偏少。
(2)動態管理
根據業績記錄,定期對所有供應商進行動態分級評定。將所有供應商劃分為A、B、C、D四級,根據材料價值、質量要求、加工難易程度、社會供應狀況等因素確定供應商定點個數。定點個數為1的A類供應商,訂單分配為100%;定點個數為1的B類供應商,訂單分配為100%,但需開發該材料的新供應商;定點個數為2的A、B類供應商分別分配訂單60%和40%;定點個數為3的A、B、C類供應商分別分配訂單55%、30%和15%;D類供應商應被淘汰。這種分級評定與管理將供貨訂單與供應商績效、材料分級結合起來,使訂單的分配比較科學合理。當然,這種方法對企業管理的整體水平也提出了很高的要求。
l Mutually beneficial supplier quality control Preface In recent years, with the emphasis on the supply chain, vendor management is becoming a business and academia about the object, IS09000 standards QS 9000 family of standards and vendor management are all put forward the corresponding requirements, and supplier management-related Research is gradually increased, the software giant also introduced a number of supplier relationship management software, but in these research results and application software, related to the quality control of the content provider is only the most basic requirements, and supplier quality control Supplier management is precisely the most fundamental and important content.The other party, quality management, quality control sector made a lot of research results, unfortunately, most of these results is still limited to the company's internal controls, only the link from the internal study how to improve product quality, and based on supply chain Point of view of the results of quality control is still rare.Therefore, the systematic study of the economic globalization supplier quality control theories and methods, will help promote China's rapid increase in product quality and supply chain formation and consolidation of competitive advantage.1、Quality and corporate co-existence Quality has been a change with the times changing the concept of people's understanding of quality is often due to concerns vary.For example, as early as 1908, GM engineers at the Royal Automobile Club members in front of dismantling the three Cadillac cars, and these components mixed together, and then choose the parts re-assembled into a car, then driving Pull away.This makes the presence of members of a very shocked that the high quality Cadillac amazing.Obviously at the time, with interchangeable parts is a great quality features, this is Ford's Model N Model T achieved brilliant success and an important reason.Today, even if the farm also has a very high tricycle parts interchangeability, standardization and interchangeability of parts is already a matter of course, is no longer an important quality characteristics to attract customers.Visible quality content is constantly changing.So what is the quality?(1)Market competition among enterprises is the “customer ” of the competition, in the increasingly fierce “customers” in the battle, quality, price, delivery(delivery dates, means and methods)and the service is commonly used in the four magic, where quality is Simply leave the quality of the other three will become meaningless, it can be said the quality has become the focus of market competition.It reflects whether a product can reflect the customer needs, can meet customer needs, from the surface determines the future of products in the market.In view of this, quality has become a global movement, all the world's best companies are all the quality as a key element of corporate strategy, from a strategic perspective to planning quality.(2)For business operators, it recognizes the importance of quality on business enterprises is the first step, it is important how to use scientific methods to ensure l product and service quality, customer satisfaction, to ensure the quality of the process and work to Be mutually beneficial and win-win supplier quality control with good results.As we all know, corporate management is the development of social productive forces to a certain degree of historical product, quality management as an integral part of business management, is also the objective requirement of social development, especially in today's dominant customer, make customer satisfaction, there must be strong Product quality and service quality, which requires enterprises to actively implement the advanced quality management theories and methods of continuous quality management innovation.2、Quality control of enterprises and suppliers With the continuous development of socialization of production, the production activities of the division of labor is getting smaller, growing degree of specialization, prompting increasing the level of production technology, product quality has been greatly improved.Typically, a product can not be from a business started from the initial processing of raw materials until the formation of the product end-use customers, often through multiple corporate division of labor to complete.In addition, the extensive application of advanced production methods, such as JIT, agile manufacturing, zero inventory, so that the relationship between enterprises and suppliers increasingly close relationship between companies and suppliers are from a simple buyer-seller relationship to the mutual cooperation between the end of a total evolution of.ISO 9000 family of standards since its inception in 1987 has been the consistent pursuit of the world, more than 50 million businesses around the world through the ISO 9001 quality management system certification standards sufficient to explain this management trend in the leading international management's great success.Welcome to the new business in much the standard ISO 9000:2000, the mutually beneficial supplier relationships is one of eight quality management principles as a fully embodied the supplier relationship management practice in the business role and value.Enterprises to implement this principle, we must recognize the ideological importance of supplier and attach importance to good relations with suppliers cultivation, and to take effective measures with the establishment of a mutually beneficial and win-win cooperative relations.3、Vendor Selection Choose the right supplier is a supplier of the most effective means of quality control, supplier selection if improper, no matter how advanced the follow-up control, controls how strict, can only play a less effective results.So to the quality control of suppliers must first be scientific and rational choice of suppliers.(1)Enterprises in the production process, raw materials and parts needed for production can not be provided by their own to decide which of them should be suppliers of buying a not a simple issue because it involves business processes, even involving Between enterprises and suppliers to the business process reengineering, strategic-level issues in enterprises.Thus parts of the self-produced and purchased options to be taken into account the business environment, the l actual situation of their own and suppliers in general.1)Analysis of business environment Enterprises are outsourcing parts production for the decision or need to create in the accurate analysis of their operating environment and grasp basis.The overall position of companies and the industry development trend, the national macroeconomic situation, the social needs of enterprise products for predicting the future status and other factors will affect production and sales of enterprise products.Anticipated production and sales of enterprise decision-making enterprise for the mutual benefit of suppliers, such as quality control of the scale of investment, mainly based on device configuration, but also business and outsourcing parts production for an important basis for decision making.In addition, competitors and the outsourcing of parts production for corporate decision-making situation is an important reference.2)Market supply Supply situation in parts of the social enterprise decision is an important basis for self-produced or purchased.Business relationships with its suppliers is the essence of interdependence, as a strong power, large-scale enterprises will attract many suppliers set up plants in their surroundings, like, a complete set of regional suppliers often attract large enterprises and even Multinational companies to invest and set up factories.Some parts of the social supply capacity, price, quality and service levels of the enterprise is largely self-produced and outsourcing decisions.Therefore, enterprises should fully understand the social components of their products, availability, attention from the Internet, exhibitions, suppliers and other channels to collect letters from suppliers of business introduction, product samples, award certificates, power of attorney agents, business license, Products quality level and market conditions and other information.Then, in accordance with the types of suppliers to provide materials, were established to raw materials, components, packaging materials, such as different types of potential suppliers file.(2)Testing equipment supplier which the supplier measurement, analysis and improvement of basic conditions.If the supplier does not have the necessary means of detection, we can not provide true and accurate quality data, quality control of suppliers like castles in the air.Therefore, in the primary suppliers to understand the supplier's testing equipment and advanced levels with the situation is also very necessary.(3)Process capability index and process performance index of the production process is reflected in supplier quality assurance capabilities of the two important parameters.Process capability index reflects the ability of suppliers to meet short-term course of the degree of tolerance requirements.Process performance index reflects the ability of suppliers to meet long-term process requirements of the degree of tolerance.Does the supplier to process capability index and process performance index calculation and analysis, to a certain extent, reflect the production process is conducted in the prevention and control.Process capability index and the change process performance index can reflect the ability of the supplier quality assurance and quality improvement of the size of the potential, l largely reflecting the strength and supplier management.Therefore, the investigation supplier process capability index and process performance index is an important basis for selection of suppliers.4、Supplier Quality Control Quality management is an important principle is the “process approach”, enterprises in order to function effectively, must identify and manage the many interrelated processes, especially the interaction between these processes.Supplier is one of the sources of process management is an important factor in the process input, and thus, the quality of suppliers to provide products for business process quality, system quality and product quality has a pivotal role.(1)Product development and design stage, according to the different requirements of different products, product development, design or product design and development of proposals put forward in the book first pilot project tasks and issues, targeted for the introduction of new principles, new structures, new materials, new processes, The first test, in order to ensure test results and future production needs, an important task at this stage is that of the suppliers under control, to ensure that all stages of new product design and mass production, are to have fit the new Product or service needs of qualified suppliers.(2)Enterprises in the production process, quality control of suppliers include monitoring supplier process capability and process performance index, monitor supplier measurement system, the audit supplier quality management system, purchase quality inspection, and promote supplier Quality improvement, and defective products from suppliers, disposal and quality of problem solving and other activities.1)Production stage, suppliers of products or services directly determine the quality of the business to provide customers with the quality of the product or service features, enterprises in the process of suppliers, vendors should monitor changes in the quality assurance capabilities, in order to Monitoring effective, enterprises should reach agreement on this with the supplier, and follow the agreed standards and procedures.The purpose of monitoring generally have two, one supplier's quality assurance to prevent the decline in capacity, to ensure that the quality of the final product or service to achieve customer satisfaction;the second is working with vendors to find opportunities for improvement, looking for people to improve the cutting Point, at a higher level to create value.Production stage due to high volume supplier of continuous availability, purchase products, quality, price, availability, timeliness and other quality products for enterprises and businesses realize their operating principles, and target has a very important role, in order to more scientific Evaluation and selection of suppliers, supplier evaluation at this stage should be a quantitative analysis.According to the different products and services, quantitative differences in methods of folding points, the following brief analysis of commonly used process capability, measurement system analysis, quality management system assessment, comparing the level of law and good models and other methods.①Supplier process capability analysis l Process capability refers to the ability of the process of processing quality, rather than the number of processing capacity.In the production stage, in order to ensure mass production of products to meet customer needs and expectations, supplier stability of the production process is very important to determine whether the supplier has ability to consistently meet the quality requirements to provide continuous product of many factors, Supplier process capability is a decisive factor.Because when the supplier's process capability is insufficient, to provide qualified products supplier is only a good will, even if efforts to increase testing, can only be effective in the short term, unsustainable.Therefore, lack of process capability, supplier of short-term improvement of hopelessness, should stop cooperation.②Measurement System Analysis provider Company quality control of suppliers, including supplier selection, evaluation and control, are inseparable from the data and analysis of the data, the lack of sufficient data, experience and intuition alone the supplier selection and evaluation of the risk Is self-evident.Supplier evaluation and control of the data used are mostly provided by the measure, if the measurement error of the data distortion or large, will lead to purchases defect or failure.Therefore, in the mass production stage, in order to ensure the quality of procurement, suppliers should monitor the measurement system.2)Communication with suppliers Way of communicating with suppliers are diverse, but the purpose of these approaches is consistent, enterprise customers and suppliers of common concern, the establishment of enterprises and suppliers satisfaction of harmonious cooperation partnership for sustainable products and services Improvements in order to timely and effectively adapt to market changes.Meet customer needs and expectations of enterprises and suppliers of common values and common aspirations and achieve excellence.(3)Determination of nonconforming product, analysis and disposal of Even with these various control measures, but there is still substandard products is a normal phenomenon, in addition to single or a few pieces of products, products with higher security requirements and a few other products, in many cases, the emergence of non-conforming product Is hardly avoidable.This time will be based on the nature of failure, the degree of influence on the final product, the supplier's reputation and other factors necessary for the assessment of nonconforming product, and then take appropriate measures to deal with nonconforming product to prevent unintended non-conforming product When a nonconforming use or delivery of goods after the prisoners failed to analyze the factors have to take corrective and preventive measures.To prevent the failure from happening again.Anomalies occur due to defective products, suppliers to take appropriate measures to eliminate these abnormal factors.1)Consistent technical standards and sampling plan Use, and develop specifications proposed department must reasonably describe what the products to be purchased, to enable vendors to get an accurate understanding of the procurement staff to purchase the required products l accurately.According to ISO 9001:2000 standards and the actual situation, the technical standard is normally provided by the design, procurement, management, production and other departments to develop, but in the implementation of the procurement, the procurement departments should use these standards, so.Procurement from Beginning, these standards should be involved in the planning, drafting and revision, otherwise, if only for publish this implementation of this standard, may make the purchasing department in a passive position, to the procurement of trouble.2)Responsibility for substandard quality of goods When purchasing products in excess of unqualified technical specification limits, companies and suppliers should be identified in consultation with substandard products under the principle of reason, the agreed approach to solve product quality and make improvements accordingly.When the enterprise failed and suppliers found great differences on the two sides can not be resolved through consultation, need to resort to the law, the substandard nature of the responsibility of product quality changes, if necessary, do not rule out the need to pursue a party's legal responsibility.Therefore, the product requirements and other procurement information, enterprises must express clear, complete, accurate, and after review by authorized personnel to communicate with suppliers, in agreement with the supplier under the premise of re-signing of the contract, and retain procurement, Inspection documents and records.3)Control of nonconforming product When nonconforming product, if it is sampling, and the number of unqualified or less qualified to determine the number, this failure is a normal phenomenon, as long as the replacement of defective products into the qualified product, you should determine the approved inspection Qualified enterprises should be based on documents required to accept the batch.The failure of these individual products may be part of the normal fluctuations of the failure, you can not find the cause of the specialized supplier of quality can be improved as the only constant, and gradually improve the process capability and reduce the failure.5、Control of contract suppliers In order to ensure customer satisfaction with products and services, companies must form the whole process of product management and strict control.In order to make the whole supply chain, every link, that is, partners, specifically the quality of their responsibilities and obligations, and to ensure implementation of the contract between the partners must be in the form of the formation of commitment, and commitment to the contents of the measure in accordance with quality and service.Mentioned here refers only to the contract signed by the relevant parties to provide the quality of the supply chain responsibilities between the terms of documentation, including contracts and agreements.Serious and reasonable contract for both sides not only play the role of reliable constraints, and can effectively protect the interests of both.(1)Content and standards to ensure that contracts, regulations, and the unity of enterprise system l Contract may be quoted or learn from the established laws, regulations or rules and regulations, standards.Such as to require incoming inspection standards GB2828 random sample of standard;electrical products must comply with GB4706 and other security features.If found with the relevant laws, regulations, standards, system inconsistencies found shall timely changes.If found inconsistencies in the implementation process, that party shall promptly notify the innocent party, according to compliance with laws, regulations, standards, institutional manner.(2)Content of the contract should be practical and effective Drafting and signing of contract, we must consider the actual process of product formation, considering the operability of contract enforcement.Some protocols may need to consider in the development of many factors that need more detailed provisions, but if too cumbersome, the lack of maneuverability, but would not achieve its proper role.For example, a company should purchase from a supplier of processing a large number of bearing steel.As bearing on the material requirements more stringent, higher precision, quality assurance company, ask for in the agreement for each batch of material chemical composition analysis and physical properties.If the introduction of full set of suppliers of test equipment, is bound to spend a lot of cost, while equipped with the appropriate technical staff.If you do not increase the allocation of resources, so each must be sent to community inspection institutions, to pay for expensive testing costs.Like this contract, if the supplier careful testing, he will consider the profitsrisk analysis, the price increase request.Such an agreement more difficult to perform up there, but also easily lead to unnecessary disputes, is not conducive to the stability and quality of supply chain value chain formation.(3)Contract should be clear rights and responsibilities of both parties, to encourage suppliers to continuous improvement and innovation Contract should be clear rights and responsibilities of both supply and demand, but also should provide the necessary incentive provisions, on the one hand the quality of binding behavior of suppliers, on the other hand encourage suppliers to continuously improve product quality.Incentive of suppliers, including two types.One is the division of responsibility for the quality of the resulting rewards and punishments;the other is based on performance appraisal and reward and punishment generated.In the actual operation, the appropriate reward management may produce unexpected results.A supplier of the product in the hands of customers appeared more serious quality problems, companies immediately notify the supplier of the cause and take corrective measures.Suppliers take notice, sent to the site to actively assist in the investigation and analysis of the problem was quickly resolved.According to the agreement originally provided that the supplier should bear all the responsibility for quality in addition, we must also bear the amount of money in fines.However, taking into account the supplier companies is their key suppliers, have been working very smoothly, stable quality, decided to reward quality supplier of rapid response and a positive attitude, eliminating all of the fine.Year-end evaluation results found that the rate of qualified products suppliers are more substantial than the increase over the previous year.l(4)The contents of the contract should be fair and equitable Contract should be negotiated through the full consensus of both parties, not just one party against another or request a declaration, content to go through both the recognition and confirmation.In addition, the contract terms should cover product development, trial production, testing, packaging, delivery to non-conforming product processing, service the whole process, so the contract can contain multiple levels, such as supply contracts, quality assurance agreements, technology agreements, service Agreement.6、Supplier performance evaluation and dynamic management Suppliers as an important resource for product realization is bound to emphasize its effectiveness.2000 put the ISO9000 standard management system effectiveness to consider as a priority, so the assessment of supplier performance is important, it is the dynamic management, eliminating the basis by choosing inferior.(1)Evaluation Method Accordance with the procurement requirements of key materials, the main material and secondary materials on a regular basis for quality assessment of defect classification.Provisions of sub-critical parameters of the defects recorded as 3 points, 2 points for major defects, minor defects was 1.Some materials, in accordance with the provisions of the sampling method the maximum score is 6 points.Quality Engineer accordingly suppliers rating, give notice to the supplier.This method is simple, save manpower, but the index below normal.(2)Dynamic Management Based on performance records, all suppliers on a regular basis for dynamic classification assessment.All suppliers will be divided into A, B, C, D four, according to the material value, quality, ease of processing, social availability and other factors point to determine the number of the supply agreement.A fixed number of classes is 1 supplier order allocation was 100%;fixed number of Class B-1 supplier order allocation is 100%, but the need to develop new supplier of the material;fixed number of 2 A, B type distribution of order suppliers respectively 60% and 40%;fixed number 3 of the A, B, C category vendors were assigned the order 55%, 30% and 15%;D class of suppliers should be eliminated.The assessment and management of hierarchical order with the supplier to supplier performance, material grade combine to make more scientific and rational allocation of orders.Of course, this method the overall level of enterprise management also made very high demands.l
第二篇:交通運輸外文翻譯外文文獻
交通事故分析的可能性和局限性
S.Oppe 關鍵字:后果;目的;描述;限制;關注;事故分析;可能性
摘要:交通事故的統計數字,尤其國家一級的數據對監控和預測事故的發展,積極或消極檢測事故的發展,以及對定義安全目標和評估工業安全特別有益。事故分析是應用非常有限的分析,是前瞻性分析和回顧性分析,能夠對新開發的交通安全系統和特殊過程的安全措施進行評價。目前迫切需要一個將實時事故分析與研究相結合的行為。將自動檢測和視頻錄制相結合的研究交通事故的科研論文會比較容易接受。這種類型的研究最終會對交通理念有個完善的認識。
1.簡介
本文主要是基于個人的經驗,研究有關交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由這些經驗推導出的哲學思考就像通過研究和統計得出的實踐觀點。而這些調查數字已經在其他地方發表了。
在缺少直接觀察的事故中,許多方法論問題的產生,導致不能直接測試對結果持續討論。通過看事故視頻來討論是富有成效的。事實證明,用來解釋事故的大部分有關信息就是事故中缺少的記錄。深入研究還無法回憶起所有的必要的用來測試有關事故發生的假設數據。尤其是車-車相撞發生的車禍,這是在荷蘭城市道路交叉口錄制的視頻,一輛從岔路駛來的汽車與主干路的汽車相撞,下列問題可以問:為什么汽車來自次干路上,突然加速后又幾乎停止,撞上了在左側主路的一輛汽車呢?為什么沒有注意到正在駛來的車?是不是因為兩車從右邊駛來,司機因為前面的交叉為他們提供了可能性而斤斤計較?難道他向左看過,但他認為停在拐角處的綠色貨車能讓他停下來?當然,交通狀況并不復雜。目前這個事故中沒有騎自行車或行人在擁擠路口分散他的注意。如果停著的綠色車能夠在五分鐘內消失,這兩輛車可能就不會相撞。在事故發生的相關條件下,幾乎不可能觀察下一個交通行為,因為交通事故是不可預見的。由于新的視頻設備和自動檢測事故設備的不斷發展,如在收集數據方面不需要很高的成本就能變得越來越逼真。必要的增加數據類型也能更好的解釋交通中存在的危險因素。關于事故分析的可能性和限制性的問題是不容易回答的,我們不能確切的分析交通事故。因為事故分析涵蓋了每一個活動中的不同背景,并根據不同的信息來源范圍來補充資料,特別是收集事故的數據,背景資料等,我們首先要看看在交通安全領域的活動周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性與限制。這些行為主要是與交通系統的安全管理有關,有些則是相關的研究活動。
應該用下面的步驟來加以區分: ——檢測交通安全問題;
——描述問題和它的主要特征; ——分析其原因分析和改進建議; ——選擇和執行安全措施; ——評價所采取的措施。
雖然這個周期可以由同一人或一群人做出來,而問題在每個階段(政治/管理或科學)都有不同的背景。我們用事故分析來描述這一階段。做這個決定是重要的。很多關于分析結果的方法的討論由于忽視之間的區別而成為徒勞的。政治家或道路管理人員對道路的個別事故不是很留意。他們對事故的看法往往都是一視同仁,因為總的結果比整個事故中的每個人的因素重要。因此,每次事故看做一個個體,之間相互協調就會達成安全的結果。
研究人員研究事故發生時一連串事件中每個人的興趣。希望從中得到關于每次事故的詳細信息并能發現其發生的原因和有關的條件。政治家們希望只是因為細節決定行動。在最高一級事故總數減少。信息的主要來源是國家數據庫及其統計學處理系統。對他來說,統計意外數字及其統計的波動來進行事故分析。這適用于事故分析中的交通安全領域。因此,我們將首先描述了事故的這些方面。2.事故的性質和它們的統計特性
事故基本概念是意外,不管是其發生的原因還是引起事故出現的過程。兩個簡單的假設通常是來描述交通事故的形成過程:
-事故發生的概率與以往發生的事故之間是獨立;-事故發生在時間上是同性質的
如果這兩個假設成立,那么事故是泊松分布。第一個假設與大多數的批判不符。事故是罕見的事件,因此不會受到以前事故的影響。在某些情況下,有一個直接的因果鏈(例如,大量的車開到一起)這一系列的事故被認為是一個個體事故但包含許多的車。這個假設并不適用于統計人員傷亡。傷亡人數往往與同一事故有關,因此,獨立性假設不成立。第二個假設乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空間或在不同地點發生的的事故同樣具有可能性。然而,假設需要很長一段時間并且沒有緩繳期。其性質是根據理論的假設。如果其短時間內能成立,那么它也適用于長時間,因為泊松分布變量的總和,即使他們的泊松率是不同的,但也屬于泊松分布。對于這些時期的總和泊松率則等于為這些地方的泊松率的總和。假設與一個真正的情況相比較計數,無論是從一兩個結果還是總情況來看都有一個基本情況比較符合。
例如,對比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天,下一個星期的一天發生的交通事故。如果條件是相同的(同一時間,交通情況相同,同樣的天氣條件等),那么由此產生的意外數字是相同的泊松過程的結果。這一假設可以通過估算進行測試的兩個觀測值的基礎上(估計是兩個值的平均值)的速度參數。概率理論能夠
考慮到這兩個觀察值的平均,用于計算的平等假設的可能性。這是一個相當強大的統計過程。泊松假設是研究了很多次,來獲得證據支持。它已經應用于許多情況,數的差異表明在安全性的差異然后確定是否發生意外。這一程序的主要目的是檢測在安全分歧。這可能是一個時間上的差異,或不同的地方或不同的條件。這種差異可以指導改進的過程。由于主要關注的是,以減少意外的發生,這種分析可能導致對治療中最有前途的領域。為這樣一個測試應用程序的必要條件是,那意外的數字進行比較是大到足以證明存在的分歧。在許多地方情況下,一個應用程序是不可能的。事故黑點分析往往阻礙了這一限制,例如,如果應用這種測試,找出事故是否在特定的位置數是高于平均水平。該程序的描述,也可以使用,如果發生意外乃根據數的特點找到有前途的安全目標。不僅聚集,而且還與分類泊松假設成立,而意外數字可以相互測試的泊松假設的基礎。這種測試是相當麻煩的,因為每個特定的情況下,每一個不同的泊松參數,即,對所有可能結果的概率必須計算應用測試。然后,泊松分布近似為正態分布,均值和方差等于泊松參數。一旦均值和方差的正態分布,給出了所有的測試可以改寫了標準零均值和
方差的正態分布條件。沒有任何更多的必要計算,但測試統計,需要利用表繪制。3.行車安全政策事故統計的應用
分析那些假設的基礎上描述的測試程序的類型及其優點。這種應用最好的例子是為一個國家或地區進行超過一年的安全監測,用事故的總體數據(最終的特定類型,如死亡事故)與前幾年的數據相比較。根據數年的事故序列,能夠分析出它的發展趨勢,并大致預測以后幾年的事故數量。一旦建立了這樣一種趨勢,那么在誤差范圍內未來一年或幾年都可以預見。從一個給定趨勢的偏差也可以進行預測新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年進行的分析。我們將討論這個事故類型分析更詳細的內容。
1、該測試應用推廣到高階分類。Foldvary和Lane(1974),在衡量強制佩戴安全帶的效果,誰是最早應用于值的4路表高階相互作用的總卡方分配的。
2、測試不局限于總體影響,但卡方值就可以分解模型內子假說。另外,在雙向表,卡方總可以分解成零件表互動的作用。對1的優勢。和2。比以前的情況是,這對許多相互關聯的(子)表和相應的智廣場卡方檢驗是由大量分析,取而代之的是一個一卡方的確切劃分。
3、投入更多關注的是參數估計。例如,在卡方分割使人們有可能以測試有關行參數的線性或二次限制或趨勢的不連續性。
4、分析的單位是從數到廣義加權計數。這對于道路安全分析,那里一段時間,道路使用者的數量,地點或公里數的車輛往往是必要的修正有利。最后一個選項是沒有發現在許多統計軟件包。安徒生1977年給出了一個用于道路雙向安全分析表的例子。工資保障運動的一個計算機程序。這一級沒有說明事故原因分
析。它會嘗試檢測安全問題需要特別注意。所需的基本信息包括事故數字,來形容不安全總額,暴露的數據來計算風險,并找到一個高風險的情況下或(團體)道路使用者。
4.事故分析研究目的
交通安全的研究是有關的事故及其后果的發生。因此,人們可能會說,研究對象是意外。然而研究人員的興趣較少集中在這個最后的結果本身,而是多在進程更多的結果(或不結果)的事故。因此,最好是把作為他的研究對象,在流量的重要事件。一個在交通意外的過程,結果是,該實際發生是由研究者未落觀測研究的主要問題。
調查一宗交通意外,他將努力重建了間接來源的事件,如涉及的道路使用者,所提供的資料或目擊者有關情況,車輛,道路和司機的特點。因此這不是科學獨特的,也有一個間接的研究對象的研究更多的例子。但是,第二個困難是,該研究的對象不能被誘發。有系統的控制實驗手段研究只對問題方面的可能,而不是問題本身。
間接觀察和缺乏系統的控制組合使調查人員很難發現在什么情況下造成事故的因素。雖然研究人員主要是在事故處理領導有興趣,他幾乎完全信息的后果,它的產品,意外。此外,事故背景是復雜的。一般來說,可分為以下幾個方面:
-考慮到交通系統,交通量和組成國家,道路使用者,他們的速度,天氣條件下,路面情況,車輛,道路使用者和他們的相互作用的演習,意外可以或無法預防。
-由于發生事故,也對這樣的速度和車輛質量的因素,大量的不同,碰撞角度,對道路使用者和他們的脆弱性,影響等位置的保護,傷害是嚴重或或多或少物質損失是多還是少可觀。雖然這些方面不能獨立研究從理論的角度看,它也從由此產生的結果的優勢,區分交通情況有潛在危險的數字,是由有一個意外的可能性,在這種潛在的危險局勢,給定一個特定事故。
這個概念框架是對風險的關于個別道路使用者,以及上級的決定控制器的決定制定的一般基礎。在風險的數學公式,我們需要一個明確的概率空間的介紹,基本事件(的情況),可能導致事故組成,每個類型的事件的概率,最終收在一次事故中,最后的具體成果,損失,鑒于事故的類型。
另一種方法是看事故特征組合,然后找出關鍵因素。這種類型的事故分析是通過分析事故的共組或子群來開展。事故本身是一個研究的單位,但也要研究道路因素:道路位置,道路設計(如一個彎道)等。
原文出處:SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam(會議記錄),記錄者,S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT
ANALYSIS
S.Oppe Keyword:Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet:Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5
bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7
number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and
corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.
第三篇:1300外文文獻翻譯
Agricultural Land and Regulation in the Transition Economy of Russia Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2 Published online: 7 July 2015 # International Atlantic Economic Society 2015 JEL Classification C10.L33.O57.Q00 This research note explores the link between farmland conversion and existing land regulation in Russia.We conclude that land regulation is lagging the new market trends in the transition economy of Russia.As market forces continue to penetrate the economy, apparent managerial and statutory problems with regard to local land-use planning and regulation preclude more effective use of land.Responding to the need for attracting investment in agriculture, the Russian Ministry of Science and Education provided funds for our research project that involves primary data collection and econometric analysis of the interdependencies between governmental policies and farmland loss.Our unique dataset contains socioeconomic, demographic and spatial geographic 2010 data for 39 municipal districts in the Moscow metropolitan region.The econometric analysis of this data set is used to explore the relationship among farmland quantity, its assessed value, the share of privatized farmland, farmland tax,and land-use zoning in the simultaneous equations framework.While the Russian market for real estate has developed quickly, the market for agricultural land is still thin.Farmland deals are limited, partly because of the lingering uncertainty about farmland property rights.The state-owned farmland is still significant.Our Moscow regional data suggest a strong positive relationship between the fraction of privatized farmland and farmland acreage, although the fraction of individually and collectively privatized farmland is only 57 %.The direct sale of farmland to foreigners is prohibited decreasing potential foreign investment as well.As a result, the area occupied by agricultural lands has been steadily decreasing and deteriorating in quality.During the period 1990 to 2005, tillable lands in Russia have shrunk by 10.5 million hectares(7.9 % of tillable lands).Lacking experience and adequate knowledge, local governments are stuck with the land conservation policies available to the former USSR.In particular, in an attempt to contain the loss of prime farmland, the regulators retain old land-use zoning laws prohibiting the change of land status.However, strong development pressures and widespread corruption often annihilate the desirable effect of zoning.The results of our econometric analysis indicate that the proximity to Moscow city and population growth both have a significant negative effect on the amount of farmland, even in the strictlyzoned-for agriculture districts, suggesting strong urban pressure in the capital region of Moscow.The estimated elasticity of farmland acreage with respect to population growth is ?0.3.A corrupt practice of illegal changes in land status is reflected in the fact that the lands still classified as farmland in the Federal Register of Land are turned into residential or industrial areas.This signals a management problem which could be perhaps resolved by the introduction of more flexible zoning and an increase in the range of responsibilities of local governments and their property rights to land.The other economic instrument indispensable in land policy, land assessment, is also based on the former practices of the Communist period following a federally mandated general formula that takes into account soil productivity criteria, topographic features of the landscape, and the presence of irrigation, but still has little in common with the market price of farmland.When the agricultural land tax is calculated as the percentage of the assessed value of farmland, which is often below its real market value, local authorities are not interested in developing local agricultural infrastructure or increasing agricultural land base because they will not be able to reap any significant tax benefits from it.Coupled with the low federally mandated upper limits on tax rates(0.3 % of the assessed value of agricultural and residential lands)this leads to insufficient local tax revenues and overreliance on intergovernmental transfers.According to our data for the Moscow region, although localities tend to impose the maximum allowable tax rate, the average share of land tax revenues in local budgets is a mere 5 %.It is not surprising as the average assessed value of farmland across municipalities is 1000 times less than the ongoing average sales price, according to data we collected.The insignificant local land tax revenues caused by the underestimated land value lead to insufficient local infrastructure investment, which further suppresses the value of farmland and hastens its conversion.The results of the econometric analysis indicate lack of statistical significance between the assessed value of farmland and farmland quantity in the Moscow region, making the farmland tax rate an ineffective instrument in land policy.This missing link between the farmland quantity and existing land policies may render these policies not just ineffective but even wasteful.Innovative approaches such as the retention of development rights by the government might represent a temporary solution.The increasing reliance on local governance in solvinglocal problems would imply improved land-use and public finance planning and,perhaps, a slower farmland conversion trend.俄羅斯經濟轉型中的農業用地與監管
Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2。在線出版:2015年7月7日。國際大西洋經濟學會2015。凍膠分類C10。L33。O57。Q00 本研究報告探討了俄羅斯農地轉換與現有土地規制之間的關系。我們的結論是,土地監管滯后于俄羅斯轉型經濟的新市場趨勢。由于市場力量繼續滲透經濟,在地方土地利用規劃和管理方面顯然存在管理和法律問題,妨礙了更有效地利用土地。為了應對吸引農業投資的需要,俄羅斯科學和教育部為我們的研究項目提供了資金,該項目涉及對政府政策和農田損失之間相互依賴關系的主要數據收集和計量分析。我們獨特的數據集包含社會經濟、人口和空間。2010年莫斯科都市地區39個市轄區的地理數據。通過對該數據集的計量分析,探討了在聯立方程框架下,耕地數量、其評估值、私有化耕地占比、農地稅和土地利用區劃之間的關系。
雖然俄羅斯房地產市場發展迅速,但農業用地市場仍很薄弱。農田交易是有限的,部分原因是土地產權的不確定性揮之不去。國有農田仍然很重要。我們的莫斯科地區數據顯示,私有化耕地和耕地面積的比例之間存在著強烈的正相關關系,盡管單獨和集體私有化耕地的比例僅為57%。禁止向外國人直接出售農田,也禁止減少潛在的外國投資。因此,農地占用的面積一直在穩步下降,質量也在不斷惡化。在1990年至2005年期間,俄羅斯的可耕種土地減少了1050萬公頃(占耕地面積的7.9%)。
由于缺乏經驗和足夠的知識,地方政府只能依靠前蘇聯提供的土地保護政策。特別是,為了遏制主要農田的流失,監管機構保留了禁止改變土地狀況的舊土地用途分區法。然而,強大的發展壓力和廣泛的腐敗往往會消滅分區制的理想效果。我們的計量分析結果表明,靠近莫斯科城市和人口增長對農田的數量有顯著的負面影響,即使是在嚴格的農業地區,這表明莫斯科的首都地區的城市壓力很大。在人口增長方面,耕地面積的估計彈性為0.3。非法改變土地狀況的一種腐敗做法,反映在土地仍然被歸為聯邦土地登記冊上的土地的土地被轉變為住宅或工業區的事實。這標志著一個管理問題,也許可以通過引進更靈活的分區和增加地方政府的責任范圍和土地的財產權來解決。
其他經濟工具不可或缺的土地政策、土地評估,也是基于前實踐后共產主義時期的聯邦法律規定的一般公式,考慮土壤生產力標準,地貌景觀的灌溉的存在,但仍然沒有與市場價格的農田。農業土地稅計算時的評估價值的百分比農田,這通常是低于其實際市場價值,當地政府發展當地的農業基礎設施不感興趣或增加農業用地基地,因為他們將無法獲得任何重大稅收優惠。再加上聯邦政府規定的低稅率(占農業和居住用地評估價值的0.3%),這將導致當地稅收收入不足,并過度依賴政府間轉移。根據我們對莫斯科地區的數據,雖然地方傾向于征收最高允許的稅率,但地方預算的土地稅收收入的平均份額僅為5%。據我們收集的數據顯示,由于各城市的農田平均分攤價值比目前的平均銷售價格低1000倍,這并不令人驚訝。
由于土地價值被低估而導致的地方土地稅收不顯著,導致地方基礎設施投資不足,進一步抑制了農田價值,加快了土地流轉。經濟計量分析結果表明,在莫斯科地區,耕地和耕地數量的評估價值缺乏統計意義,使得農地稅率在土地政策中是無效的。耕地數量和現有土地政策之間缺失的聯系可能使這些政策不僅無效,甚至是浪費。政府保留發展權利等創新辦法可能是一種臨時解決辦法。在解決地方問題上日益依賴地方治理,將意味著改善土地利用和公共財政規劃,也許還會減緩農地轉換的趨勢。
第四篇:園林景觀外文文獻翻譯
景觀設計風格和園林價值保護之間的關系:德國魏瑪歷史公園的案例研究
Martin Kümmerling, Norbert Müller 景觀管理與生態恢復部門以及URBIO總公司,德國埃爾福特應用技術大學
關鍵詞:生物多樣性;歷史公園;園藝;城市公園;植被; 摘要:
城市公園可以通過被引入植物的種植成為入侵源。另一方面,城市公園作為生物多樣性的熱點地區,可以支持保護瀕危和罕見的分類單元。即使歷史城市公園首先被評估為遺產,但它們依然為生態系統和積極的審美以及社會價值服務。
雖然在歐洲有許多研究是關于設計的,公園的哲學和歷史背景就像生物多樣性的研究一樣,幾乎沒有研究提出景觀設計原則如何影響了公園的生物保護價值。因為在歐洲,公園的景觀風格是一個最具影響力的歷史景觀設計風格,我們將我們的研究集中在德國魏瑪的“伊爾姆河畔公園”。它創建于18世紀晚期,并且在1998年被聯合國教科文組織列為世界遺產的一部分。
我們的研究問題是: 1.哪些設計原則、植物原料和技術實施被使用在創建和管理公園的過程中?
2.對于公園的生物保護尤其是瀕危植物物種和棲息地的保護來說,當前什么才是具有價值的?
3.設計原則和現代公園的價值之間是什么關系?
我們將我們的結果與類似的公園景觀做一對比,并對未來可持續的公園設計和公園恢復管理給出建議。
1.引言
園藝是植物物種入侵的一個主要來源(Dehnen-Schmutz, Touza,Perrings, & Williamson, 2007;Mack & Erneberg, 2002;Reichard & White, 2001)。城市公園可以被入侵源通過種植引入分類單元而入侵(Saumel Kowarik,& Butenschon,2010)。另一方面,在城市地區公園可以作為生物多樣性的熱點地區(Cornelis & Hermy,2004),可以支持保護瀕臨滅絕的稀有類群(Kowarik, 1998;Kunick, 1978;Li, Ouyang, Meng, & Wang, 2006;Reidl, 1989)。盡管歷史悠久的城市公園作為文物古跡是它最重要的價值,但它們在生態系統服務和積極的審美以及社會價值方面的作用也是被肯定的(e.g.Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999;Chiesura,2004)。
雖然在歐洲有許多關于設計的研究,公園的哲學和歷史背景(e.g.Gothein,1928;Turner, 2005)以及生物多樣性(e.g.Cornelis & Hermy, 2004;Ignatieva & Konechnaya, 2004;Nath, 1990)的研究幾乎沒有提出景觀設計原則的問題如何影響了公園的生物保護價值。在18世紀末和19世紀初我們把研究的焦點放在了公園,因為在歐洲公園景觀風格是最具影響力的歷史景觀設計潮流之一。位于德國蔚瑪的“伊爾姆河畔公園”創建于18世紀晚期,自1998年以來,被聯合國教科文組織列為世界遺產的一部分,它被稱作“經典魏瑪”。我們選擇它來研究是因為: 1.這是那個時期一個“典型”的公園; 2.擁有幾個世紀以來沒有更改的設計風格;
3.在公園設計上有豐富的歷史資料并且使用了有質疑的植物。在圖林根的公共檔案局初始搜索(自1567年以來都位于公園附近)證實了這種懷疑。我們的研究問題是: 1.哪些設計原則、植物原料和技術實施被使用在創建和管理公園的過程中? 2.對于公園的生物保護尤其是瀕危植物物種和棲息地的保護來說,當前什么才是具有價值的?
3.設計原則和現代公園的價值之間是什么關系?
我們將我們的結果與類似的公園景觀做一對比,并對未來可持續的公園設計和公園恢復管理給出建議。
2.研究地點
“伊爾姆河畔公園”坐落在德國中部的魏瑪(215m.a.s.l.),公園的起源可以追溯到1778年。對于許多歐洲的歷史公園來說,“伊爾姆河畔公園”是建在以前的一個規整花園的位置上(幾何式的),它被設計在卡爾奧格斯特公爵的宮殿旁邊。當時公園位于魏瑪的郊區,1860年魏瑪城開始擴展,公園便開始位于城市邊界內。
在魏瑪公爵的城市宮殿、北部的城市中心、現在oberweimar的suburbanised村以及南方的高級住宅區之間,公園形成了伊爾姆河的泛濫平原的一部分(圖一為公園概況)。它周長1.5公里,占地約0.48平方公里。泛濫平原的土壤是沖積土,山谷兩邊所包含的鈣質材料就像Keuper和含有石灰物質的貝殼。
圖1 “伊爾姆河畔公園”棲息地地圖
3.方法
3.1.設計的歷史、植物引種和公園管理
通過歷史文獻研究來獲得重要的設計原則信息,植物材料(包括引進外來觀賞物種的起源和時間)和被用于“伊爾姆河畔公園”的創建和發展過程之中的管理技術。這些未發表的文件包括被保存在圖林根公共檔案館的申請報告、管理筆記和前任園丁和設計師的相關檔案,以及再版的歷史性的蝕刻畫和魏瑪經典基金會收集的圖紙。
另外魏瑪經典基金會(特別是Beyer & Seifert, 1995)中的地方文獻被用來將歷史性文件中的發現與它們所處的時代聯系起來。還非正式訪談了現任和前任園丁關于管理技術和植物使用的情況。
3.2.生物保護的評價 3.2.1 植物區系和植被的實地測繪
目前對植被和植物區系進行的實地測繪是在2006年五月—十月,用來對公園的植物多樣性進行評估。公園分為不同的生境類型:草坪、草地和草場、灌灌叢、林地、生態交錯帶(草地邊緣)、墻壁/巖石、路徑和車道上的植物群落、河岸和水體,然后對每種生境類型進行隨機采樣。樣品的數量基于每個棲息地的大小類型而不同(圖3)。樣本塊的大小是用最小面積方法決定的(Dierschke,1994),每個樣地植物種類的頻率記錄參照“Braun-Blanquet”方法(Dierschke,1994)。總共436個采樣點建立,此外,在2006年五月—十月和2007年三月—五月進行了20次檢測,記錄了所有自發的維管植物類群。
436個樣本塊是用來確定最常見的種類,木本植物只有種子和樹苗被計算。魏瑪經典基金會登記(1996 —2007年出版)的公園的樹被用來計算成年樹木的分布頻率。
植物的命名通常遵循Jager和Werner(2005)原則,但在公園里發現的分類群不列在這里,Erhardt、Gotz、Bodeker and Seybold(2002)被使用。3.2.2 在區域和歐洲級別上評價生物保護狀態
評估生物保護公園的貢獻方面,我們編制了在公園發現的瀕危植物和棲息地,用于當地的圖林根的紅色數據列表(Korsch & Westhus,2001;Westhus & van Hengel,2001)中。此外我們調查了被圖林根自然保護法(ThürNatG,2006)和歐洲棲息地的指令保護的植物物種和棲息地(歐盟委員會,2007年)。
評價公園作為植物入侵的潛在來源(生物入侵的定義遵循Richardson et al.,2000),我們將我們的數據與圖林根州環境雜草的地區列表(Müller, Westhus, & Armft,2005)做了比較。
4.結果
4.1.設計的歷史,引進的植物和管理
4.1.1 有關生物多樣性的設計原則
隨著歐洲景觀設計的流行,Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach的Carl August公爵(1757 至1828)決定建設一個公園作為一個理想的田園景觀,包括不同類型的景觀:大小不同的開放和密閉空間、視覺上和周圍的景觀連接的形狀和結構。它是根據英國經典景觀公園原則——隱藏公園與自然的界限而設計,這些觀點也應該在步行或騎馬穿過公園時隨處可見。
因此公園的主要設計原則是使用現有的自然地形和文化景觀,它由在泛濫平原上暫時淹沒并且經常收割和放牧的草原(草地和牧場)組成,還有在山坡上的果園和草地以及因山坡太陡而不能用于糧食生產的小樹林斑塊。公園規模增加時,新的景觀被加載到之前的耕地上,因此這些棲息地可以定義為人為創造出來的。公園內森林棲息地的范圍擴大到可以創造一個更好的氛圍以及更大的并且多種多樣的風景。
典型的設計元素是遠景,通常延長這些切線來通過公園內森林地帶,它有連接特殊節點(雕塑和展館)和從不同位置打開新視野的特性。
公園里從來沒有封閉的圍欄或高墻,使得建立一個和周圍環境之間無縫過渡的公園。“伊爾姆河畔公園”、蒂爾福特公園和貝爾維迪宮,加上一些沿伊爾姆河殘存的森林形成的綠色走廊穿過魏瑪,這就是公爵自修建公園以來的意圖。4.1.2 引進的植物
因為大面積的公園是由現有的泛濫平原森林發展而來,并且草地原生植物多樣性得到了保護。新的森林斑塊、喬灌木樹種原生林的出現是來自公園內靠近魏瑪中部的公爵森林和種植在公爵苗圃的(圖林根的公共檔案館未發表)。
由于視覺捕捉(特別指設計)和對植物的好奇心在19世紀第二階段特別流行,非原生植物被引入與原生植物作比較。主要在有代表性的建筑和紀念碑附近種植了外來植物,也沿著公園開放區域的邊緣種植。外來樹種包括許多所謂的“英國木材”,從北美進口的樹種像紅花槭、赤櫟、北美喬松。薔薇屬的許多品種種植的數量不多僅僅用于裝飾目的,羅貝里草被種植在小池塘。
二戰后公園里的植物苗圃被關閉了,從那時就開始大量的從歐洲以及海外引進植物材料。
4.1.3 管理技術
在歷史時期,草地和樹林是由當地的農民和牧民管理的,他們放牧綿羊、山羊和牛以及生產干草,觀賞植物床周圍的建筑物是由園丁和短工管理。
目前,部分河灘上的草地和山谷東部的斜坡仍每年收割兩次,干草被賣給農民或用于堆肥。河灘上的草地用來給綿羊和山羊放牧仍然是公園的一個管理方式,車道的植被用除草劑來控制,墻植被定期清除。如果有必要,樹的維護和復興樹林只是保障游客的安全和保護一些重要的優美景觀,沒有被游客使用和沒有重要景觀的地區則沒有管理。
20世紀下半葉以來,增加娛樂用途和缺乏資金導致公園的集約化管理。例如在西部所有不同的草地一些經常割草坪(每年收割兩次)和一些在泛濫平原的已經轉化為頻繁的收割草地(每年收割二十次次)。這一直持續到今天,已經導致草地豐富的植物多樣性產生了重大的損失。
4.2.植物和棲息地多樣性
公園植物區系的調查取得了479類維管植物。在這些里約59%(281分類群)都是本地圖林根州的;15%是非原生植物(74)和26%的非本地種植的類群(124)。與圖林根州的地區植物區系相比(Korsch et al.,2002)公園含有18%(355分類群)。
比較植物類群的起源及其在采樣點的分布頻率,(比較圖2)很明顯最常見的物種更多的還是本地的(主要是無處不在的類群和公園主要棲息地的類群特征)并不是非原生種群。車前子主要亞種主要是最常見的非原生類群,1500年前在德國被引入種植(Jager & Werner, 2005),是踐踏植物群落、草坪、牧場和河岸棲息地的特征種類。下一個出現最頻繁的非原生類群是小鳳仙花、紫鳳仙、雪果、歐洲七葉樹和紅瑞木。兩種鳳仙花在圖林根被認為是雜草(Müller et al., 2005)。雪果、歐洲七葉樹和紅瑞木是觀賞種,迄今為止它們還沒有完全適應圖林根。但它們已經在公園內種植,并通過管理控制使它們不再出現問題。
圖2自然類群(N=306)的樣地內記錄(N=436),按照出現頻率分組
在“伊爾姆河畔公園” 魏瑪經典基金會記錄了94個類群的3192 種樹(最后更新到2006)。原生和非原生種群的數量比例是28%(26)和72%(68),但個體的比例和數量是原生的為73%(2344)非原生的為27%(848)。最常見的原生種是白蠟(409株)、歐洲小葉椴(305)、挪威槭(281)。白蠟和挪威槭在再生樹種中也是最常見的。也是最常見的樹種的再生。最常見的非原生種群是歐洲七葉樹(273株)、刺槐(78)和加拿大楊(70)。這三個類群在公園里繁殖,后者只能通過分株來繁殖。這三個物種占主導地位,其它非原生樹種種植只存在非常少的數量。
草地和森林棲息地作為公園的主導,覆蓋面積分別為近三分之二和三分之一(見圖1為棲息地分布概況)。這是棲息地中在物種總數和種數平均增幅方面擁有最高植物多樣性的物種(圖3)。由于被作為各種風景景觀的組合而設計,所以公園里有許多交錯的群落。它包含許多不同的植被類型,實際上物種總數是高的(圖3),雖然每個樣地里的平均物種數量很低。所有現存的其它棲息地,即水體、墻壁和巖石、踐踏植物群落(車道、路徑)和觀賞種植園占據的區域小得多。
圖3棲息地的植物物種豐富度
4.3.植物和棲息地的生物保護的價值
4.3.1 瀕危、珍稀物種
圖林根紅色名單中列出了公園里包含的三個本地物種(Korsch & Westhus,2001):歐洲黑楊(極度瀕危)、Rosa jundzillii Besser和葡萄風信子(都是脆弱的)。被歸為非本地的暗花老鸛草也列為瀕危物種。歐洲黑楊很少出現在伊爾姆山谷內的沖積森林山谷,R.jundzillii和葡萄風信子在森林公園以外也很少被發現。在歌德避暑別墅的花園中暗花老鸛草經常出現在群落交錯區和干草原,但公園的其他地方沒有發現。
公園里有一種典型的罕見種類是紫葉山毛櫸。根據這個公園的歷史文件,野生的各種歐洲山毛櫸是在圖林根北部的山區被發現的,在卡爾奧格斯特公爵執政時期它被作為一個特色植物帶到公園。
四個受法律保護的植物物種(ThurNatG,2006)出現在歐洲中部公園里的山毛櫸森林和它們的郊區:大花頭蕊蘭、雪割草、卵葉對葉蘭和 凹鴿巢蘭。還常青樹紫杉是珍稀保護物種,可定期在山毛櫸森林中被發現。兩個報春花,歐洲報春和野生郁金香在幾個世紀前被引進用作觀賞目的,現在已經被歸為受法律保護的瀕危物種。
在“伊爾姆河畔公園”中并沒有發現棲息地法規附件II中的植物種類(歐盟委員會,2007)。4.3.2 瀕危和罕見的棲息地
圖林根的介子草地和廣袤的干濕草原作為具有歷史文化性的瀕危物種棲息地景觀被列入紅色名錄(Westhus & van Hengel,2001),被圖林根的法律(ThurNatG,2006)和歐洲棲地法規的附件1所保護(歐盟委員會,2007年)。
這些瀕危物種棲息地占據三分之一的“伊爾姆河畔公園”。最古老的和最不受區域干擾的公園之一是“蛇草甸”,歷史記錄顯示甚至在公園創建前草原也并沒有被破壞。它是介子草地和干草原的結合體并在兩者之間轉換,也是在整個公園中具有最高植物多樣性的地區(見圖3,草地和牧場的柱狀圖)。因此“蛇草甸”表明公園可能是當代對具有歷史文化性的棲息景觀地重要的保護。這個草地是18世紀原始設計中一個非常重要的部分。這個公園的創造者的目的是讓草地看起來盡可能的自然。
公園最頻繁的交錯群落類型之一是一種喜溫樹種,在圖林根的紅色名錄中被列為弱勢樹種(Westhus & van Hengel,2001)并且受到法律保護(ThurNatG,2006)。4.3.3 環境雜草
在圖林根州公園里有七個外來種,被認為是環境雜草(Müller et al., 2005)。只有3種被種植在公園:歐洲黑松、刺槐和加拿大楊。前兩個被認為是棲息地多樣性的威脅,而在圖林根州第三個被認為是基因多樣性的嚴重威脅。在公園的建設中這三個物種僅僅因為好奇心而被種植的數量并不多,但后來種植的數量有所增加。例如常綠楊是在18世紀末被首次引入的,但更多的是在20世紀下半葉為取代傾倒的歐洲黑楊標本而種植,因為他們便宜而且容易獲得。
另有四種偶然出現的環境雜草即瘤果匙薺、紫鳳仙、加拿大一枝黃花和虎杖,在公園創建的不同階段并沒有種植它們,但可能是在以后某個時間有意或無意的被引進了。紫鳳仙在公園里是一個嚴重的問題,因為它密集地生長在河岸,覆蓋了原生河岸植被。
圖林根州環境雜草的列表(Müller et al.,2005)還包括分類群,被分成了潛在的環境雜草和對生境多樣性的威脅。這個列表上有9個分類群在公園里出現,它們中的六個種植的數量已經很少了:臭椿、灰榿木、美國黑櫻桃、復葉槭、亮葉十大功勞和歐丁香。最后的三種不被認為是對棲息地有害的種而在公園里被再次種植。其它3個類群大狼杷草、大型一枝黃花、小鳳仙花是公園里最常見的非原生植物,但因為它被森林植被限制并且在原生植被后生長(早花隱芽植物)所以不被認為是一種公園生物多樣性的威脅。
4.4.從前的景觀設計和當前在生物保護價值之間的關系
我們發現如下一些公園設計和現代生物多樣性保護價值之間的關系。歷史公園“伊爾姆河畔公園”的主要設計原則是基于歐洲歷史文化和自然景觀的一種理想景觀的發展,源自并根植于現代文化景觀和它的生境以及與之匹配的公園現有景觀。各種與遠景相連的景觀的組合導致了各種不同尺寸的林地和草地生境成一種類似馬賽克狀的分布。這就會產生大量的邊緣效應(過渡帶)從而創建各種各樣的生態位。
因此在超過兩個世紀保持連續性的管理制度是維持設計和公園里物種豐富的歷史文化景觀的一個重要因素。年齡以及干擾和園藝領域的物種豐富度之間的聯系已經被其他作者指出(Li et al., 2006;Zerbe et al., 2003)。
前者泛濫平原森林地區及周邊草地的大部分已被納入景觀設計并且被整合在公園里。周圍的森林和草原上大部分用于種植的植物,在品種數量和特性上,都是本土物種。在大多數情況下非原生植物的每個種只種植了很少的數量。今天在圖林根州有七種被認為是環境雜草的種植在公園里。在大多數情況下,它們對生物多樣性是沒有威脅的因為通過積極的管理可以預防它們再生。
5.討論
除了大量的灰色文獻,現在很少有評價英國園林風格的公園存在的價值。在柏林面積為0.67平方公里的“孔雀島”被Sukopp調查(1968),面積為0.27平方公里的奧格斯堡“西本蒂施公園” Müller 和 Waldert 調查(1998),波茨坦公園的無憂宮、巴貝爾斯堡和諾伊爾加滕的草原總規模為5.07平方公里(Peschel, 2000)。幾個在圣彼得堡的公園及其郊區被Ignatieva和Konechnaya調查(2004)。包括:帕夫洛夫斯基公園、在皇村的Ekaterininsky 和Alexandrovsky公園、奧拉寧鮑姆公園、在彼得夏宮的亞歷山大公園、加特契納公園和Shuvalovsky公園。上述所有文件(和我們自己的研究)顯示了這些歷史公園豐富的原生植物物種和棲息地的多樣性以及瀕危生物多樣性維持的能力。這些在中歐和東歐歷史公園植物區系的調查也證明傳統草原和一般草本植物的價值不如樹木和灌木。然而,我們的研究與其他歐洲研究結果證明,草原和珍稀物種和歷史悠久的設計風格有直接的關系,也有植物方面和歷史方面的意義。
我們的研究和俄羅斯的景觀公園(Ignatieva & Konechnaya,2004)的比較也顯示出相似之處不僅在設計原則方面(設計與自然),而且在管理和維護制度(割草和放牧)方面也類似。在德國和俄羅斯公園存在的某些相似的物種表明這兩個國家之間種子可能通過經常在德國圣彼得堡工作過的園丁而發生了混合和交換。
所有上述公園的各種棲息地對歷史文化的瀕危棲息地景觀都起到了保護作用,因為他們體現在在今天的農村風景。對“伊爾姆河畔公園”、“Siebentischpark”和“波茨坦的公園”的特殊保護價值是具有多種類型的瀕危草原。每個歷史公園都有自己的珍稀瀕危植物以及獨特的植物群落。例如,像濕地和原始森林的自然棲息地對 “孔雀島”來說尤為重要。唯一管理開放草原的是帕夫洛夫斯基公園。有非常罕見的Poa chaixii 和 Luzula Luzuloides組成的地被在奧拉寧鮑姆公園應該被保護,而在加特契納公園只有在公園范圍內生長,在周圍景觀中很少被發現。
對于歷史公園生物多樣性的一個普遍觀點(Kowarik,1998)強調現存的自然棲息地的重要性(例如水棲息地和露出的巖石)。
用和“伊爾姆河畔公園”一樣的方式,作為瀕危和珍稀(而且往往受法律保護)植物物種避難所的重要性在上述公園中確定。在俄羅斯公園中所有的珍稀瀕危植物都有標出,以確保在恢復項目中被保護和保存。
歐洲和世界其它地區的現代園林景觀經常采用英國園林風格設計原則的簡化版本,全部使用相同的植物,并導致區域生物多樣性和身份的喪失(Ignatieva,2010),研究表明歷史的英國園林景觀風格公園有助于維護該區域生物多樣性和特性。
我們研究的目標之一也是提高參與歷史公園恢復的從業者的意識,以及公民和政客(使用公園者)對一個公園生態系統的所有組成部分的生物多樣性的重要性的認識。人們應該接受關于保護草原和稀有植物作為一個獨特的資產的重要性。我們的結論應作為負責管理歷史公園的專家的指導。在全球化和致密化的城市環境下,歷史公園的價值應該等同于花園和公園藝術的紀念碑以及區域生物多樣性的熱點地區。
6.結論
歷史悠久的英國風景園林風格公園是一個例子,告訴我們合理的可持續設計如何在城市工業區內提供重要的生物保護區域。從我們的研究結果來看,對未來公園設計和歷史公園的恢復提出如下建議:
1.現有的地形和土壤條件以及現有棲息地(如中歐的森林和草地斑塊)必須集中在一個公園的設計或在公園修復項目中進行,而不是從頭開始。2.公園內使用的絕大多數的種子和植物應該(甚至土生土長得更好)是原生的來支持本地生物多樣性以及區域特性。
3.相比之下非本土的觀賞植物應只是少量運用而不是公園的主要組成部分。4.使用已經認識或被懷疑的非本地植物時必須避免環境雜草的使用。5.低強度公園的管理,尤其是自然或半自然棲息地中,區域生物多樣性至關重要。
對于今后恢復或重建項目的規劃者應該知道所有的珍稀瀕危植物物種的位置并且他們應該在所有施工過程中采取措施盡量避免或減少對這些物種的損害。
致謝
本文的主題來自2010年5月在日本名古屋召開的第二屆URBIO會議上關于“景觀設計對生物多樣性的影響”的介紹。我們感謝Maria Ignatieva(瑞典),Glenn Stewart(新西蘭)和兩個匿名評論者提出的寶貴意見。我們也要感謝魏瑪古典基金會在對“伊爾姆河畔公園”數據收集時的支持與合作。
第五篇:文獻綜述、外文翻譯
上市公司財務風險的評價及控制的文獻綜述
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會計074
唐明婷
中國從資本市場建立開始,上市公司也隨之不斷地發展,上市的公司從行業、類型到地區、規模都呈現多樣化趨勢。中國的上市公司,特別是上市公司中的ST公司,存在著嚴重的財務風險問題,財務風險比較大,對上市公司的發展會有很大的影響。因此對上市公司財務風險問題的研究是十分重要的。通過對這一領域大量文獻的研究,從企業財務風險的成因、評價體系及控制三個角度綜述,加強分析,以期對上市公司財務風險的理論和實踐研究提供借鑒和指導。
(一)國外研究綜述
西方古典經濟學家在十九世紀就已經提出了風險的概念,認為風險是經營活 動的副產品,經營者的收入是其在經營活動中承擔風險的報酬。從狹義上看,企業的財務風險是指由于利用負債給企業帶來的破產風險或普通股收益發生大幅度變動的風險。這種觀點立足于企業籌資時過多舉債或舉債不當。西方國家強調全面風險管理的觀念是從資金運動到資本經營整個體系的過程,對財務風險的控制包括風險預警、風險識別、危機處理等內容。
美國經濟學家富蘭克.H.奈特(Frank H.Knight)在1921年出版的(Risk,Uncertainty and Profit)一書中認為:風險是指“可度量的不確定性”。而“不確定性”是指不可度量的風險。風險的特征是概率估計的可靠性,概率估計的可靠性來自所遵循的理論規律或穩定的經驗規律。與可計算或可預見的風險不同,不確定性是指人們缺乏對事件的基本知識,對事件可能的結果知之甚少,因此,不能通過現有理論或經驗進行預見和定量分析①。
②Ross, Westerfield, Jordan(1995)在《Fundamentals of Corporate Finance》提到債務籌資會增加股東的風險,使用債務籌資所產生的這部分額外風險稱為公司股 ①
[美] Frank H.Knight,王宇,王文玉譯.《風險、不確定性和利潤》[M].中國人民大 學出版社.2005; ② 此段原文如下:“The debt finacing increases the risks borne by the stockholders.The extra risk that arises from the use of debt finacing is called the financial risk of the firm equity.In other word,financial risk is the equity risk that comes from the financial policy(i.e.capital structure)of the f1rm.”Ross,Westerfield,Jordan,Fundamentals of Corporate Finance,1995 東的財務風險。也就是說,財務風險是指由于公司財務政策(如資本結構)所產生的權益風險。
③James C.Van Horn, John M.Wachowicz Jr(2001)在《Fundamental of Financial Management》里面更寬泛地說明了財務風險包括可能喪失償債能力的風險,以及由于使用財務杠桿而導致的每股收益變動。
美國學者小阿瑟·威廉姆斯(C.Arthur Willianms)和理查德·M.漢斯(Richard M.Heins)在1985年合著的《Risk Management and Insurance》中將風險定義為:“在給定情況和特定時間內,那些可能發生的結果間的差異。如果肯定只有一個結果發生,則差異為零,風險為零;如果有多種可能結果,則有風險,且差異越大,風險越大。”④這種觀點強調,風險是客觀存在的事物,可以從客觀角度來衡量。
在財務控制方面,國外學者的研究有:美國數學家諾伯特?維納1948年創立的控制論;1932年FitzPatrick開展的一元判定研究;Altman在1968年首先創立的zeta模型等。
總體看來,國外財務風險研究起步早,理論體系完善,應用領域廣,且研究成果多且系統。如,國外的多家風險管理協會、風險管理學院對企業風險管理事務、專業證書考試制度極具貢獻,其中,美國全球風險專業人員協會每年舉辦財務風險管理人員專業證書考試,多家協會和學會出版風險管理方面的刊物雜志,還出版較多的財務性風險管理書籍等。
(二)國內研究綜述
1989年北京商學院的劉恩祿、湯谷良發表的“論財務風險管理”[7],第一次全面論述了財務風險的定義、特性及財務風險管理的步驟和方法。
財政科學研究所的向德偉博士在1994年發表了“論財務風險”[8],全面而細致地分析了財務風險產生的原因,認為“財務風險是一種微觀風險,是企業經營風險的集中體現”,“企業財務風險,按照財務活動的基本內容來劃分,包括籌資風險、投資風險、資金回收風險和收益分配風險四項”,為更深一層推進財務 ③ 此段原文如下:“Broadly speaking,financial risk encompasses both the risk of possible insolvency and the added variability in earnings per share that is induced byt he use of financial leverage.” James C.Van Horne,John M.Wachowicz Jr,Fundamental of Financial Management,2001 ④小阿瑟·威廉姆斯等著,陳偉等譯.《風險管理與保險》[M].中國商業出版社.1990:4; 風險理論奠定了基礎。
唐曉云在2000年發表了“略論企業財務風險管理”[9],認為企業財務風險是指在各項財務活動中,由于各種難以預料或控制的因素的影響,財務狀況具有不確定性,從而使企業蒙受損失的可能性。她進一步將財務風險分為籌資風險、投資風險、現金流量風險和外匯風險四種。
以上觀點雖然對財務風險的分類不同,但都認為,企業財務風險是因企業財務活動中各種不確定因素的影響,使企業財務收益與預期收益發生偏離,因而造成蒙受損失的機會和可能。企業財務活動的組織和管理過程中的某一方面和某個環節的問題,都可能促使這種風險轉變為損失,導致企業盈利能力和償債能力的降低。這種觀點是一種廣義觀。
胡華在2004年發表了“現代企業財務風險的原因及防范”[10],認為財務風險的成因是由以下五點構成的:
1.負債經營是財務風險產生最為根本的原因。
2.企業資產流動性弱、現金流量短缺,是財務風險產生的最為直接的原因。3.企業經營不善、投資失誤是導致財務風險產生、財務狀況惡化最為重要的催化劑。
4.企業資本結構不合理是財務風險產生、財務危機出現最為綜合的因素。5.外部環境的多變性是企業財務風險產生的重要外因。
2009年,王宏發表了“淺談公司財務風險的成因及防范”[11],認為造成財務風險原因的是以下四個方面:
1.企業財務管理的宏觀環境復雜多變,而企業管理系統不能適應復雜多變的宏觀環境
2.企業財務管理人員對財務風險的客觀性認識不足 3.財務決策缺乏科學性導致決策失誤 4.企業內部財務關系不明
根據我國學者們的觀點不難推出,分析企業財務風險的成因離不開企業的內外部環境因素的影響,所以本文也將從上市公司的內外部環境來分析財務風險發生的原因。
易曉文(1999)發表了“上市公司財務評價指標體系研究”[12],作者在文章中對公司財務評價指標體系的內容及指標的選取進行了初步分析、研究。
桂文林,舒曉惠,伍超標(2005)發表了“上市公司財務評價歷史分析和展望”[13],以上市公司財務評價現實意義為前提, 系統地分析了上市公司財務評價指標體系的構建、各種評價方法的比較以及實證研究三項主要內容。并在此基礎上, 為進一步發展上市公司財務評價的實證研究提供新的思路。
2009年西北大學的孫金莉發表了“基于企業現金流量的財務預警指標體系研究”[14],在認真研究了建立企業現金流量財務預警系統的原則和程序,以及建立健全企業現金流量財務預警機制的基礎上,構建了企業現金流量財務預警系統。
李季在2010年發表了“上市公司財務危機預警指標研究”[15],作者認為目前為止國外已開發出若干財務危機評價模型,有的模型在信貸風險評價與管理企業資信評估等實務中已得到廣泛應用。而我國對財務危機預警指標仍使用傳統的經驗范式,因而探索我國企業財務危機預警指標體系對我國經濟體制改革深化具有較強理論意義與較緊迫的現實意義。
景紅華(2010)發表了“財務困境研究應基于現金流量指標”[16],認為現金是企業賴以生存的基礎,現金流量是企業財務的報警器,企業的生存和發展在很大程度上取決于現金,因此,財務困境研究應基于現金流量指標。
通過閱讀大量關于企業財務風險評價體系的相關資料的,了解到,要知道企業財務風險狀況如何,必須從償債能力指標、營運能力指標、盈利能力指標及現金流量風險指標方面來研究。
童宏賓在2004年發表了“企業財務風險成因及控制”[17],簡單地從規避風險、轉移風險和提高企業的盈利能力三個方面來對上市公司的財務風險作出控制。
王海翔(2005)發表了“論企業財務風險及其控制”[18],較全面地從MM理論和期權理論來研究企業財務風險的控制。
吳景杰、施紹梅(2005)發表了“財務風險的控制”[19],認為在運用理論方法進行財務風險分析時,需要管理人員對具體環境、方法的切合性及某些條件進行合理假設和估計。另外,在采取防范和規避風險的對策時,也必須以規范、科學的管理為基礎,否則因使用對策不當反而有可能招致更大的風險。2009年盛九春和葉波二人發表了“現代企業財務風險的防范和控制”[20],總結了三點防范與控制的措施:
1.完善財務管理系統,提高財務決策的科學化水平2.強化財務風險防范意識,樹立正確的財務風險觀念 3.建立健全企業財務風險識別與預警系統
孔遠英(2010)發表了“關于企業財務風險控制的幾點建議”[21],認為企業發生財務危機是一個逐步顯現、緩慢惡化的過程,它的發生具有一定的先兆,因此具有可預測性。為了規避和防范財務風險,企業有必要對財務風險進行充分的認識和分析,及時糾正、改進、并制定相應的對策,有效地完善財務風險預警機制。
我國學者對于財務風險控制問題的解決幾乎都離不開規避和防范,觀點不一,本本文會在此基礎上提出中國上市公司財務風險控制存在的問題及提出對研究有價值的策略。
三、評述與啟示
東南亞金融危機以來,國家安全己成為各國關注的焦點之一。國家經濟安全必須從防范金融危機、財政危機著手,這已為人們所重視,但人們常忽略金融危機與財政危機的基礎是財務危機。財務危機主要表現為公司資本循環周轉被打亂而導致的支付危機,它常常潛伏于財務風險之中[12]。
資本市場的繁榮為企業實現跨越式發展提供了無限可能。大型上市公司舞弊的丑聞尚未消散,次貸危機引發的金融海嘯又席卷了全球。而此前的短短幾年間,我國資本市場迎來了空前繁榮,眾多上市公司增發新股,許多尚不具備上市條件的公司也在積極整改包裝上市。盡管股市是否出現明顯泡沫尚存在爭議,但是沒有健康的盈利增長,這種繁榮是難以維系的。謀求資本市場的長遠發展必須從上市公司的財務風險著手。有效的控制財務風險可以均衡各方利益,規范上市公司行為,使其健康有序的運行。
學者們的研究提高了我們對企業財務風險的重視,并且更有助于我們開拓企業財務風險控制的新思路、新方法,使其在我國企業中得以更好地運用。因狹義的觀點明顯片面地理解力財務風險,所以,本文將采用廣義的財務風險觀點,它符合人們對財務概念的理解,便于從更寬廣的角度來研究財務風險。希望借鑒國內外先進理論,通過對上市公司財務風險的基本分析, 采用一定的方法, 對財務風險加以控制,以達到企業利益最優的目的。
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外文資料
會計074 0704043046 唐明婷
Financial ?rm bankruptcy and systemic risk
In Fall 2008 when the Federal Reserve and the Treasury injected $85 billion into the insurance behemoth American International Group(AIG), themoney lent to AIGwent straight to counterparties, and very few funds remained with the insurer.Among the largest recipients was Goldman Sachs, to whomabout $12 billionwas paid to undoAIG’s credit default swaps(CDSs).The bailout plan focused on repaying the debt by slowly selling off AIG’s assets, with no intention of maintaining jobs or allowing the CDSmarket to continue to function as before.Thus, the government’s effort to avoid systemic risk with AIG was mainly about ensuring that ?rms with which AIG had done business did not fail as a result.The concerns are obviously greatest vis-a-vis CDSs, ofwhich AIG had over $400 billion contracts outstanding in June 2008.In contrast, the government was much less enthusiastic about aiding General Motors, presumably because they believed its failure would not cause major macroeconomic repercussions by imposing losses on related ?rms.This decision is consistent with the view in macroeconomic research that financial?rmbankruptcies pose a greater amount of systemic risk than nonfinancial firmbankruptcies.For example, Bordo and Haubrich(2009)conclude that “...more severe ?nancial events are associated withmore severe recessions...” Likewise, Bernanke(1983)argues the Great Depressionwas so severe because ofweakness in the banking systemthat affected the amount of credit available for investment.Bernanke et al.(1999)hypothesize a financial accelerator mechanism, whereby distress in one sector of the economy leads to more precarious balance sheets and tighter credit conditions.This in turn leads to a drop in investment, which is followed by less lending and a widespread downturn.Were shocks to the economy always to come in the form of distress at non?nancial ?rms, these authors argue that the business downturns would not be so severe.We argue instead that the contagious impact of a nonfinancial firm’s bankruptcy is expected to be far larger than that of a financial ?rm like AIG, although neither would be catastrophic to the U.S.economy through counterparty risk channels.This is not to say that an episode ofwidespread financial distress among our largest banks would not be followed by an especially severe recession, only that such failures would not cause a recession or affect the depth of a recession.Rather such bankruptcies are symptomatic of common factors in portfolios that lead to wealth losses regardless of whether any firm ?les for bankruptcy.Pervasive ?nancial fragility may occur because the failure of one ?rm leads to the failure of other ?rms which cascades through the system(e.g., Davis and Lo, 1999;Jarrow and Yu, 2001).Or systemic risk may wreak havoc when a number of ?nancial ?rms fail simultaneously, as in the Great Depression when more than 9000 banks failed(Benston, 1986).In the former case, the failure of one ?rm, such as AIG, Lehman Brothers or Bear Stearns, could lead to widespread failure through ?nancial contracts such as CDSs.In the latter case, the fact that so many ?nancial institutions have failed means that both the money supply and the amount of credit in the economy could fall so far as to cause a large drop in economic activity(Friedman and Schwartz, 1971).While a weak ?nancial systemcould cause a recession, the recession would not arise because one ?rm was allowed to ?le bankruptcy.Further, should one or the other ?rmgo bankrupt, the non?nancial ?rmwould have the greater impact on the economy.Such extreme real effects that appear to be the result of ?nancial ?rm fragility have led to a large emphasis on the prevention of systemic risk problems by regulators.Foremost among these policies is “too big to fail”(TBTF), the logic of which is that the failure of a large ?nancial institution will have ramifications for other ?nancial institutions and therefore the risk to the economywould be enormous.TBTF was behind the Fed’s decisions to orchestrate the merger of Bear Stearns and J.P.Morgan Chase in 2008, its leadership in the restructuring of bank loans owed by Long Term Capital Management(LTCM), and its decision to prop up AIG.TBTF may be justi?ed if the outcome is prevention of a major downswing in the economy.However, if the systemic risks in these episodes have been exaggerated or the salutary effects of these actions overestimated, then the cost to the ef?ciency of the capital allocation system may far outweigh any potential bene?ts from attempting to avoid another Great Depression.No doubt, no regulator wants to take the chance of standing down while watching over another systemic risk crisis, sowe do not have the ability to examine empiricallywhat happens to the economy when regulators back off.There are very fewinstances in themodern history of the U.S.where regulators allowed the bankruptcy of amajor ?nancial ?rm.Most recently,we can point to the bankruptcy of Lehman,which the Fed pointedly allowed to fail.However,with only one obvious casewhere TBTFwas abandoned, we have only an inkling of how TBTF policy affects systemic risk.Moreover, at the same time that Lehman failed, the Fed was intervening in the commercial paper market and aiding money marketmutual fundswhile AIGwas downgraded and subsequently bailed out.In addition, the Federal Reserve and the Treasury were scaremongering about the prospects of a second Great Depression to make the passage of TARPmore likely.Thuswewill never knowif themarket downturn that followed the Lehman bankruptcy re?ected fear of contagion from Lehman to the real economy or fear of the depths of existing problems in the real economy that were highlighted so dramatically by regulators.In this paper we analyze the mechanisms by which such risk could cause an economy-wide col-lapse.We focus on two types of contagion that might lead to systemic risk problems:(1)information contagion,where the information that one ?nancial ?rmis troubled is associatedwith negative shocksat other ?nancial institutions largely because the ?rms share common risk factors;or(2)counterparty contagion,where one important ?nancial institution’s collapse leads directly to troubles at other cred-itor ?rms whose troubles snowball and drive other ?rms into distress.The ef?cacy of TBTF policies depends crucially on which of these two types of systemic riskmechanisms dominates.Counterparty contagion may warrant intervention in individual bank failureswhile information contagion does not.If regulators do not step in to bail out an individual ?rm, the alternative is to let it fail.In the case of a bank, the process involves the FDIC as receiver and the insured liabilities of the ?rmare very quickly repaid.In contrast, the failure of an investment bank or hedge fund does not involve the FDIC andmay closely resemble a Chapter 11 or Chapter 7 ?ling of a non?nancial ?rm.However, if the nonbank ?nancial ?rm in question has liabilities that are covered by the Securities Industry Protection Corporation(SIPC), the ?rmis required by lawunder the Securities Industry Protection Act(SIPA)to liquidate under Chapter 7(Don and Wang, 1990).This explains in large partwhy only the holding company of Lehman ?led for bankruptcy in 2008 and its broker–dealer subsidiaries were not part of the Chapter 11 ?ling.A major fear of a ?nancial ?rm liquidation, whether done through the FDIC or as required by SIPA, is that ?re sales will depress recoveries for the creditors of the failed ?nancial ?rm and that these ?re saleswill have rami?cations for other ?rms in related businesses, even if these businesses do not have direct ties to the failed ?rm(Shleifer and Vishny, 1992).This fear was behind the Fed’s decision to extend liquidity to primary dealers inMarch 2008 – Fed Chairman Bernanke explained in a speech on ?nancial system stability that“the risk developed that liquidity pressuresmight force dealers to sell assets into already illiquid markets.Thismight have resulted in...[a] ?re sale scenario..., inwhich a cascade of failures andliquidations sharply depresses asset prices, with adverse ?nancial and economic implications.”(May 13, 2008 speech at the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta conference at Sea Island, Georgia)The fear of potential ?re sales is expressed in further detail in the same speech as a reason for the merger of Bear Stearns and JP Morgan:“Bear...would be forced to ?le for bankruptcy...[which] would have forced Bear’s secured creditors and counterparties to liquidate the underlying collateral and, given the illiquidity of markets, those creditors and counter parties might well have sustained losses.If they responded to losses or the unexpected illiquidity of their holdings by pulling back from providing secured ?nancing to other ?rms, a much broader liquidity crisis would have ensued.”
The idea that creditors of a failed ?rm are forced to liquidate assets, and to do so with haste, is counter to the basic tenets of U.S.bankruptcy laws, which are set up to allow creditors the ability to maximize the value of the assets now under their control.If that value is greatest when continuing to operate, the laws allow such a reorganization of the ?rm.If the value in liquidation is higher, the laws are in no way prejudiced against selling assets in an orderly procedure.Bankruptcy actually reduces the likelihood of ?re sales because assets are not sold quickly once a bankruptcy ?ling occurs.Cash does not leave the bankrupt firm without the approval of a judge.Without pressure to pay debts, the ?rm can remain in bankruptcy for months as it tries to decide on the best course of action.Indeed, a major complaint about the U.S.code is that debtors can easily delay reorganizing and slow down the process.If, however, creditors and management believe that speedy assets sales are in their best interest, then they can press the bankruptcy judge to approve quick action.This occurred in the case of Lehman’s asset sale to Barclays, which involved hiring workers whomight have split up were their divisions not sold quickly.金融公司破產及系統性的風險
2008年秋,當美聯邦儲備委員會和財政部拒絕85億美金巨資保險投入到美國國際集團時,這邊借給美國國際集團的貨款就直接落到了競爭對手手里,而投保人只得到極少的一部分資金。在那些大的受益人當中,高盛用12億美金來撤銷美國國際集團的信用違約互換。這一應急方案通過逐步售出美國國際集團的資產來償還貸款,而不是保住崗位或者是確保短期貸款市場像之前那樣持續運轉發揮市場效能。因此,政府避免美國國際集團的系統性風險的目的,是為了確保美國國際集團的商業伙伴不至于破產。從這一出發點,很明顯是信用違約互換當中最好的一個。也是因為這一點,相比2008年美國國際集團多贏得4000億的合同。在條款當中,美國政府在援助通用汽車時表現的并沒那么積極,可能是因為政府確信,通用的破產把損失強加到相關的合作企業,這樣不會對宏觀經濟產生太大的壞影響。這一決定和宏觀經濟調查的結果是一致的,即金融公司的破產比非金融公司的破產產生的系統性風險大很多。例如Bordo和 Haubrich提到“越是嚴重的金融事件越是和嚴重的經濟衰退聯系在一起。”同樣的,Bernanke反駁道,大蕭條如此的讓經濟衰退是因為銀行業的缺陷影響到投資的信用度。Bernanke 假設一種金融加速器機制,在這樣的機制中,經濟的一個領域破產導致更多的不穩固的資產負債表和緊張的信貸狀況。這反過來就導致投資的減少,隨之而來的是變少的貸款和普遍的經濟衰退。如果對非金融企業的經濟沖擊都是以破產的形式呈現,這些作者們在辯論經濟低迷好似不會很嚴重的。
我們反而認為非金融企業破產的連鎖影響遠比金融企業的大,就像美國國際集團。雖然通過競爭對手風險渠道,不會對美國經濟產生毀滅性的打擊。但并不是說一段時期在大銀行間的經濟低迷不會伴隨沖擊很大的經濟衰退。只是因為這樣是經濟失利不會引起經濟衰退,也不會影響經濟衰退的深度。不管是哪一種類型的企業破產,這樣的破產在企業股份中不是常見的導致經濟損失的癥狀。
因為一個公司的倒閉導致其他公司的倒閉形成系統內的一種聯級,這樣就會產生普遍的經濟脆弱的現象。當許多金融公司同時倒閉,系統風險會減弱經濟的破壞力度,就像在大蕭條時期,9000多家銀行倒閉。在前一種案例中,一家公司的倒閉,譬如像美國國際集團,雷曼兄弟,或者貝爾斯登這樣的公司倒閉,會導致倒閉現象在金融界蔓延,例如信用違約互換。在后一種案例中,事實是許多金融機構的倒閉意味著不僅僅是貨幣的供應,而且只要經濟活動中的破敗,就會降低信用額度。當脆弱的金融系統引起經濟的蕭條時,經濟蕭條就不會產生,因為公司可以申請破產。而且如果只是一兩個公司的破產,非金融企業會對經濟產生更大的影響。
這樣極端且真實的影響是金融企業的脆弱性導致調控者特別強調對系統性風險的預防。這些政策當中,最突出的是“太大以至于破產”(TBTF的邏輯),這一觀點的思維方式是,一個大型的金融機構的倒閉將會影響到其分支的金融機構,因此,對經濟的風險是很大的。太大而倒閉是2008年隨著美國聯邦儲備委員會決定合并貝爾斯登公司和摩根大通銀行之后產生的,在重建銀行貨代時期的領導是長期資金管理,這一政策的決定是支援美國國際集團。如果結果是阻止了經濟的衰退,太大而倒閉的政策將會被證實。然而,如果在這一段時期系統性風險被夸大,或者所采取的措施的益處被高估,資金分配以避免另外一場大蕭條的效率代價體系將遠遠超出任何潛在的利益。
毫無疑問,在觀察另外一個系統性風險的時候,沒有管理者想乘機撤退。因此當管理者推到一邊的時候,我們不能憑經驗來考核決定經濟狀況。當今的美國,很少有管理者同意一家大的金融公司破產的。最近,我們可以看到雷曼兄弟的破產,這是美國聯邦儲備委員會,逼不得已同意破產的企業。然而,雷曼兄弟的破產是唯一一個顯而易見的例子表明太大而倒閉的政策是名不副實的,我們只看到中意政策對系統性風險的微不足道的影響。此外,與此同時因雷曼兄弟的倒閉,此外,與此同時,雷曼兄弟的失敗的情況下,美聯儲正在干預商業市場、促進貨幣資金,而美國國際集團是跳傘了。而且,美聯邦儲備局和財政局即將散布第二次大蕭條的謠言,以彰顯其采取的措施的有效性。因此,我們將永遠不知道雷曼兄弟的破產是否會導致市場低迷,以及從雷曼兄弟破產致使人們對破產的恐懼反映到現實的經濟上來或者管理者對人們的現實經濟體中存在的問題的恐懼進行無限的夸大。
在本論文中,我們分析會引起經濟崩潰風險的經濟體制。我們關注兩種可能引起系統性風險問題的蔓延:(1)信息蔓延,一個金融機構的困境會對其他金融企業產生一系列的消極影響,主要是因為這些企業有許多共同的風險因素。(2)對手蔓延,一個重要的金融機構倒閉直接導致其他信貸機構的危機,這些危機會產生滾雪球效應,引起其他金融企業倒閉。太大而倒閉主義政策的有效性主要依據于這兩種系統性風險的控制。對手蔓延會授權干預每一個倒閉的銀行,不過信息蔓延就不會。
如果管理者不介入救助某一企業,要不就是任其倒閉。例如一家銀行,處理的過程包括以美國聯邦儲蓄保險公司作為其產業管理人,使其擔保的債務在很短的時間里還清。相反,如果破產的是一個投資銀行或者是對沖基金沒有參與美國聯邦儲蓄保險公司,這可能是很像第11章和第7章那樣的非金融企業。然而,我們所說的非金融企業的債務是由證券行業保護公司承擔的,這樣的企業是要遵守證券行業保護法令的條例的第7章來停止經濟活動。這在很大程度上解釋了2008年為什么雷曼兄弟的持股公司申請破產其證券交易子公司不在第11章的備案里面。
對金融企業破產停止運行最大的憂慮在于,減價出售致使倒閉和企業債權人對企業復蘇的絕望,這樣的減價出售還會使相關聯的企業具有負面影響,即便這些企業和倒閉的企業沒有直接的關系,不論是否經過美國聯邦儲蓄保險公司還是被證券行業保護法令所規定的。這些擔憂都是由于在2008年3月聯邦儲備委員會決定擴大停產決定到初級證券交易人。聯邦儲備委員會的主席在一次關于經濟系統穩定性的演講中說:“形成的風險就是停產的壓力可能迫使交易者們變賣財產到不動產市場。這就將導致低價出售的情形。并且金融市場的普遍低迷和運用的停止將會對資產的價格產生很到的影響,對金融和經濟都會產生不良影響。”(2008年5月13日在喬治亞州,聯邦儲蓄銀行亞特南大海島會議上的演講。)
對低價銷售的恐懼也反映在后來同樣的對于貝爾斯登和摩根大通現象出現的原因的演講里面:“熊市?迫使申請破產?這樣的狀況會迫使熊市的穩固的債權人和競爭對手來制止潛在的倒閉的可能性,如果市場的流通性不足,這些債權人和競爭對手將要承擔損失。如果他們對于其資產的損失和突如其來的流動性不足,是通過撤資投資到其他有保障的金融業里面,這樣一來,更大的資金流動危機將接踵而來。”
一個倒閉企業的債權人被迫匆匆凍結資產,這是有悖于美國破產法的基本信條的。美國破產法是讓債權人能夠使其名下的財產達到最大價值。如果在操作過程中達到最大值,法律就會允許該企業重組。如果在價值在停產之后變更高,破產法是絕不會干擾資產的有序變賣。破產其實是減少低價甩賣的可能性,因為資產不是在申請破產批下來之后立即可以變賣的。
倒閉公司的資產只有在得到法官的判決才可以兌現。沒有償還債務的壓力,企業可以保持在破產狀態幾個月,這段時間可以理智地作出采取最好措施的決定。實際上,對美國法律的主要投訴時債務人可以趁機對重組進行無期限拖延并且放慢這一過程。然而,如果債權人和管理層認為迅速的財產變賣是對他們最有益的,那么他們可以給破產鑒定的法官施壓來達到判決的火速進行。這樣的情形發生在巴克萊銀行收購雷曼兄弟的案例上,這一過涉及雇傭可能導致分裂的子公司的個人,只是資產不能盡快售出。