第一篇：從合作原則看英語委婉語研究

[Abstract] The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek, eu--means “good”, and –pheme-, “speech” or “saying”, and together it means literally “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”.Euphemism, as a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept, has attracted people’s attention for a long time.It has long been a topic of much interest.Generally speaking, people would use more euphemisms in communicating with the opposite sex;women would use more than men would;older people would use more than younger generations.people would more use euphemisms in “power” relations than in close relations.people with higher education would use more euphemisms.The above factors: age, sex, social status, education, etc.do not work separately.In communicating, they are interlaced with each other and guide our choice of euphemisms.Whether to use euphemisms or taboo words also depends, to a large extent, on the attitudes of participants(particularly speakers)and the purpose of conversations.The article consists of six parts.part one explains what the meaning of euphemism is.part two is saying the Cooperative principle in briefly.Cooperative principle, the cornerstone theory of pragmatics, is one of the main principles that guide people’s communication.The Cooperative principle and its maxims can explain what the literal meaning is and its real intention in communication and ensure that in an exchange of conversation.part three presents, the formation euphemism, namely, formal innovation, semantic innovation, rhetorical devices, and grammatical ways.part four discusses the communicative function of euphemism is substitution, politeness, disguise, defense, etc.part five serves as the main body of this article.Generally speaking, euphemisms violate the Quality, Quantity and Manner Maxim of the Cp due to different reasons like substitution, disguise etc.And basically euphemisms observe the Relation Maxim.From the analysis, it can be also found that sometimes an euphemism can be regarded as violation of two maxims of the Cp at the same time.part six concludes the whole article.[Key Words] Cooperative principle;Euphemism;Communicative function

【摘 要】委婉語(euphemism)一詞起源于希臘語。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“話語”，因此字面上的意思是說好聽的話或用禮貌的方式說話。委婉語是一個語言學概念，同時也是一種文化現象，長久以來一直受到人們的關注。總體上講人們在與異性進行言語交際時，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉語，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉語，年長的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉語。人們在“權勢關系”的語境中往往要比在“親密關系”的語境中更多地使用委婉語。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言談，因而更多地使用委婉語。上述因素年齡、性別、社會地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交際中，他們交織在一起決定著委婉語的使用。是否使用委婉語還要考慮說話者的態度和交談的目的。文章由六個部分組成。第一部分解釋了什么是委婉語。第二部分簡單列出合作原則的各項原則。它作為語用學的理論基石之一，是指導人們語言交際的原則之一。它可以很好地解釋話語的字面意義和實際意義的關系，這對于交際委婉語顯得尤為重要。第三部分說明委婉語的構成可以有很多種方式：形式變化，語義變化，修辭手段和語法手段。第四部分闡述了交際委婉語出于替代、掩飾、和禮貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主體，并說明委婉語出于替代、掩飾、和禮貌等原因主要違反了合作原則中的質、量和方式三個次則，基本上是遵循了合作原則中的相關原則。第六部分總結全文。

【關鍵字】合作原則;委婉語;交際功能

1.Introduction

In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English – Chinese Dictionary the explanation of Euphemism is “(example of the)use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones”[1].And in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English the explanation of Euphemism is “(an example of)the use of a pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant”[2].For example, the man who wants to us to call him a “sanitation engineer” instead of a “garbage man” is hoping we will treat him with more respect than we presently do.“The word 'euphemism' comes from the Greek eu meaning 'good' and pheme meaning 'speech' or 'saying', and thus means literally 'to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner'”[3].Euphemisms have various reasons for existence.They conceal the things people fear the most—death, the dead, the supernatural.They cover up the facts of life—of sex and reproduction and excretion—which inevitably remind even the most refined people that they are made of clay, or worse.They are beloved by individuals and institutions(governments, especially)that are anxious to present only the handsomest possible images of themselves to the world.And they are imbedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them.But some people still mistake the euphemisms in the conversation by the Cooperative principle.Violating the Cp, people also can continue the conversation with euphemisms, which make the author interest in attitudes of participants and the purpose of conversation.That is our body today.2.Formation of euphemisms

2.1 Formal innovation

To avoid the emergence of certain letter or sound may achieve the effect of euphemizing.The formal innovation can hide audio-visually those words we don’t want to say or we shouldn’t say so as to achieve better outcome in communication.2.1.1Abbreviation

Abbreviation is the shortening of a word and may be seen in the use of the British expression LADIES for ladies’ room.There also is GENTS for gentlemen’s room.2.1.2 Apocopation

Apocopation is another form of abbreviation apparent in the use of vamp for vampire here meaning a seductive woman.And lav is for lavatory;homo is for homosexual;coca is for cocaine;bra is for brassiere.2.1.3 Initialing

Initialing is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in “JC for “Jesus Christ”, BM for bowel movement”[4], “W.C for water closet, B.O for body odor, V.D for venereal disease, AIDS for acquired immune deficiency syndrome, SARS for severe acute respiratory syndrome”[5].2.1.4 Backforming

Backforming is the substitution for one part of speech(used in shortened form)for another, as in “burgle(rob)which is derived from 'burglar'”[6].2.1.5 Reduplication

Reduplication is the repetition of a syllable or letter of a word.particularly common in children’s bathroom vocabulary, it substitutes “pee-pee for'piss', poo-poo for 'bowel movement'”[7].2.1.6 Blend word

A blend word is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together both orthographically and phonetically.An example of this is “gezunda for a chamber pot, a term derived from the fact that this object 'goes under the bed'”[8].2.1.7 Diminutive

A diminutive is the formation of a new term by nicking or shortening a name and adding a suffix indicating affection or smallness.“Heinie, for example, is the diminutive of 'hind end' and refers to the buttocks”[9].2.2 Semantic innovation

2.2.1 Borrowing

Most obviously, euphemisms may be formed by borrowing words from other languages—terms that are less freighted with negative associations.Thus, we use Greek and Latin expressions for many bodily parts and functions.We have coined halitosis(bad breath)from the Latin(halitus)for “breath” and we have substituted micturition for the more vulgar Indo-European “piss”.In addition, English euphemisms also borrowed a lot of scientific or academic terms, which are believed to be more euphemistic and objective than the usual terms, such as magnetic for “sexy” and perspire for “sweat” and so on.2.2.2 Widening

Euphemisms may be made by a semantic process called widening.When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid, we move up in the ladder of abstraction.In this way, cancer becomes growth and a girdle becomes a foundation.Sometimes, in addition to widening we divide the negative connotations of a single direct term between two or more words.Instead of saying “syphilis” openly, we speak of a social disease.2.2.3 Semantic shift

Allied to the phenomenon of widening is that of semantic shift.This is the substitution of the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not choose to discuss.We may create such metonymies(substitutions of the whole for the part)as rear end for “buttocks”.Sometimes, as in the expressions “to sleep with/go to bed with someone”[10], we use words naming the larger event in place of more precise references to the sexual relations that are part of the process.2.3 Rhetorical devices

2.3.1 Metaphor

Euphemisms may be made by a process called metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things of another.The euphemisms chosen are often romanticizing, poeticizing and softening of the original words like “go to sleep;go to his long home;be home and free;rest in peace;be at rest;go to Heaven/paradise;join one's ancestors;be gathered to one's fathers;join the immorals for die”[11], shock for random bombing, constructive destruction for severe damage, have a road to travel for have a long time to reach an agreement and etc..2.3.2 Aposiopesis

In English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesis that can also act as the way of euphemizing.When we think we should not say something under certain conditions, we suddenly stop as when we say someone is out(of work);she is expecting(a baby);“to take precautions(against pregnancy);to depart(from this world)”[12]

2.3.3Analogy

Analogy can often be seen in the vocabularies of work.A tendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobs—sometimes substituting a grand title for a large salary—can make offal smell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitation engineers or even to waste--reduction managers.By implication, they become highly trained technicians and executives.Health-club staffs become fitness coordinators, and senators now have their shoes shined by the footwear maintenance engineer, formerly the Senate bootblack.Even if you are not a government official, your janitor is now your buiding maintenance engineer.2.3.4 Understatement

Understatement displays people’s desire to make their language less painful and direct.So there is never an ugly woman in this world, she is at least plain.Teachers only tell parents that their child is a bit slow for his age, not retarded.And call senior citizen for old person.“Take other's things without permission” can be instead of “steal”.2.3.5 periphrasis

periphrasis is just beating around the bush.people often say euphemisms are weasel words, because people never call a spade a spade when using euphemisms.Fart is not pleasant to ear, so people call it wind from the behind.Someone wants you to go away, but he only says he will call your carriage for you.Someone living at the government expense may make you envy him, but actually he is in prison.“Many sayings about going to WC make a good use of periphrasis like wash one’s hands, powder one’s nose, spend a penny.So do the 'drop' for 'adjustment downward'[13]”

2.4.Grammatical ways

According to Bolinger, “Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon.There are grammatical ways of toning something down”.Therefore, euphemizing should not be limited to lexical ways;it can also be achieved by grammatical ways.2.4.1 Tense

In English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color to the expressions for something undesired.Especially when people use want, hope, think and wonder or words like that they may also make use of the tense to sound more euphemistically.For example, I wondered if you would mind helping me? or ”I wondered if you could help me?“[14].Asking help this way, people won’t feel so embarrassed if they were refused.2.4.2 Syntactical negation

This method can lesson the painful impact of the language that is not welcomed.We say she is not pretty(Actually she is very ugly), but that is acceptable, because not pretty does not equal to “ugly”, it could be “plain” too.Not pretty has a wider range of meaning than ugly.Similar usages are as the following: I don’t think, I am afraid, I am not sure, I don't like,etc.2.4.3 First personal pronouns

The use of first personal pronouns like we, ours, us, etc, can also make our speeches sound more euphemistic.You would feel more welcomed if you used we or our quite often.If a doctor said to you how do we feel today, you would feel very warm and comfortable, because it makes you think that this kind doctor takes your illness as mutual concern.Communicative functions of euphemisms

Language is for communication, whereas euphemisms may lead to better communication.Using euphemisms can avoid being presumptuous in language communication.When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more euphemistic expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s feeling.We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s politeness principle.Euphemisms just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication.The functions of euphemisms are in agreement with those of politeness principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other.As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.3.1 Substitution

According to the definitions of euphemism and we know that a great number of English euphemisms serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos.The term taboo(ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”)of polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances.Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in press conferences.The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities.While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, euphemistic expression or terms are required.So diplomatic euphemisms have a very serious reason for being.They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural.Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc.so as to relieve people psychologically.3.2 politeness

politeness is another very important function that euphemisms serve in social life.”Some of the euphemisms are used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation.“[15] Grice formulated Cooperative principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific;To avoid obscurity;To avoid ambiguity;To be brief and to be orderly.” The roundabout nature of euphemisms goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s politeness principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”.In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.3.3 Disguise

Besides the two functions of euphemisms mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in euphemistic communication, namely, the Disguise Function.Here we mean that because of the vagueness of euphemisms, it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have done.For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.and we may find many such kind of these euphemisms in press conferences.The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic euphemisms in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth.In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic euphemisms are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.4.The Cooperative principle

Before going on, we look at two examples, as follows:

(1)”A: Can you tell me the time?

B: Well, the mail has already come.(2)A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?

B: I’ve heard Mary is going.“[16]

It seems there are some mistake in the conversations.But in fact, it is correct.The Cooperative principle will help us understand more.The Cooperative principle is as follows:” Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.“[17]

According Grice, Cooperative principle is classified into four categories: quantity, quality, relation and manner.The category of quantity relates to the quantity ofinformation to be provided, and under it fall the following maxims：

4.1 The maxim of Quality:

”Try to make your contribution one that is true,.specifically:

(i)do not say what you believe to be false.(ii)do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence“[18]

4.2 The maxim of Quantity:

”(i)Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange

(ii)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required“[19]

4.3 The maxim of Relation:

”Make your contribution relevant.“[20]

4.4 The maxim of Manner:

”Be perspicuous and specifically:

(i)avoid obscurity of expression.(ii)avoid ambiguity.(iii)be brief

(iv)be orderly.“[21]

From what mentioned above, we may know that the Cooperative principle enables one participant in a conversation to communicate on the assumption that the other participant is being cooperative.These four maxims form a necessary part of the description of linguistic meaning in that they explain how it is that the speakers often “mean more than they say” in their communications.”We may decide to withhold whatever information we possess:’ No comment!’ We may inadvertently infringe a maxim or we can secretly violate a maxim—e.g.A could maliciously and falsely tell B that Janet had walked in the opposite direction from the post office.Or – more importantly – we can make a blatant show of breaking one of the maxims(Grice terms this flouting a maxim), in order to lead the addressee to look for a covert, implied meaning.“[22].For examples,(3)”At the time of recording, all the members of the cast were members of The BBC players.(Implicature: One or more of them are no longer members of The BBC players.)“[23]

Generally speaking, ”in Grice’s analysis, the speaker’s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption that the speaker has nor really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature“[24].One thing that deserves our attention is that the four maxims, expressed in the imperative mood have sometimes been misunderstood as instructions for a speaker to behave in conversation.5.possible violating the Cooperative principle in the use of euphemisms

In the light of the foregoing literature review and the theoretical bases, we know that euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are important and people often use them in communication.In reality, it can be found that these diplomats and statesmen etc.also use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions in the question-answer patterns.These statesmen make sharp things or unpleasant things sound pleasant etc.otherwise the use of euphemisms may even cause misunderstandings.So the next we will talk about communication with the theories of Cooperative principle.For example, to be specific, diplomatic euphemisms of press conferences are mainly chosen as the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive word or expression for one that is harsh, indelicate or unpleasant to the other side.They are chosen from both the lexical approach and the rhetorical approach.In communication like the question-answer patterns in press conferences, generally people or participants are required to observe the Cp in order to make their conversation moves forward smoothly and successfully.But in reality, in order to meet a certain communicative need, especially in press conferences concerning diplomacy, actually people seldom speaks by always faithfully observing these four maxims of the Cp.Therefore Grice himself also suggests 5 ways participants can deal with these maxims.First, speakers can straightforwardly follow the maxims, that is, they can speak the truth while giving just enough relevant information in a clear, unambiguous, succinct and orderly manner.Many people do just that most of time.Second, someone may violate a maxim, as you would do if you told a deliberate lie.A third thing that can happen is that a speaker can ‘opt out’ of a maxim, this seems to be an uncommon occurrence.The fourth possibility is the maxim clash;cases in which you would have to violate one maxim in order to fulfill another.And perhaps this is the most case of violation of the maxims in press conferences.The fifth and most intriguing way to deal with the maxims of conversation is to flout one of them.When a maxim is flouted, a speaker doesn't observe the maxim, but cannot be accused of violating it either, because the transgression is so flagrant that it is totally obvious that the speaker knows he or she is not observing it and realizes everyone else in the conversation knows it too.The existence of the maxims of the Cp makes the conversational implicature possible especially on the conditions like in press conferences etc..Conversational implicature allows a speaker of any side in press conferences to convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed.Speakers in press conferences can often use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions to produce conversational implicature or more meaning that the hearers can also figure out its real intentions rather than the literal meaning by violating some certain maxims.5.1.Violation of Quality Maxim

”Violation of Quality Maxim means by saying things that are not true or the fact and making irresponsible and insincere remarks by the speakers.It can produce some specifical content: humor, or disguise the intention such as Ministry of Defence for Ministry of War, life insurence for insurance when you are dead, freedom fighters for terrorists.“[25] Frankly speaking, euphemisms have a tendency to violate Quality Maxim in order to express unpleasant things or ideas etc.in an indirect, roundabout and pleasant way.Therefore if hearers want to know the real intentions , they should infer the conversational implicature from the illocutionary meaning based on the special context.Moreover hyperbole and understatement also don't obey the Quality Maxim, for all these contribution are true.Let us look at some examples as follows:

(4)Q: Britain and France both put troops on standby alert … for possible movement into Kosovo.While … has the U.S.put any units on stand-by for a possible movement to Kosovo?

A: In view of the fact that … our forces remain at their current state of readiness.There … increase that state of alertness at this point.Obviously… on short stand-by… air operations, would….In the above Q-A patterns of the transcripts, we can see diplomatic euphemisms like “possible movement”, “at their current state of readiness” and “air operation” etc.are used in press conferences that violate the Quality Maxim.From the specific context we know that here “possible movement” mainly means “possible military attack”, “at their current state of readiness” refers to “at their current state of fighting ” and “air operation” refers to “air war” or “air fight” etc..Still we can find more examples violating Quality Maxim of the Cp in press conferences like “Ministry of Defense” for “Ministry of War”, “entering into Kosovo” or “go into Kosovo” for “invade Kosovo” or “invasion” and “information” for “military intelligence” and also “active defense” for “attack” etc..By saying that, the authority can distort the facts to some extent and also reduce its bad impressions on the public.Hence the authority can present a false picture to the public and to beautify or disguise whatever they have done.5.2 Violation of Quantity Maxim

”Violation of Quantity Maxim is by providing non-informative information or by either providing less or more information than actually needed.Strictly speaking, acronym and abbreviation, two main ways of the formation of euphemism, are the two main ways of violating the Quantity Maxim.For example, execute is for execute death penalty, I need to go is for I need to go to the lavatory, commfu for complete monumental military fuck up , S.O.S for son-of-a-bitch.“[26] Some euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are created by contributing less information to violate the Quantity Maxim in order to make unpleasant, rude or offensive words sound more pleasant, polite and elegant.Let us have a look at some expressions used in press conferences violate the Quantity Maxim of the Cp.(5)Q: General Naumann said … military targets?

A:(Cohen): As we indicated the ACTORD was … Serbian forces were really posing a serious threat to several … the cold or from starving.That ACTORD was … innocent people.That ACTORD remains … General Naumann has referred to.Let us have a look at another example:

(6)Q: General, … Could you … in the event of a conflict and … in terms of a liaison with the NGOs and …?

A: Well, their role is…civil-military affairs organizations, … in the CENTCOM theater …

In the above two question-answer patterns in press conferences we may say that these diplomatic euphemisms violate the Quantity Maxim because they failed to give us the right amount of information we needed or we may also say that they provided less information.By using these euphemisms the speakers like the diplomats and statesmen etc.can avoid mentioning these unpleasant terms or notions like central command and activation order etc.in press conferences.Among the euphemisms used in press conferences, we may still find that some of the euphemisms can be regarded as a special case that violate both the Quality Maxim and the Quantity Maxim etc..Hence in a broad sense we may say that euphemisms that violate the Quality Maxim can also be regarded as a special case that violate the Quantity Maxim because the two maxims are closely related.If a euphemism violates Quality Maxim, it also violates Quantity Maxim to a certain extent.For example, the euphemisms like “possible movement” for “possible military attack” or “possible war”;“brought the world together” mainly refers to those countries led by the USA.Hence from this point of view we may that euphemisms like “possible movement”, “brought the world together” etc.not only violate the Quality Maxim but also violate the Quantity Maxim because to a certain extent they distort the facts and provide less information than people actually need.5.3 Euphemisms and the Relation Maxim

As we mentioned before that the Maxim of Relation refers to “Be relevant” and violation of Relation Maxim means that the utterance of a speaker is irrelevant to the conversation or the specific context for some reasons or some purposes.Sometimes we may find English euphemisms are to use irrelevant utterances on the surface to express something that the speakers want to say and cannot say.In fact the implied meaning of the utterances is relevant partially because the formation of English euphemisms abides these formative principles like pleasant-sound principle etc..For example,(7)”I approached her very hesitatly.“Want to come and play?”

piquette looked at me with a sudduen flash of scorn.“I ain't a kid,” she said.Wounded, I stamped angrily away...“[27]

Here, ”I ain't a kid“ seems no relationto this conversation.But there implicature meaning is only kids play--I ain't kid--I won't play with you.So, it is indirect refuse of communicating.In English “to pass away” is used in a euphemistic sense for “to die” now.The denotation of “to pass away” is “to go away for a time”;while “to die” means “to go away forever”.“To die” is euphemized as “to go away” by violating the Relation Maxim on the surface, in fact, both the two phrases have the relevant meaning to “to go away”.Their difference lies only in the time, one is for a period of time, the other is forever.So when the speaker use “to pass away” to replace “to die”, the hearers may infer the conversational implicature of “to die” from the relevant meaning “to go away”.So with time goes on, it is now almost used as a fixed usage for “to die” in almost all the circumstances.5.4 Violation of Manner Maxim

Violation of Manner Maxim means giving obscure and ambiguous information etc..Sometimes under the communicative circumstances, the speaker, in order to avoid mentioning unpleasant and embarrassed things in a direct way, say something obscurely and ambiguously, then the hearers should carefully infer the conversational implicature of the speaker and what is their real intentions and meaning according to the specific context.So we may find many euphemisms tend to violate the Maxim of Manner so as to achieve the mild, agreeable, roundabout and pleasant-sound effects.We can also take the following as examples to illustrate how euphemisms violate the Manner Maxim.”A educator cannot say a student is lazy, idle, stupid, or clever.Instead of them is educationally and socially disadvantaged groups, underachieved, those on the lower end of the ability-scale, high verbal-ability subjects, disadvantaged home enviornments, underprivileged child.“[28] Obviously, these words violates Manner Maxim o f being brief.Another example, ”perhaps you had better get your affairs in order." This is a notion of death from the doctor.it's wordy but not unnecessary.one-way-ticket is for die.It reflect one's experience and cognition.6.Conclusion

As we stated earlier, euphemism is one of the important and universal linguistic phenomena.Due to the special characteristics like substitution, indirectness etc.it is becoming one of the main communicative approaches This thesis has attempted to study the euphemistic expressions used in the question-answer patterns from the perspective of pragmatics.The article is an overview of the functions and communicative functions of euphemism, and from the pragmatic analysis of the materials, it can be seen clearly that the use of euphemisms basically violate the Quality Maxim, the Quantity Maxim, and the Manner Maxim of the Cooperative principle and the frequency of violating the Quality Maxim is the highest among the three ones.That is to say, the euphemisms used in the question-answer patterns generally do not violate the Relation Maxim of the Cooperative principle.There is an old saying in English: Necessity is the mother of invention.The creation of euphemisms also cannot depart from people’s needs of them.people need euphemisms for social communication, to euphemize the taboo, to show their politeness and to disguise.As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, the formation of euphemisms is the result of the combination of various social psychological factors and pragmatic factors.Studies on euphemisms from a pragmatic perspective reveal how euphemisms flout the Cooperative principle so as to obey the politeness principle in communication and how factors from their sociocultural and communicational context influence their application in communication.Any change of one or more factors of a communication event, will have an effect on our decision of whether to use euphemisms.The expressive euphemisms play a non-fungible role in communication.It is euphemism that makes language more powerful, magical and pleasant.people’s speech does reflect their background, their activities, and the values they hold, therefore, we can learn much about the English people by looking at their use of euphemisms.The studies on English euphemisms can not only help to develop intercultural communicative competence, but also enlighten English language learning and teaching.Therefore, multidisciplinary, multi-angle, and multi-level studies on euphemisms are necessary for English learners to understand the English history and society and communicate with native English speakers better.There are still a lot in this field waiting to be explored, and euphemisms deserve more attention and comprehensive studies.Bibliography

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3[3] 何尚芬.英漢語言對比研究[M].上海: 上海外語教育出版社, 2002: p36

2[4] 馬登閣.從語用學看語言交際中的禮貌原則及英語禮貌語言的表達方式[J].北京第二外國語學院學報, 1995,(2): p3

[5] 胡春梅.論委婉語的構成及功能[J].浙江教育學院學報, 2005,(1): p30

[6] 李國南.辭格與詞匯[M].上海: 上海外語教育出版社, 2001: p201

[7] 同[5], p30

[8] 同[3], p378

[9] 同[4], p3

[10] 同[3], p379

[11] 同[6], p19

5[12] 同[6], p197

[13] 向仍東.淺析英語委婉的特征、構成及作用[J].長沙大學學報, 2005,(1): p83

[14] 同[4], p4

[15] 同[5], p32

[16] 何兆熊.新編語用學概要[M].上海: 上海外語教育出版社, 2000: p152

[17] George Yule.pragmatics[M].Oxford: Oxford University press, 1996: p37

[18] 同[16], p154

[19] 同[16], p154

[20] 同[16], p154

[21] 同[16], p154

[22] N.E Collinge.An Encyclpaedia of Language.London: Routledge London and New York, 1990: p181

[23] 同[22], p182

[24] Jean Stilwell peccei.pragmaics語用學[M].北京: 外語教學與研究出版社, 2000: p30

[25] 徐莉娜.跨文化交際中的委婉語解讀策略[J].外語與外語教學, 2002,(9):p8

[26] 同[25], p8

[27] 同[25], p8

[28] 同[25], p8

第二篇：從委婉語與禁忌語看東西方文化差異

從 委婉語與 禁忌語看東西方文化差異

摘要： 委婉語與 禁忌語是人們使用語言的重要形式，在人際交往中起著重要的作用。委婉語與 禁忌語隨著文明的發展，沉淀了豐富的文化內涵。本文通過對東西方 委婉語與 禁忌語的對比研究，揭示了東西方文化在宗教、等級觀念以及禮儀方面的差異，便于了解不同民族文化的特色。

關鍵詞： 委婉語;禁忌語;東西方文化差異

Abstract:Euphemisms and taboos are important forms in language use, and playimportant roles in interpersonal communication.With the development ofculture, it precipitates a large amount of cultural factors.In orderto understand different cultural characteristics in differentcountries, this paper provides you with the differences in religion,hierarchy concepts and ceremony and propriety through the usage ofeuphemisms and taboos in west and east countries.Key words: euphemisms, taboos, and cultural differences

語言是社會發展的產物，同時也就反映了社會生活，隨著歷史的進步的發展，語言也發生了很多的變化。由于宗教、迷信、禮儀以及科技不發達的原因，某些語言就被禁止使用，同是也就出現了用另外的語言來替代這種語言的現象，于是就出現了 委婉語與 禁忌語。在不同的民族和文化中都存在著 委婉語與 禁忌語，如果我們掌握了他們，就能夠在日常生活特別是在跨文化交際中，提高我們的交際能力。

一、婉語與 禁忌語的起源與發展

委婉語（Euphemism）一詞發源于希臘語，意思是說好聽的話，古希臘人在祭祀時，都得講吉利話，即使用 委婉語。理由是人們用 委婉語稱呼神，可以起到安撫他們得作用，可以避開他們得注意。古代人對大自然的力量的不解以及科技的不發達以至于拜神弄鬼，便是 委婉語與宗教的起源。

古希臘文化后來傳到歐美各國，隨著時代的發展與變遷，語言的變化發展，委婉語的內容及范圍也發生了極大的變化，人們在人際交往中對敏感話題禁忌的話題都采用含蓄、迂回、曲折、委婉的語言來表達，人們用不那么令人討厭的詞語，用含蓄的語言來表達那些涉及到人們隱私的話語。委婉語涉及的范圍也隨之變廣，不僅涉及到鬼神、人的生老病死、性等方面，而且還涉及到經濟、政治、文化、教育、戰爭等各個領域。因此，委婉語的使用，滿足了人們交際的需求，同時也從各個方面反映了一個民族的社會禮儀、社會制度以及民族文化傳統。

禁忌語（Taboos）發源于波利尼亞湯加語，意思是“需要極端注意的事情”，也可以被寫作tabu或者是tapu。18世紀，英國水手JamesCook第一個注意到了湯加語中 禁忌語的習俗，然后把這個單詞帶到了英語中，根據牛津高階英漢漢英雙解詞典，Taboo一詞意義為 “(incertain culture)ban or prohibition on something that is regarded forreligious or other reasons as not to be done, touched,used”.由此看來，禁忌語主要使用在宗教或者是由于某些原因而不能直接說出來的場合。隨著社會的進步和發展，禁忌語的數量在某種程度上來說不是減少而是增多了。因此，了解 禁忌語和 委婉語在交際中特別是跨文化交際中是非常重要的。

二．中西方 委婉語和 禁忌語的應用及對比 不同的民族都有不同的文化模式，既然語言是文化的載體，因此，一個民族語言的應用就反映了這個民族獨特的文化模式。中國自古以來就被稱為文明禮儀之邦，在幾千年儒家思想的浸潤下，形成了一個以社會、群體為中心的民族，人們互相關心、互相愛護、互相幫助；而英美等其他西方民族則以人為本，逐漸形成以自身為中心的社會。在中國，很多人都注意到，在日常生活中，人們打招呼時都會問：“你吃了飯沒有？”“你到哪里去？”在交談中，人們都迫切的想知道對方的一切，包括對方的年齡、婚姻狀況、工資收入等由此來表現對人的關心；而在英美等西方國家，這些問題恰恰是禁忌的問題，他們認為這是他們自己的私事，與談話人無關。而且還會認為你侵犯了他們的隱私權。

下面我就中西方在日常生活中使用的 委婉語與 禁忌語場合來做一些分析比較，以此說明中西方在文化上面的一些差異。

生老病死是人的一生發展必然經歷的階段，是符合自然發展規律的。但是，由于人們對疾病以及死亡的恐懼，疾病及死亡也就成了 委婉語與 禁忌語使用的場合。生育，由于在不同的文化傳統中，牽涉到了性愛這一話題，因此懷孕也就成了禁忌的話題，也就有了不同的看法與表達方式。在英美等西方國家的傳統文化中，人們也習慣用 委婉語來代替懷孕這樣的詞語。例如：在文學作品及生活中，人們很少用像“pregnancy”這樣的詞語，而是用了諸如：awkward(行動不便)、eating for two（吃兩個人的飯）、have one on theway(有人要來)等詞語來表達。在中國，由于受到儒家思想的影響，認為人的一生中有幾件喜事：洞房花燭夜、喜得貴子及金榜題名時。所以把生育看作是一件喜事。于是關于生育得 委婉語也就有：“有喜了，有了”之類的說法。以至于有些人罵人家不生育的是“不下蛋的雞、不孝有三，無后為大”，其中“不下蛋”“無后”也就成了不能生育的 委婉語了。老齡的問題，在中西方也有不同的看法：在西方，人們是不愿意被人說老的，因為西方老就意味著“無用”或者是“死亡”，得不到別人的尊敬。因此誰也不愿意說自己老，也不愿意談老。因此，詢問別人的年齡在英美等西方國家是不禮貌的，人家會告訴你“It is asecret”。也就有很多關于老人的 委婉語。如：senior people, third age, seasoned man,adult等。然而在中國，情況是恰恰相反的，由于幾千年的優良傳統，中國人大多數人都能尊敬老人，老人也享有特權，老人不怕老。而且中國的老人多能以自身豐富的閱歷來幫助年輕人，因此，“老”在中國就成了智慧的代名詞。如：老師、老板、老師傅、老張、老總等等。這些詞對老并沒有什么特定的年齡內涵，只是借“老”來表明說話人的敬意。關于死亡，中國也有很多說法，但總的說來可以分成兩種：一種認為死亡是“喜事”，在中國，人們認為年齡大的人的死亡是“壽終正寢”是一件喜事，因此西方人怎么也鬧不明白的“紅白喜事”也就有了根據。這類關于死亡的說法有：“仙游、仙去、登仙、羽化、駕鶴歸西、仙馭西馳、圓寂”等與神仙有關的詞語來代替死亡這一悲痛事件。還有一類死亡是“悲傷的事情”，這一類的詞語多用于年齡較小、或者是青年的死亡。像這類關于死亡的說法就有：“夭折、短命”等。在西方，死亡也同樣是禁忌，西方的關于死亡的 委婉語來自于宗教、航海、戲劇、賭博等方面。如：pass away(逝世)、tocross over(進入來世)、to go to one’s long home(入墓)，last round up(送終)等。

關于性愛的詞語，不管在東西方都是禁忌，在英美等西方國家，有相當大一部分人認為性愛是有罪的，特別是信奉基督教的人，根據《圣經》，人生下來就是有罪的，是亞當和夏娃偷吃了禁果，才有了人類，因此，性愛也被認為是有罪的，因此人們在公眾場合是不會輕言性的。與性有關的語言也就成了 禁忌語，從而引發了很多關于性的 委婉語。如：make love, art of pleasure, to approach, do it, act of love等等。和西方相比，中國人就要含蓄得多，性在中國的傳統文化中被認為是使人墮落和身心敗壞的東西。性也就被蒙上了一層神秘的面紗。再加上幾千年的封建傳統文化和禮教的束縛，人們更是“談性色變”，也就出現了關于性的一些 委婉語：閨房之事、房事、男女之事、云雨之事、那種事等來代替。即使只是與性有關的事物，人們也仍然用 委婉語來表示。如女性的第二性征：女人的乳房、月經等，再日常話語中也成了一個禁忌的話題。人們談到乳房、乳罩時，就有人用“胸罩、眼鏡、胸衣、內衣”來代替。說到月經，人們會用“例假、月事、來事兒、不舒服、倒霉、大姨媽來了”等來代替。

三．中西方文化差異和 委婉語與 禁忌語差異

中國是一個文化博大精深，擁有五千年的文明史的東方古國之一，是東方國家的代表之一，與西方國家有某些相通之處，可兩者之間又存在著明顯的差異。委婉語與 禁忌語是中西方文化共同的一種現象，然而他們的使用卻表現了一些差異，通過上面的論述，我們可以看出，這些差異主要體現在以下幾個方面。

（一）宗教的差異

從 委婉語與 禁忌語的用法上的差異，我們不難看出，英美等西方國家，主要信奉的是基督教，有很多 委婉語與 禁忌語都來源于基督教的《圣經》，以性愛和死亡為例，由于基督教認為，人類是“罪人”亞當和夏娃偷吃了禁果而繁衍的后代，部分基督教徒，特別是清教徒，是不準言性的。因此，關于性的詞語也就成了 禁忌語，也就出現了很多關于性愛方面的 委婉語，如：前面所說的makelove等等。對關于死亡的詞語而言，由于基督教認為，人生來就是有罪的，人的生命是上帝賦予的，所以只有人死后，靈魂才能得到拯救，于是就有了“goto meet one’s maker, be with thegod”等等。而中國教派眾多，有佛教、道教等。佛教自唐朝時傳入中國，佛教宣揚“諸行無常，諸法無我，一切皆苦，涅槃寂靜”因此，關于漢語中關于死亡的 委婉語就有了“成佛、圓寂、坐化”等等；道教是中國本土的宗教，主要發源于老子和莊子的道家思想。大多數的宗教教義認為人生充滿了不幸或者罪孽，認為死后靈魂才有可能得救。然而道教卻認為生活在世界上是一件美好的事情，死亡才是痛苦的，因而道教追求的是得道成仙，這樣就能超脫生死，在仙境中過仙人的生活。所以漢語中有關死亡的 委婉語就有了“仙逝、得道、成仙、羽化、歸道山”等等。

（二）等級觀念的差異

中華民族是一個有著幾千年傳統文化的禮儀之邦，深受儒家文化和封建宗法制的浸潤，因此中華民族十分重視長幼尊卑，十分重視禮儀；而語言作為文化的載體，也深深的反映了等級觀念。以名字的稱呼為例，在漢文化中，君主、長輩的名諱是一個禁忌，作為臣子或者是晚輩的是不能直呼其名的，必須代之以親戚關系或者是諸如陛下、萬歲爺的稱呼。在給新生兒命名的時候，是必須要避開長輩或者是君主的名諱的，就連看到長輩或者是君主的名字，也只能念成其他的詞語，如：在《紅樓夢》中，林黛玉的母親名叫賈敏，每當林黛玉讀到和“敏”字時，就把念作“秘”，或者是寫到“敏”字時，都會添減兩筆，這就是緣于父母的名諱在中國是 禁忌語。再有，關于死亡，君主的死亡，稱為“駕崩”，而“駕崩”這一詞語是萬萬不能用于其他成員的，只能用于君主的死亡；而在英美等西方國家，人們崇尚自由、平等。關于名字方面的 禁忌語 委婉語也就沒有那么森嚴。以一個家族的命名為例，在英語中，一個新生兒的名字中可能包含了幾代人的姓名。中華民族由于受到幾千年封建思想的影響，男尊女卑的思想根深蒂固。人們深受中國傳統文化的影響，特別是在封建社會時期。婦女地位低下。以君主的稱呼為例，在古代中國，由于君主的名諱是 禁忌語，君主或者是皇帝就被稱為“萬歲、萬歲爺”，而皇后或者是妃子以及所有的公主，即使是君主的母親，都只能被稱為“千歲”.而在西方,這些方面的差異可能就要小一些.(三)對于禮儀的不同體現

中國是一個具有幾千年悠久歷史傳統的文明國家,中國人自古以來就崇尚禮儀,在人際交往中,更是注重謙讓,認為謙讓是對他人的尊敬.如:古人在稱呼自己時通常會稱自己為“鄙人”,而尊稱別人為“閣下，師傅”等。通常在問別人的姓名的時候會說：“您貴姓?”。還會稱自己的妻子為:“賤內、拙荊”等等，在談到自己的兒子時會說：“犬子”，而別人的兒子則是“令公子”等等。在稱呼別人的妻子時會說：“尊夫人”等等。而在英美等西方國家，人人崇尚的時實事求是，大方自信。通常不會特意的貶低自己，抬高他人。下面一則笑話則反映了中西方在對于謙讓的不同理解。會中文的外國人：你的女兒真漂亮。中國人：哪里，哪里？外國人：鼻子、眼睛和嘴。這則笑話實際反映了在跨文化交際中，由于民族觀念和社會習俗的差異，謙讓禮貌的運用也不盡相同。

委婉語與 禁忌語是東西方語言所共同擁有的文化現象，在人們的日常生活中起到十分重要的作用，特別是在跨文化交際中，有重要的意義。中西方不同的文化背景、文化傳統、不同的宗教信仰以及不同的等級觀念等造成了 委婉語和 禁忌語在使用上的不同。因此，在跨文化交際中，必須要遵守不同民族的語言習慣以及社會習俗，才會使跨文化交際順利進行，以免引起交際失誤。

參考文獻：

[1]鄧炎昌，劉潤清。語言與文化，外語教學與研究出版社，1998年。[2]范家才，英語修辭欣賞，上海交通大學出版社，1992年。[3]馮翠華，英語修辭格，北京商務印書館，1983年。

[4]胡金，從中英 委婉語對比看中西文化差異，廣西師范大學學報，2002年4月。[5]胡文仲，文化與交際，外語教學與研究出版社，1994年。

[6]李桂媛，英漢 禁忌語及 委婉語探討，天津外國語學院學報，2004年5月。[7]李海燕，從漢英死亡 委婉語看民族文化異同，蘇州大學學報，2004年6月。[8]徐莉娜，跨文化交際中的 委婉語解讀策略，外語與外語教學，2002年9月。

第三篇：英語禁忌語與委婉語的研究

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A Comparison of the English Color Terms 文檔所公布均英語專業全英原創畢業論文。原創Q 799 75 79 38 大學校名的命名原則與翻譯策略－－以中美兩國的大學校名為例 隔離與異化：?？思{短篇小說中的人際關系研究

約翰?福爾斯《法國中尉的女人》中主角薩拉女性意識的體現 抱怨類外貿信函的語篇分析 英國議會制辯論－－探究與實踐 The Study of Symbolism in Moby Dick 命運與性格－－淺論《哈姆雷特》的悲劇因素 從合作原則和禮貌原則看女性委婉語的語用功能

論《某人住在一個多美的小城鎮》的語言藝術(開題報告+文獻綜述+論文)試析《推銷員之死》中威利?洛曼的美國夢 論《弗蘭肯斯坦》的敘事技巧 英語詞匯的語境意義分析 論《格列佛游記》中的諷刺

與身體器官有關的中英文習語對比研究

相似的母愛，不同的表達——對比研究《黑孩子》和《寵兒》中的母親形象 論法律英語的語言特征及其翻譯 大學英語課堂教學師生互動建構淺析 中國皮欽語的產生和發展

從認知角度看“水”的一詞多義現象 文化負載詞的翻譯

大學英語課程改革審視：基于通識教育的視角 功能對等理論在科技論文摘要翻譯中的運用 淺談中西體態語的差異

從面子理論視角分析外交話語中的恭維語

簡?奧斯丁《理智與情感》中兩姐妹的性格分析 跨文化視角下的中美社交禮儀的對比研究 分析《基督山伯爵》愛德蒙的二重性格

《晚安,媽媽》中公共汽車和洗衣機的象征寓意 44 淺談一些英美文學作品中的貓形象 45 禮貌中的中西方“面子文化”差異 46 從《阿甘正傳》看美國樂觀主義

從《遠離塵囂》看托馬斯哈代的生態自然觀 48 解讀托尼?莫瑞森《最藍的眼睛》中的成長主題 49 托尼?莫里森小說的家庭關系

母語正遷移在初中英語教學中的研究與應用

許淵沖的“三美”原則在國外化妝品品牌名漢譯中的應用 52 中西方餐桌禮儀文化對比

Exploring Differences Between Chinese and English Compliments 54 通過會話原則分析手機短信語言

從跨文化角度對品牌名稱的研究——以化妝品品牌為例 56 從《純真年代》中的女性角色看伊迪斯?華頓的女性意識 57 初中英語口語教學的課堂管理

A Portrait of Martin Eden as a Nietzschean 59 Etiquette and Protocol on Intercultural Business Negotiation 60 淺議中國菜名的英譯

澳大利亞傳記文學中的土著文化：以《我的位置》為例 62 《玻璃動物園》中的逃避主義解讀

男權社會女性意識的覺醒——弗吉尼亞·伍爾夫女性主義文學研究 64 跨文化商務活動中的交際與禮儀 65 淺析英語擬聲詞的功能

淺析《哈克貝利費恩歷險記》中的自由

Women in the Roaring Twenties– A Comparative Study of Female Characters in The Great Gatsby and The Sun Also Rises 68 The Tragic Elements in Far from the Madding Crowd 69 A Study of Corporate Crisis Management through Sanlu Tainted Milk Powder Incident 70 The Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms 71 網絡廣告在中國營銷中存在的弊端 72 語篇轉喻的功能分析

辯證論視域下神似與形似的相互關系研究 74 《飄》兩中譯本的比較研究

顯現的被動?隱現的自我——《看不見的人》中被動語態的身份建構功能研究 76 從合作原則的違反談黑色幽默在《第二十二條軍規》中的實現 77 消費文化理論視角下的《嘉莉妹妹》

Doomed Tragedy out of Desire-Driven Morbid Personalities in Nabokov’s Lolita 79 Teleology, Religion and Contexts 80 從上海迪士尼的興建看中西文化異同

電影《喜福會》反映出的中西家庭價值觀的差異 82 《動物農場》中隱喻的應用及其政治諷刺作用 83 論初中英語教學中跨文化意識的培養 84 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 85 影響英語專業學生理解英語習語的因素調查

中美商務接待文化差異

中美家庭教育文化對比及其根源分析 88 英國貴族精神和紳士教育研究 89 從生態視角解讀《瓦爾登湖》 90 論隱喻的本質與功能 91 中美肥胖問題比較研究

中英稱謂語的文化差異及其翻譯 93

守望何物－－《麥田里的守望者》中霍爾頓的困惑 95 中美商務接待文化差異

漢英交替傳譯中的語篇銜接分析 97 勃朗特兩姐妹創作風格差異探究 98 從旅游看中美核心文化差異 99 裘德悲劇成因的分析

淺析小組合作在小學英語教學中的應用 101 漢英翻譯中文化傳遞的可接受度

愛默生超驗主義對世紀美國人生觀的影響——以《論自助》為例 103 英語商務信函中的語用分析

蓋茨比美國夢的幻滅——透視現實生活中的愛情 105 禮貌原則在口譯中的應用

命運與性格－－淺論《哈姆雷特》的悲劇因素

中國英語與中式英語的對比研究——從英漢民族思維差異的角度 108 跨文化傳播視角下中美動畫片對比

從目的論角度分析中國商品說明書的英譯 110 “詞塊”理論及應用前景探微

從市場營銷的角度論哈利?波特的成功 112 解析《老人與?！分械纳Ｌ醽喐缧蜗?/p>

Communicative Functions of Silence in Conversations 114 淺談經濟全球化背景下的商務英語 115 新聞新詞的文化內涵與翻譯

淺析伍爾夫意識流小說中的敘事時間 117 雙關語在英語廣告中的應用與翻譯研究 118 《了不起的蓋茨比》的敘事技巧分析

《走出非洲》中的非洲因素與女主人公性格完善的關系

從弗洛伊德的精神分析理論淺析《道林格雷的畫像》中的主要人物 121 從曼諾林角度研究圣地亞哥形象

高校學生英語口語課堂焦慮感控制的研究

《少年派的奇幻漂流》電影中的隱喻與象征手法研究 124 中英語言中動物詞匯的文化含義對比

中西方文化差異對國際商務談判的影響及對策分析 126 《喜福會》中的象征主義

英語單位名詞研究——以《牛津高階英漢雙解詞典（第六版）》為例 128 An Interpretation of A Tale of Two Cities from the Perspective of Symbolism 129 《蝴蝶夢》中的女權主義

A Comparison of the English Color Terms 131 從茶和咖啡的對比中體現出來的生活方式的不同 132 試析德萊塞對《嘉莉妹妹》女主人公的非道德描寫 133 論《紫色》中的性別暴力

威廉·斯泰倫《蘇菲的選擇》敘事策略分析 135 美國俚語中的文化特征

Resurrection of Self-consciousness in Rebecca 137 The Translation of Irony in Pride and Prejudice—A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions 138 從個人英雄主義角度解讀《肖申克的救贖》 139 《雙城記》與《呼嘯山莊》的家庭主題對比

從《到燈塔去》解讀弗吉尼亞伍爾夫的女權主義思想

世紀美國男權社會下女性的成長——解讀《覺醒》中埃德娜的覺醒過程和原因 142 淺析簡?奧斯丁在《傲慢與偏見》中的女性主義 143 網絡英語對漢語詞匯的影響研究

Cultural Differences in Business Negotiations: East and West 145 英漢思維差異與翻譯策略

情景教學法在小學英語教學中的運用 147 回譯在翻譯教學中的作用

論《紅字》中“A”的象征意義

從《少年派的奇幻漂流》看人性的兩面性及自我斗爭 150 淺析商務談判中的恭維語應用

151 On Allan Poe’s Application of Gothic Elements and His Breakthroughs — Through The Fall of the House Of Usher 152近年來漢語中英語借詞的簡析

153 淺析《庫珀爾街》中英語過去時的翻譯 154 目的論下英語廣告仿擬格的漢譯

155 亨利詹姆斯的《戴茜米勒》中的文化沖突和文化融合 156 不溫不火，綿里藏針——分析《格列夫游記》的諷刺意義 157 英語構詞法對詞匯習得的影響

158 淺析英詩翻譯的原則和方法 ——丁尼生《鷹》的不同譯文比較 159 卡勒德·胡賽尼《追風箏的人》中風箏的意向分析 160 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 161 比較約翰·鄧恩與艾米麗·迪金森詩歌中奇思妙喻的藝術效果

162 Memory Theories and Their Applications to English Vocabulary Learning 163 對《看得見風景的房間》的象征主義解讀 164 英國哥特小說故事情節中的怪誕表現 165 Satan in Paradise Lost as a Tragic Hero 166 功能對等理論指導下的英文電影片名漢譯 167 英國歷險小說《所羅門王的寶藏》 168 談電影片名漢譯的不忠

169 評愛倫坡哥特小說中的恐怖美 170 紫色中女人意識的覺醒

171 墮落的世界－－－－-評菲茨杰拉德的《夜色溫柔》 172 商務英語交流中委婉語的語用功能研究

173 A Study of Hawthorne’s Notion of Science as Shown in ―Rappaccini's Daughter‖ 174 電影片段在中學英語教學中的運用 175 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 176 從歸化與異化的角度研究《金鎖記》的翻譯策略 177 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 178 淺析莫里森名作《最藍的眼睛》中查理的性格特點

179 教師在農村初中英語游戲教學中的角色分析－－以某中學為例 180 英語反語的語用分析

181 《簡愛》中的人文主義思想述評

182 中學英語口語互動教學的現狀及存在的問題 183 淺析詹姆斯?喬伊斯《阿拉比》中的精神頓悟 184 蓋茨比悲劇的必然性

185 英漢人稱指示語的對比研究

186 A Comparison of the English Color Terms 187 《可以吃的女人》的女性主義解讀 188 析《苔絲》中的象征意義 189 《赫索格》中瑪德琳的性格

190 商務英語書面語語言特色的語用分析 191 論《雙城記》中卡登形象的塑造及其意義 192

193 Analysis of the Distorted Love between Mother and Son in Sons and Lovers 194 論《看不見的人》的主人公的心理成長歷程 195 十九世紀英國唯美主義的生成語境與基本特征 196 英語廣告中仿擬的關聯分析

197 從女性主義視角解讀《瘋狂主婦》 198 Consumerism in The Great Gatsby 199 中學英語課堂中教師的糾錯策略 200 中西服飾文化差異對語言的影響

第四篇：英語中的委婉語

（1）Death(死亡）

to be asleep in the Arms of God(本義）安睡在上帝的懷中

to be at peace(本義）平靜了

to be at rest(本義）在休息

to be called to God(本義）被召喚到上帝那

to be called home(本義）被召回家

to be home and free(本義）到家自由了

to be taken to paradise(本義）被送進天堂

The call of God(本義）上帝的召喚

to depart(本義）離去

The final departure(本義）最后離去

final sleep(本義）最后一覺

to go home(本義）回家

to go to heaven(本義）進天堂

to go to one's long home(本義）回到永久之家

to go to one's own place(本義）回老家

happy land(本義）樂土

to have fallen asleep(本義）入睡了

to have found rest(本義）得到安息

to have gone to a better place(land,world,life)到一個更好得地方

in heaven(本義）在天堂

to join one's ancestors(本義）加入先人的行列

join the Great majority(本義）加入大多數

to leave this world(本義）離開今世

to pay one's fee(本義）付費

to rest(本義）休息

to rest in peace(本義）安息

to return to dust(本義）歸之塵土

to sleep(本義)長眠

with God(本義)和上帝在一起

with their Father(本義)與圣父在一起

to fall(本義)倒下了

to do one's bit(本義)盡職了

to lay down one's life(本義)放下自己的生命

to be no longer with us(本義)不再與我們在一起了

to be out of pain(本義)擺脫痛苦

to breathe one's last(本義)呼了最后一口氣

to cancel one's account(本義)銷帳

pay one's last debt(本義)付最后一筆債

kick the bucket 翹辮子

pop off(the hooks)翹辮子

get off the hooks 脫身了

to fade away(本義)消失

to make one's exit(本義)退場

to kick off(本義)開球

to be free(本義)解脫了

to be gone(本義)去了

to be no more(本義)不復存在to close one's eyes(本義)瞑目

to come to an end(本義)結束

to go beyond(本義)到遠方去

to expire(本義)呼氣

to go off(本義)離去

to go one's last(本義)走到自己的終點

to go one's place(本義)回老家

to go to one's resting place(本義)到休息地去

to go to west(本義)西去

to kick the bucket(本義)踢翻水桶

to lose one's life(本義)失去了生命

to pass away(本義)離去

to stop living(本義)停止生存

to take one's rest(本義)休息

to shut up the shop(本義)關門（4）灰色職業

shoe maker 補鞋匠 → shoe rebuilder 重整鞋者

dish washer 洗盤子的人 → utensil maintenance 器皿保全工 garbage man 清掃垃圾的人 → sanitation engineer 清潔工程師 butcher 屠夫 → meat technologist 肉類技術專家 hair-dresser 理發師 → cosmetologist

美容師 undertaker 承辦喪事的人 → funeral director 殯儀負責人 prostitute 妓女 → pavement princess

馬路天使

maid/ housekeeper(女仆/ 女管家)→domestic help / day-help 家務助手，day-help 白天幫工，live-in help 住家幫手 optician(眼鏡商)→vision engineer(視力工程師

bedding manufacturer(床具制造商)→ mattress engineer(床墊工程師)或sleep engineer(睡眠工程師)School principal(中小學校長)→ educational engineer(教育工程師)tree surgeon

花木外科醫師 beautician

美容師

street orderly / sanitary engineer 街道清潔師/衛生工程師 maintenance engineer（維修工程師）→房屋管理員； landscape-architect（風景建筑師）→園林工人； tree-surgeon（樹木手術師）→修樹剪枝的工人； shoe-rebuilder（鞋子再造者）→修鞋匠； sanitation engineer（衛生工程師）→垃圾工人； pipe engineer（管道工程師）→ 管道工 heating engineer（水暖工程師）→管工；

telephone engineer（電話工程師）→修理電話的技工； extermination engineer（除害工程師）→滅鼠工人； beautician（美容師）→理發師；

household executive（家政委員）→家庭婦女（7）排泄物

to be caught short(本義）給了個冷不妨

the call of nature(本義）自然的需要

Can I add some powder?(本義）我可以茶點粉嗎?

to cash(write)a check(本義）兌(開)張支票

to do a job for oneself(本義）做點私事

do one's business(本義）干自己的活

to do one's duty(本義）盡職

to ease oneself(本義）自我輕松一下

to eliminate(本義）逐出

evacuation(本義）排空

to excrete(本義）排泄

to find a haven of rest(本義）尋找安息所

to fix one's face(本義）化裝

to freshen up(本義）梳洗打扮

to get some fresh air(本義）去呼吸一點新鮮空氣

to give oneself ease(本義）使自己舒服一下 to pass water（去排水）→ 小便 to see the stars（看星星）→方便 to get some fresh air（呼吸新鮮空氣）to relieve or to relieve nature（去空身）、to wash one’s hand（去洗手或凈手）to see one’s aunt（去看阿姨）answer nature’s call（響應自然的召喚）go to wash－room（去洗手間）go to the bank（去銀行）spend a penny（去花點小錢）to pay a call（拜訪）see john（去看約翰）

to go somewhere（到什么地方去一下）、consult Mr.Jones（請教瓊斯先生）pow－der one’s nose（在鼻子上擦點粉）o have a BM（=bowel movement大便）

want to make oneself comfortable（想去使自己舒服點）

to go(本義）

to go into retreat(本義）去僻靜

to go somewhere(本義）出去一下

to go to Egypt(本義）到埃及去

to go to one's private office(本義）到私人辦公室去

to go to bathroom(本義）到洗澡間

May I adjourn?(本義）我可以變換一下地方嗎？

May I please be excused?(本義）失陪了

natural necessity(本義）自然的需要

nature stop(本義）自然需要停車

to pluck a rose(本義）摘朵玫瑰

powder one's nose(本義）搽點粉

to relieve oneself(本義）輕松一下

to wash one's hands(本義）洗洗手 廁所

powder room（化妝室）、convenience（方便去處）、cloakroom（存衣室）、loo(=waterloo, 滑鐵盧)、toilet（盥洗室）、gentlemen（男士）、gents’（男士房間）、ladies（女士）、ladies’（女士房間）bathroom（浴室）、restroom（休息室）、men或men’s（男士或男士房間）、women或women’s（女士或女士房間）、comfort station（休息處）

ugly：

homely 不好看 plain 平常

plain-looking 長相一般 ordinary looking

長相一般 fat: heavyset 敦實的,富態 chubby

豐滿的 plump豐滿的 , 圓胖的 stout

壯實的 thin: slender 苗條的 slim 苗條的 willowy 苗條的

svelte 亭亭玉立的，身材細長的 lean

精干的

lithe

敏捷的，輕快的

她懷孕了。

She has cancelled all her social engagement.She is in an interesting condition.She is in a delicate condition.She is knitting bootees.She is in the family way.She is expecting.She is in a hn~ly way． 她快要當家了。She is knocked up． 她有了。A hole out in one(本義)一擊入洞 An accident(本義)事故 Awkward(本義)行動不便的 To be caught(本義)被捉住 to be gone（本義）已過去了 to beget（本義）產生

break one's ankle（本義）腳骨折了 clucky（本義）抱窩的

eating for two（本義）吃雙份飯 full of heir（本義）懷有繼承人

to have a hump in the front（本義）前身有塊隆肉 fragrant（本義）香噴噴的 full of heir（本義）懷有繼承人

to have a hump in the front（本義）前身有塊隆肉 to have one watermelon on the vine（本義）藤上有瓜了 to have one on the way（本義）有人要來 in a bad shape（本義）身體不佳

in a certain condition（本義）身處某種狀態 in a delicate condition（本義）身體虛弱 in a(the)family way（本義）家常打扮 in a familiar way（本義）熟悉地

in a particular condition（本義）處于特殊狀態

in an interesting condition(situation, state)（本義）處于有趣狀態 in trouble（本義）惹上麻煩 infanticipating（本義）期望得子 irregularity（本義）不規則現象 knitting（本義）絨衣 to knock up（本義）敲門叫人

lady-in-waiting（本義）有所期待的女子 to learn all about diaper folding（本義）學疊尿布 a mother-to-be（本義）未來的母親 on the nest（本義）在抱窩

preparing the bassinet（本義）準備搖籃 rattle shopping（本義）采購玩具 rehearing lullabies（本義）練唱催眠曲 to spoil a woman's shape（本義）壞了女子體型 to sprain an ankle（本義）扭傷腳踝

to swallow a watermelon seed（本義）吞了棵西瓜子 that way（本義）那樣

waiting for the patter of little feet（本義）等待小腳丫聲 to wear the apron high（本義）圍裙系高 a waiting woman（本義）等待中的婦女 with a baby window（本義）有個凸窗肚 with child（本義）懷孩子了 未婚先育

She is in trouble． 她碰到麻煩。She has been unwise． 她不夠明智。She has been too friendly．她過于友善。

老年人———高級市民（senior citizens）、年長者（the elderly）、the mature(成熟)，不再很年輕（no longer very young）

distinguished gentleman(尊貴的先生，婉指老人);grande dame（貴婦人，婉指老年婦女，老婦）;seasoned man（經驗豐富的人，歷經滄桑的人，婉指老人）;senior citizen（高齡公民，資深公民，婉指老人

capital punishment

死刑

industrial action /industrial dispute 勞工行動/ 勞資糾紛

失業現象→underutilization(未充分利用人才)或human es underdevelopment(人力資源未充分開發)。pension(救濟金)→ welfare bene一 6ts(社會福利)

poor nations（窮國）→ back nations(滯后國家), underdeveloped nations(欠發達國家), developing nations(發展中國家), emerging nations(新興國家)； wiretapping or bugging(偷聽電話或竊聽)→“electronic surveillance”(電子監督)；

wiretappers(竊聽者)→“ESE”(Electronic Surveillance Experts)economic crisis 經濟危機→recession(經濟衰退)，depression； strike（罷工）→industrial action，industrial dispute（工業上的爭端）； dismiss解雇→lay off / ease out / give sb.the walking ticket

停止雇用/免職/把解雇書給某人

unemployed mother失業的母親→ welfare mother（領取福利金的母親）侵略戰爭→ international armed conflict（國際武裝沖突），air attack（空襲）→ air support（空中增援），air strike（空中打擊），overflight(越 界飛行)nuclear bomb(核彈)→nuclear device(核裝置)；

War Department（戰爭部門）→Defense Department（國防部）

be defeated（戰?。鷏ight and scattered action（潰散行動），incomplete success（不圓滿的勝利）；

對別國的入侵invasion →rescue mission（營救使命），wasting the enemy（消耗敵人），pacification（安撫，平息），active defense(積極防御)，preventive war(防御戰爭)。

Walt"(戰爭)→ massive exchange(大規模的交火)steal或embezzle（貪污）→They misuse public funds(濫用公共資金)

cancer(癌)→

the Big C，long illness leprosy(麻風病)→ Hansen S disease，mad(瘋了)→ mentaproblem，a little confused（有點反常，神志迷亂）Blind(盲的)→ sightless，constipation(便秘)→ irregularity，crippled(殘疾)→physically handicapped，disabled；

crippled(瘸子)→physically handicapped(有生理缺陷的)； disabled／the inconvenience the deaf(聾子)→imperfect hearing(聽覺不完美的)，hard of hearing（耳沉）the blind(瞎子／盲人)→visually retarded(視力有障礙的)； retarded（智力遲鈍的）→men tal lhandicapped(心智有缺陷的)AIDS(艾滋病)→social disease(社會疾病)Tuberculosis（肺結核)→lung trouble(肺部毛病)pneumonia（肺炎）→the old man’s friend（老年之交）

poor students（學習成績差的學生）→below average students（低于一般水平的學生）；

stupid or lazy students（愚笨或懶惰的學生），而說→underachievers（未充分發揮出自己潛力的學生）；

poor（窮）→needy（拮據）、underprivileged（經濟狀況低下的）、disadvantage（處于不利地位的）；

sloppy and careless（粗心大意的人）→absent-minded（心不在焉的）； lie（撒謊）→not tell the truth（沒講實話）；

what horror!（多可怕?。鷕ather a nuisance!（真討厭！）；

A fire has broken out.（失火了。）→There has been a fire situation.（出現火情。）； steal（偷）→take other people’s things without permission（未經許可拿了別人的東西）； cheat in class（課堂考試作弊）→depend on others to do his or her work（考試靠別人），

第五篇：英語禁忌語與委婉語的研究

英語專業全英原創畢業論文，是近期寫作，公布的題目可以用于免費參考

最新200份英語專業全英原創畢業論文，都是近期寫作，公布的題目可以用于免費參考英文電影對英語學習的影響論田納西?威廉斯《欲望號街車》中的逃遁主義從《人與鼠》看斯坦貝克藝術風格中美學校教育和家庭教育之比較探析《奧賽羅》的三大悲劇起因非言語交際對演講的影響D.H 勞倫斯《盲人》中的人文主義研究簡?奧斯丁的婚姻觀在《傲慢與偏見》中的體現相似的母愛，不同的表達——對比研究《黑孩子》和《寵兒》中的母親形象從餐桌禮儀看中西文化差異從功能對等理論看商務合同的翻譯英式英語與美式英語的拼寫差異動畫片《花木蘭》對中國傳統道德的解構和重構On the Application of Newmark’s Theory in Tourism English Translation跨文化交際中恭維語的語用失誤及其文化透視A Brief Study of British Women’s Rising Status《蒼蠅》的敘事藝術及悲劇主題探究Are Indians Prisoners of Their Race?-An Analysis of the Sources and Rise of National Awareness論瘋女人形象對小說簡愛所作貢獻淺析《喜福會》中母親們悲慘遭遇的成因關于英語課堂中教師體態語的研究“工業小說”《瑪麗?巴頓》的宗教解析托尼?莫里森《寵兒》的哥特式重讀文化視角下的英漢動物隱喻對比研究論《簡?愛》中伯莎?梅森的瘋癲從目的論角度討論英語電影片名的翻譯A Study on Error Correction in JEFC ClassroomA Miniature of Ambivalence and Self-Discovery as Reflected by Amy Tan's The Joy Luck Club淺談體態語在小學英語教學中的作用從伊登和蓋茨比之死探析美國夢破滅的必然性

《弗蘭肯斯坦》中怪物身份的矛盾性

英漢委婉語跨文化對比研究

從《男孩們女孩們》看身份問題對艾麗斯?門羅文學創作的影響

An Analysis of Humor in Friend from the Point of View of the Violation of the Cooperative Principle

管窺世紀年代以前的樸素社會語言學思想

論密西西比河對馬克?吐溫和《哈克貝利?費恩歷險記》的影響

The Transcultural Differences in the Translation of Commercial Advertisements

女性人格的雙重性——從心理學的角度對比分析凱瑟琳和簡愛

禮貌用語中的語用失誤

English-Chinese Advertisement Translation

從信息層面探析語言翻譯中的動態對等原則

淺議我國民營企業薪酬管理

英雄還是魔鬼-論亞哈船長的雙重性格

An analysis of Female Images in The House on Mango Street from the Perspective of Feminism

淺析《愛瑪》中女主人公的女性意識

從功能對等理論的角度看英語新聞標題中修辭的翻譯

The Influence of Westward Movement on American National Character

解析《紅字》中的紅與黑

適者生存—解讀《野性的呼喚》中的“生命的法則”

從電影《暮光之城》淺析吸血鬼文化的改變

《麥田里的守望者》中霍爾頓的性格分析

十九世紀英國女性小說中的兩位灰姑娘——伊利莎白?班納特和簡?愛形象比較 53 淺析《瑞普?凡?溫克爾》中的浪漫主義

淺析《了不起的蓋茨比》中的象征主義

論愛麗絲·沃克《紫色》中西麗女性自我的缺失與重塑

On Aestheticism in Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray

小學英語課堂任務設計的研究

論尤金?奧尼爾《毛猿》中的悲劇根源

從文化視角看漢英翻譯中的語篇連貫性

凱特?肖邦小說《覺醒》中的超驗主義思想分析

試析《最藍的眼睛》中佩科拉悲劇之源

中美餐桌文化差異比較研究

A Study on Problems and Strategies in Phonetic Teaching of Spoken English in JEFC 64 《游泳者》中的藝術特色

從電影《七宗罪》看‘七宗罪’與基督教傳統的關系

A Survey on Self-regulated Learning of English Major

英漢色彩詞的語用對比研究

淺析歐洲中世紀騎士和中國俠士精神的差異─西歐中世紀初期騎士和中國秦漢游俠 69 從民族文化心理差異角度看功能對等論在商標翻譯中的運用

從功能對等理論看中西商務翻譯中文化差異導致的不對等翻譯

An Analysis on Shear's Personality in The Bridge on the River Kwai

A Study on Developing Autonomous Learning Ability of Junior High School Students 73 比較分析《野草在歌唱》與《傾城之戀》中女性的愛情婚姻觀

《達洛維夫人》中的生死觀初探

會計英語縮略詞特點及翻譯研究

英漢諺語中“愛”的情感隱喻對比研究

論《隱形人》中的象征主義

漢英禁忌語的對比研究

商務信函中模糊語的使用研究

關聯理論視角下幽默的英漢翻譯

《麥田里的守望者》的文體特色分析

英漢禁忌語對比分析

文學課程中的文化導入

“到十九號房間”的悲劇成因

對《老人與海》中主人公的性格分析

Comparison and Translation Between Chinese and English Euphemisms

A Study on Strategies of Effective Teaching in the Junior Middle School EFL Classroom 88 淺談英語“根據”表達法

跨文化商務活動中的交際與禮儀

以實瑪利是誰－－《白鯨》與康德哲學

從《悲悼三部曲》看尤金?奧尼爾對古希臘悲劇的繼承性超越

從女性主義角度解讀《灶神之妻》

The Heartbroken Images in the Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde

如何運用情景教學法進行初中英語詞匯教學的探討

國際貿易往來電子郵件寫作原則

An Interpretation of A Rose for Emily from the Prospective of Socialization

從功能派翻譯理論的角度研究中國菜單翻譯

模糊限制語的語用功能及在廣告中的應用

英語抽象名詞和物質名詞的數概念分析

淺析公示語的翻譯

論美國文學中的自然主義產生的社會文化根源

文化差異視角下的英語稱謂語的翻譯策略

英語諺語的民族性及其藝術特色

論反語的語用功能

跨文化交際下的中英文禁忌語的對比研究

論《格列佛游記》中的諷刺

A Comparative Study of Cultural Connotations of Yellow and Huang in English and Chinese 108 試析《啊，拓荒者》中的生態倫理觀

論《紫顏色》中黑人婦女的反抗

英漢諺語的文化對比分析

文明的樊籠—解讀《野性的呼喚》

Bertha Is Jane:A Psychological Analysis of Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre

從谷歌和百度兩大企業的管理方式看中美企業文化的差異

論英語諺語的翻譯

高中英語詞匯教學中文化意識的培養

魯濱遜荒島生存技能的分析

《達洛維夫人》死亡意識解讀

功能對等理論視角下的英文歌曲漢譯探究

從時間視角分析伍爾芙的《達洛衛夫人》

Cultural Differences in Business Negotiations: East and West

A Popular Form of Subtitles Translation by Fansub Group on the Internet

旅游宣傳品的翻譯

從社會符號學角度淺談漢語“一”字成語翻譯

從女性主義角度分析簡愛的女性意識

淺析《老人與?！分腥伺c自然的和諧之美

An Analysis on Teacher Talk in EFL Classroom Context

Interpretations of Cultural Differences in Temporal Aspect by Comparing Lin Shu’s Translation of Uncle Tom’s Cabin with Later Translator’ Versions

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中美廣告語言文化異同研究

《我的安東妮婭》中的文化沖突研究

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東方主義視角下康拉德《黑暗的心臟》中西方殖民話語分析

論《太陽照常升起》中的象征主義

中美家庭價值觀差異淺析

功能對等理論視角下的商務合同翻譯研究

試分析《牡丹亭》與《羅密歐與朱麗葉》的愛情模式

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Gone with the Wind: From Novel to Film

漢語政治話語中的隱喻研究

英語國家國歌中愛國主義的話語建構

A Comparative Analysis of English Vocabulary Teaching between China and America at the Primary and Secondary School Level

救贖之旅—淺析《麥田里的守望者》中霍爾頓?考菲爾德的成長經歷

商務英語中含蓄否定句的研究

女性哥特視角下的《蝴蝶夢》研究

超越性別的美——以《道林格雷的畫像》為例

《憤怒的葡萄》中的圣經原型

從《尼克?亞當斯故事》中探析父親情結對海明威人生觀的影響

151 Cultural Influences on Business Negotiation between China and Japan

152 《哈克貝利?費恩歷險記》中階級面面觀

153 論應變能力在同聲傳譯中的應用

154 從概念隱喻看寓言的語篇連貫

155 Differences Between English and Chinese Euphemisms and Influences on Cross-cultural Communication

156 A Contrastive Study on the Religious Constituents of Chinese and Western Christians 157 從目的論看兒童文學翻譯－－兼評《小王子》中英譯本

158 中美企業并購中的文化整合分析

159 當代中美青年恭維言語行為對比研究

160 遺忘曲線在記憶英語詞匯中的運用

161 On Moral Characters in The Picture of Dorian Gray

162 淺析《獻給艾米莉的玫瑰》中漸漸消失的玫瑰

163 從認知語言學的視角下淺析隱喻和換喻的異同

164 戰爭、歸鄉、愛情—《冷山》的多元主題研究

165 從生態中心主義角度分析康拉德《黑暗的心》

166 環境與命運——從自然主義的角度分析《美國悲劇》中的克萊德

167 中西文化差異在家庭教育中的體現

168 狄更斯《雙城記》中的人道主義思想

169 《了不起的蓋茨比》中女性形象分析

170 中美時間觀差異對跨文化交際的影響

171 試論《武林外傳》與《老友記》中的中美文化差異

172 論《愛瑪》中簡?奧斯丁的女性主義觀

173 艾米麗·狄金森的詩歌主題分析

174 男女生英語學習差異比較研究

175 《霧都孤兒》中的童話模式解讀

176 透過電影《假結婚》看中美傳統婚姻習俗差異

177 當愛遇見不愛——淺析《馬可百萬》中的三對情愛關系

178 H.G.威爾斯科幻小說中的科學措辭研究

179 美國個人主義與中國集體主義的比較

180 淺析模糊語在商務談判中的應用

181 功能對等與商務信函翻譯

182 華裔美國文學中的幽靈敘事探析

183 從《勸導》看簡?奧斯汀創作思想的發展

184 從《推銷員之死》看消費主義時代美國夢的破滅

185 On the Factors Leading to Different Destinies of Rhett Butler and Ashley Wilkes in Gone with the Wind

186 《永別了，武器》的存在主義解讀

187 雙重文化下的文化選擇——解析電影《刮痧》中中國移民的文化身份危機

188 論女性主義對翻譯標準的影響

189 英語中法語外來詞對英國文化的影響

190 從文化的角度看顏色詞在英漢兩種語言中差異

191 論《在另一個國度里》中的象征主義

192 “生活大爆炸”中美式幽默的翻譯方法研究

193 論模糊語言在廣告英語中的功能與運用

194 國際商務談判中的文化差異分析

195 活動教學法在農村初中英語教學中的應用——以新安中學為例

196 《了不起的蓋茨比》的敘事技巧分析

197 論旅游廣告的顯影性

198 Family Values in Desperate Housewives

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