第一篇：從合作原則看茶館

從“合作原則”的違反看老舍《茶館》對話的弦外之音

楊林 金鑫

內容提要 格賴斯的“合作原則”是人們言語交際活動中的重要準則，但是交際中故意違反合作原則的現象是很常見的。違反合作原則的原因有很多，例如禮貌、幽默以及修辭效果等。戲劇作品中的對話為了特殊的會話含義，為了營造藝術效果，往往是要違反“合作原則”的。老舍的《茶館》就充滿了這種違反“合作原則”的對話，不但沒有影響對話的正常進行，反人物的心理性格和故事的主題。關鍵詞 老舍；《茶館》；戲劇對話

一、引言

老舍的《茶館》是中國話劇史上長盛不衰的經典作品。尤其是劇中的對話更是耐人尋味，具有豐富的會話含意和弦外之音。美國語言學家格賴斯(H.P.Grice)的“合作原則”要求說話雙方互相理解，互相配合，使對話能夠順利進行下去。通過對《茶館》對話分析得出，在文學作品中，尤其是戲劇作品中，違反“合作原則”不但不會影響對話的正常進行，反而會增加對話的會話含義(conversationalimplicature)[1]，使對話更加生動、有趣、耐人尋味。在一定程度上，反映人物性格特征和當時的歷史背景，體現故事的深刻主題。本文借鑒語用學中的“合作原則”來分析《茶館》戲而增加了對話的深義，深刻地反映了社會背景，生動地揭示了劇的對話特點，為文學評論，特別是戲劇評論提供一個新的視角。

二、合作原則的違反及其原因

美國語言學家格賴斯的(H.Grice)認為，“在所有的語言交際活動中為了達到特定的目標，會話雙方存在著一種默契，要遵守一些基本原則，使雙方在會話中相互配合，以達到相互理解的目的，并使得他們能夠持續地進行有意義的語言交際，這就是合作原則(cooperative principle，簡稱CP)”。“合作原則”的具體內容是四條準則(maxims)：“

1、量準則(maxim of quantity)：所說的話應含當前交談目的所需要的信息；所說的話不應含超出需要的信息。

2、質準則(maxim of quality)：不要說你相信是虛假的話；不要說證據不足的話。

3、關系準則(maximof relation)：要有關聯，即說話要切題。

4、方式準則(maxim of manner)：要清楚明白———說話要簡練；避免晦澀；避免歧義；井井有條?！盵1]71許多語言學家都認為“合作原則”為語用學的研究提供了新的思路和領域，但是我們經常發現在現實生活中更多的違反“合作原則”的例子。合作原則是語用學研究的一個重大突破，但這幾條規則畢竟是約定俗成的規約，不是不可違反的。那么人們為什么要違反合作原則而拐彎抹角來表達自己的真實意圖呢？

會話中違反合作原則的一個原因是禮貌原則(politeness principle，簡稱PP)。1983年英國著名的語言學家利奇繼格賴斯的合作原則(CP)提出了另一條語用原則———禮貌原則(politeness principle)。這套準則解釋說人們有意違反合作原則，是因為禮貌和面子的需要。說話人為了顧及聽話人的面子，使用會話含義將自己的真意含蓄地表達出來。會話中違反合作原則也可能是修辭格。修辭格反語、隱喻、緩敘、夸張、修辭問句從字面上看是明顯違反了會話原則的質量準則，產生了特殊的會話含義，使語言更具有藝術性。使用修辭格的目的常常為了通過使用比較含蓄的語言來表達比較強烈的語氣，或是為了更加生動地表達說話人的隱含意思。“反語、隱喻、緩敘、夸張、修辭句從字面上看是明顯違反了會話原則的質量原則，卻產生了特殊的會話含義，實際上是質量準則的變異用法”[2]117，會話中違反合作原則的另一個原因是由于幽默。合作原則中的每一個準則都可能違反合作原則，從而產生幽默的效果。

但是本文認為，除過上述三種違反情況以外，戲劇作品中的會話違反合作原則更具有其深意。戲劇作品中的對話并不是隨意堆砌起來的，而是作家用來反映人物的心理性格、社會背景、故事主題的有效手段。

三、違反合作原則在《茶館》對話中的應用

分析老舍茶館的對話，我們可以從人物性格特征、社會背景和故事主題這三方面來揭示老舍《茶館》的對話是如何營造特殊含義，發揮藝術效果的。

(一)人物特征

《茶館》立體地向讀者展示了70多個形形色色的人物形象，例如正直的滿人常四爺、財大氣粗一心想通過變法來改變中國的秦仲義、販賣人口專干黑心生意的劉麻子等等。在眾多人物角色中，最富有藝術色彩也是故事中心人物的便是茶館的老板王利發?！巴趵l是舊社會中一個精明、干練而又自私、圓滑、怕事、富有混事經驗，一心想往上爬的小資產階級小商人的典型。王利發所處的這種社會地位就決定了他的性格特征的兩面性，既不滿帝國主義、封建軍閥、國民黨反動派，但與勞動人民又有很遠的距離”。[2]51在《茶館》許多對話中，有許多處都能體現王利發的性格，而這些對話又恰恰違反了“合作原則”中的某些準則，產生了特殊的會話含義。比如下面這段王利發與財主秦仲義的對話就從側面體現了王利發的性格。

(1)秦仲義：來看看，看看你這年輕小伙子會做生意不會!王利發：唉，一邊作一邊學吧，指著這個吃飯嘛。誰叫我爸爸死的早，我不干不行啊!好在照顧主兒都是我父親的老朋友，我有不周到的地方，都肯包涵，閉閉眼就過去了。在街面上混飯吃，人緣兒頂要緊。我按著我父親遺留下的老辦法，多說好話，多請安，討人人的喜歡，就不會出大岔子!您坐下，我給您沏碗小葉茶去!秦仲義只是問王利發會不會做生意，王利發只需說“會”或“不會”，便完成了言語交際。但是王利發卻說“一邊作一邊學吧，指著這個吃飯嘛”，違反了關系準則(要有關聯，即說話要切題)。隨后，王利發又說了一大堆不需要的信息，“好在照顧主兒都是我父親的老朋友，我有不周到的地方，都肯包涵，閉閉眼就過去了”，“我按著我父親遺留下的老辦法，多說好話，多請安，討人人的喜歡，就不會出大岔子!”。這些話與秦仲義的問題毫不相關，超出所需要的信息，違反了“量的準則”(所說的話不應含超出需要的信息)。但是從這些違反了“合作原則”的話中，我們可以看出王利發。為人圓滑，深諳人情世故，對像秦仲義這樣的財主，王利發陪笑臉、說好話，是一個非常典型的小商人形象。

(2)王利發：您自己拿著這筆吧，我馬上就搬家啦!常四爺：搬到哪里去？

王利發：哪兒不一樣呢!秦二爺、常四爺，我跟你們不一樣：二爺財大業大心胸大，樹大可就招風啊!四爺你，一輩子不服軟，敢作敢當，專打抱不平。我呢，作了一輩子順民，見誰都請安、鞠躬、作揖。我只盼著呀，孩子們有出息，凍不著，餓不著，沒災沒病!可是，日本人在這兒，二栓子逃跑啦，老婆想兒子想死啦!好容易，日本人走啦，該緩一口氣吧？誰知道，(慘笑)哈哈，哈哈，哈哈!

常四爺問王利發準備搬到哪里，王利發只需說“哪兒不一樣呢”，便完成了言語交際。但是王利發又說了一堆與搬家毫不相關的話。王利發的回答違反了“量的準則”(所說的話應含當前交談目的所需要的信息)。但是，從看似不需要的話中，我們可以看到一個“順民”王利發?！拔夷?，作了一輩子順民，見誰都請安、鞠躬、作揖。我只盼著呀，孩子們有出息，凍不著，餓不著，沒災沒病!”。這些話都可以揭示王利發的性格是軟弱的，一輩子只希望通過改良來維持茶館的生意。王利發的性格具有兩面性，一方面他不滿于軍閥、封建主義、帝國主義的壓迫，但另一方面他又害怕革命，明哲保身。

(二)社會背景

特殊的會話含義不僅揭示了人物性格，也反映了當時的社會背景。王利發的裕泰茶館在當時的中國正是反映社會現實的窗口，通過戊戌變法的失敗、軍閥混戰的民國初年、抗日戰爭勝利后的內戰前夕三個歷史階段，揭露了半封建半殖民地中國社會的腐朽與黑暗，猛烈地抨擊了清王朝以及新舊軍閥魚肉百姓的反動統治，鞭撻了帝國主義強盜的巧取豪奪，真實地反映了處于水深火熱中的廣大勞動人民的苦難生活。從下面這段對話中，我們可以看到當時的中國籠罩在帝國主義的黑暗統治之下，甚至洋人的走狗都在勞動人民身上作威作福。

(3)馬五爺：(并未站起)二德子，你威風啊!二德子：(四下掃視，看到馬五爺)喝，馬五爺，您在這兒哪？我可眼拙，沒看見您!(過去請安)馬五爺：有什么事好好地說，干嗎動不動地就講打？ 二德子：您說的對!我到后頭坐坐去。李三，這兒的茶錢我候啦!(往后面走去)常四爺：(湊過來，要對馬五爺發牢騷)這位爺，您圣明，您給評評理!馬五爺：(立起來)我還有事，再見!(走出去)常四爺：(對王利發)邪!這倒是個怪人!王利發：您不知道這是馬五爺呀？怪不得您也得罪了他!常四爺：我也得罪了他？我今天出門沒挑好日子!王利發：(低聲說)剛才您說洋人怎樣，他就是吃洋飯的。信洋教，說洋話，有事情可以一直地找宛平縣的縣太爺去，要不怎么連官面上都不惹他呢!

常四爺希望馬五爺為他評評理，說“這位爺，您圣明，您給評評理”，但是馬五爺的回答與評理毫不相關，“我還有事，再見”。馬五爺的話違反了關系準則(要有關聯，即說話要切題)。從后文王利發的話中，我們得知馬五爺是“吃洋飯的。信洋教，說洋話，有事情可以一直地找宛平縣的縣太爺去，要不怎么連官面上都不惹他呢”。王利發的話從側面反映了當時的中國受帝國主義的壓迫，老百姓都害怕洋教，受著洋人的統治，連賣國賊都欺負善良的老百姓。

(三)故事主題

《茶館》中的對話具有很高的藝術性，是因為當中的語言都包含著會話含義。雖然違反了合作原則，但卻更加深刻地反映了故事主題?！皶捄鈱⑵胀ǖ睦习傩杖粘υ捚婷钌v為一個巨大的政治隱喻，成為舊中國五十年精神風貌、三個黑暗歷史時代的象征。輕松自然的日常話語層面與意義深邃的政治精神話語層面融合得渾然無間，戲劇人物在談笑風生中成功地表現了舊中國社會自戊戌變法失敗以來近半個世紀的滑稽和悲劇、黑暗與腐朽，舉重若輕地完成了‘埋葬舊中國三個黑暗時代’宏大政治主題的表達”。[4]50

(4)龐太監：喲!秦二爺!秦仲義：龐老爺!這兩天你心里安頓了吧？

龐太監：那還用說嗎？天下太平了：圣旨下來了，譚嗣同問斬!告訴你，誰敢改祖宗的章程，誰就掉腦袋!秦仲義：我早就知道了。

[茶客們忽然全寂靜起來，幾乎是閉住呼吸地聽著。] 龐太監：您聰明，二爺，要不然你怎么發財呢!秦仲義：我那點財產，不值一提!龐太監：太客氣了吧？您看，全北京城誰不知道秦二爺!您比做官的還厲害呢!聽說呀，好些財主都講維新!秦仲義：不能這么說，我那點威風在您的面前可就施展不出來了!哈哈哈!龐太監：說的好，咱們就八仙過海，各顯其能吧!哈哈哈!秦仲義：改天過去給你請安，再見!龐太監：(自言自語)哼，憑這么個小財主也敢跟我逗嘴皮子，年頭真是改了!

開頭的禮貌問候：“呦，秦二爺!”是中國典型的問候語，后一句秦仲義只需說“龐太爺!”完成交際中的禮貌應答，但是他故意違反了會話原則中的“量”的原則，多問了“這兩天您心里安頓了吧？”，傳達了維新派對封建守舊派殺戊戌六君子的憤恨和反諷之情。同樣龐太監面對秦仲義的問話只需回答“那還用說嗎？天下太平了：圣旨下來，譚嗣同問斬!”就符合言語交際的要求，但他也違背“量的原則”，多說了“告訴您，誰敢改祖宗的章程，誰就掉腦袋!”其用意是警告秦仲義不許再搞什么改良運動。面對警告，秦仲義不甘示弱說“我早就知道!”。這段對話的會話含義揭示了新生的革命派與封建頑固派的明爭暗斗，在最后一句龐太監的自言自語“憑這么個小財主也敢跟我逗嘴皮子，年頭真是改了”，點明了整個故事的主題，那就是革命力量必然取代腐敗的統治，封建社會必然走向滅亡。老舍用龐太監的一句話點明了整個故事的政治隱喻。

老舍在故事的結尾，運用了一個隱喻來揭示社會主義必然取得勝利，勞動人民必然獲得自由的政治主題。

(5)王大栓：大嬸，我爸爸叫您走嗎？

康順子：他還沒打好了主意。我倒怕呀，大力回來的事兒萬一叫人家知道了啊，我又忽然這么一走，也許要連累了你們!這年月不是天天抓人嗎？我不能作對不起你們的事!周秀花：大嬸，您走您的，誰逃出去誰得活命!喝茶的不是常低聲兒說：想要活命得上西山[北京西山一帶當時是八路軍的游擊區]嗎？

王大栓：對!康順子：小花的媽，來吧，咱們再商量商量!我不能專顧自己，叫你們吃虧!老大，你也好好想想!(同周秀花下)

王大栓極力想挽留康順子，但是康順子不想“連累”他們，她說“我不能作對不起你們的事”。周秀花客氣地說道：“大嬸，您走您的，誰逃出去誰得活命”，便完成了言語交際。但是她又多說：“想要活命得上西山[北京西山一帶當時是八路軍的游擊區]嗎”，違反了“量的準則”(不要說不需要的信息)。但是，通過周秀花的會話含義，我們可以推出當時老百姓都相信只有共產黨可以救他們。老舍正是通過一個普通老百姓的對話揭示了故事的主題，那就是只有共產黨才能救中國。

通過對老舍《茶館》的對話分析，我們可以看出，《茶館》中有許多對話都違反了合作原則，從而產生了一定的會話含義。會話含義一定程度上揭示了主人公的性格特征，側面體現當時中國落后、國力空虛的慘痛現實，并深刻揭示故事的主題。那就是依靠改良、變法挽救不了中國的命運，中國人只有自己站起來反抗，才會有出路。從一定側面揭示了作者自己的政治主題，那就是，依靠改良和變法是不能挽救中國走向滅亡的命運，而只有勞動人民和被剝削者自己站起來反抗，只有社會主義才可以救中國的潛在政治主題。

四、結論

通過以上《茶館》對話的分析，可以得出這樣的結論：違反“合作原則”，不但不會影響對話的正常進行，反而會增加對話的會話含意，使對話更加生動、有趣、耐人尋味，能在一定程度上反映人物性格特征和社會背景，體現故事的深刻主題。老舍正是通過會話含意將普普通通的老百姓日常對話奇妙升騰為一個巨大的政治隱喻，成為舊中國50年精神風貌、三個黑暗歷史時代的象征。在普通中窺見宏大，在一般中窺見深邃。希望通過本文的調查能夠為研究文學語言，特別是戲劇對話提供新的視角和途徑。為進一步研究文學語言，特別是戲劇語言提供一個新的窗口和途徑。

[參考文獻]

[1]何自然.語用學概論[M].長沙：湖南教育出版社，1987.[2]蔣祖國.淺談合作原則的變異性[J].廣西民族學院學報，2002(5).[3]許明.淺談老舍劇本《茶館》中的人物———王利發[J].中山大學學報：哲學社會科學版，2001(1).[4]賴翅萍.日常會話與宏大敘事———《茶館》的語用學解讀兼及十七年文學的敘事方式[J].北京科技大學學報：社會科學版，2003(2).中圖分類號： I234 文獻標識碼： A 文章編號： 1672-4283(2006)Sup.-0147-04

作者簡介：

楊林(1963—)，男，陜西西安市人，西北工業大學人文與經法學院副教授。

(西北工業大學人文與經法學院，陜西西安710072)

原載：《陜西師范大學學報》(哲學社會科學版)2006年3月第35卷專輯

第二篇：從九型人格看團隊合作

從九型人格看團隊合作 —何岸《中國合伙人》觀

后感

從九型人格看團隊合作—何岸《中國合伙人》觀后感

利用端午小假，終于抽點時間走進影院，看了這部創業勵志的影片《中國合伙人》。我被這三個主人公鮮明的性格所吸引，更感悟到優秀成功的團隊，需要從九型人格的角度分析并合理的搭配。

影片中的成東青是一個典型的6號忠誠型，他勤奮努力，待人真誠，但卻不自信、沒有安全感。他被逼無奈，只好貼小廣告辦培訓班，來掙錢養活自己。但如果沒有孟曉駿的加入，成東青可能會一直貼小廣告，辦自己的培訓班，他可能覺得這樣的生活也很不錯。我們再說說孟曉駿，他是一個典型的3號成功型，他目標執著，不甘于現狀。有了他的加入，打破了6號往日的安逸，并且為了夢想發生了團隊沖突。也正因為3號的加入，才有了“新夢想”的誕生及成功。

那么，是不是3號的成東青與6號的孟曉駿搭伙最合理呢？影片中也看到了，他們的沖突不斷。這樣的團隊中，必須有一個磨合調節的人，那就是九型人格中的9號調停型或者是7號快樂型。影片中有另一個合伙人王陽，就是7號快樂型。只要覺得是快樂的事，他就會做。就像影片中王陽陪成東青冒雨貼培訓班的小廣告時，他覺得這件有趣的事，所以去做，而此時的成東青貼小廣告的動機卻是為了生計、為了找到安全感。有了快樂的7號，也使3號和6號的沖突有所緩和，更能冷靜地思考“新夢想”的未來。

好的團隊，需要好的搭配，何岸認為這里面有很多九型人格的學問。性格互補，合理搭配，才能打造出更多的合伙團隊。

塔機企管部馬文龍

第三篇：從《文心雕龍.原道》篇看儒家文學觀

從《文心雕龍·原道》篇看儒家文學觀 摘要：《文心雕龍·原道》篇到底反映出作者什么樣的文學觀歷來眾說紛紜，有人從道家思想出發，認為作者是道家文學觀；有人從儒家思想出發，認為作者是儒家文學觀；有人甚至認為作者表現的是佛學思想。筆者查閱了大量資料，結合自己的看法認為劉勰在作此篇時，應持有的是儒家傳統的“尚文”、“尚用”文學觀。

關鍵詞：儒家尚文尚用宗經征圣

《原道》為《文心雕龍》五十篇之首，其主要內容為探究文的根源。作為儒教忠誠信徒的劉勰其根本觀點從某種程度上代表了儒家的文學觀，從而在那個時代產生了文學批評回歸傳統的牽引力。下面就分別從幾個方面來談談這個話題。

一、傳統的儒家文學觀

先秦時期王道失而霸業興，群雄角力之間為了擴展自己的勢力范圍紛紛招兵買馬引進人才。有志之士各懷一技之長行走于諸候間。為了推銷自己，擴大影響力各自著書立說成為百家。一時間學術氛圍異常濃厚，出現了一批批職業學者我們稱之為“士”。“儒”本身就是文學專業的士，那么作為文學之士的儒對文學的基本觀點是些什么呢？

1、“尚文”和“尚用”的文學觀

現代的哲學史家們認為重實用、重道德是中國哲學的最大特點，其實中國文學又何嘗不是如此?重文學的政治教化之用正是儒家文學觀念一以貫之的顯著特點?！拔囊暂d道”這一命題集中體現了儒家文學觀念的功利主義訴求，其形成有著一個漫長的歷史過程，對包括新文學在內的中國文學有著深遠而復雜的影響?？鬃拥奈乃囁枷胧侨寮椅恼摰脑搭^。他很看重詩文作為表達工具的功能?！墩撜Z·季氏》：“不學《詩》，無以言?！薄蹲髠鳌は骞迥辍酚浛鬃拥脑捲疲骸把灾晃?行之不遠?！彼囊馑际钦f,學詩是為了講話有文采；話說得漂亮才能更有利于道理的傳播。不過孔子更重視文學對于修身的意義，這與他教書先生的身份有關?！蛾栘洝菲^：“子曰：小子何莫夫學詩?詩可以興，可以觀,可以群,可以怨。邇之事父，遠之事君，多識于草木鳥獸之名?！薄芭d”的意思是啟示、感發；“觀”意為通過詩來考察政治的得失和風俗的盛衰；“群”是溝通感情,增進團結；“怨”即批評時政,抒發怨情。這里說的是學詩對于修身的好處。學詩既然有這么多的好處,那也就是詩的功用了。2“文道合一”的文學觀

對文的孜孜追求同時表現了儒士們處世求達和極積入世的人生態度。之所以要有言，言之所以要行而遠之，從表面上看是追求言的影響力從而達到某種功能上的意義，實際上這也是一種實用主義思潮。折射出的是儒士們“有為”的人生追求。為這一理想 “上下求索”，甚至“知其不可而為之”。這就是他們心中的“道”，并且要求“文”和“道”達到高度的統一，這一對“道”的信仰實際上已化作他們“入世”事業的行為規范，表現在他們的言行舉止上，成為激勵一代代儒士們自覺的思想認識。

二、劉勰心中的文道觀

紀昀在眉批《原道》時說“文以載道，明其當然，文原于道，明其本然。識其本乃不逐其末?！苯璐?，我們可以將劉氏的觀點歸納為兩點：一是文原于道，二是文以明道。關于第一點從文題即可看出，劉氏認為大自然之所以五彩繽紛、豐富多彩皆源于道?！靶S色雜，方圓體分。日月疊壁，山川煥綺?！贝私浴暗乐囊病?。自然萬品“動植皆文”。文之廣、之大，天、地、人、文皆源于道，道是造世主。

談文而論道表明了作者探究文源的思想傾向，援道論文表明了作者的基本觀點即“文源于道”。不僅如此，作者還認為自然萬物皆源于道。這里便有了客觀唯心主義的思想了。如同黑格爾心中的“絕對理念”,在客觀世界抽象出一種精神元素，說它是萬物之母，玄得像道家頭腦里概念，“道可以生無，無可以生有，有可以生萬物”。但劉勰的思想畢竟和道家隔了一層?！叭宋闹?，肇自太極，庖犧畫其始，仲尼翼其后”?？梢?，“文源于道”并非無跡可尋。道也并非自然流成文，它們之間有一個橋梁，就是圣人。有了圣人，便可理出文道來。至此，諸君豁然，劉勰之所以將文說的如此玄之又玄甚，至不惜借道家思想來混淆視聽，其目的只有一個，那就是要把圣人說的玄乎些，盡可能地把光環套在他們的頭上。因為人們往往更容易相信和崇拜那些未知和神秘的東西，就連作者也不能夠超脫。這就是文論的支柱之一“征圣”思想。

劉勰著《文心雕龍》之緣起，他自稱：“齒在逾立,則嘗夜夢執丹漆之禮器,隨仲尼而南行。旦而寤，乃怡然而喜。大哉！圣人之難見也，乃小子之垂夢歟！自生人以來，未有如夫子者也。”迷崇孔子之心，追隨孔子之志，溢于言表。

為什么要“征圣”呢？“征圣”的出路何在？

大家知道，作為中國傳統文化主干的儒學，界定了文學的政治教化的社會功能與作用，形成了一套完整的儒家思想體系。所謂圣人就是儒家思想的發言人，他們代表著集團形象，理應受到集團內部的敬仰。那么如何追隨?作者說道：“敷贊圣旨,莫若注經。而馬、鄭諸儒,弘之已精;就有深解,未足立家。唯文章之用,實經典枝條,五禮資之以成,六經因之致用,君臣所以炳煥,軍國所以昭明。詳其本源,莫非經典?！薄拔耐趸紤n，《繇辭》炳曜。公旦多材，制《詩》緝《頌》。夫子繼圣，熔鈞《六經》?！边@些都是所謂的圣道，圣道以經典呈現，圣道即在經典中?！罢魇ァ钡耐緩街痪褪恰白诮洝?。圣人經典曾經在歷史上造就過非同凡響的號召力，產生過推枯拉朽的思想力量。這股力量激勵著儒士們，使他們紛紛走出校門、走向社會，滿腔熱情、一股作氣準備有所作為。而作為儒家忠實粉絲的劉勰也期盼著這種力量的復歸，重塑

圣人事業。所以作者愿意宗經，也相信“宗經”的前途。說到底，追求儒家“有為”理想社會才是劉氏文論的出發點和落腳點，才是“文以明道”最終注腳。通過“寫天地之輝光”的文，實現“曉生民之耳目”之現實追求。至此，我們可以梳理出一條線索出來?！暗馈摹馈?。劉勰認為，萬物源道，文亦源道，文因圣而生，圣因文而出，故文應明道。很顯然這不是一個簡單的回歸問題，而是一個邏輯盤旋不斷升華的過程。這兩個“道”存在明顯區別，前一個“道”是作者思想中不含任何價值成分和情感體驗的觀念元素，是作者主觀世界上固有的，是一個混沌元氣，是純天然的。而后一個“道”則是圣人之道，是經過提煉的價值倫理觀，有著明顯的人工痕跡。兩者之間的聯結點便是“文”，操作手是“圣人”。圣人們自誕生那天起就肩負著重整社會統治秩序的重要歷史使命，這也是儒士們自覺的社會責任意識，更是儒家思想中“尚文”和“尚用”思想的歷史呼喚。

三、儒家文學觀和其他學派的區別

１、儒家與道家文學觀的區別

道家學派思想的邏輯起點是“無”，在“貴無”思想的支配下形成了“寡勝多，無勝有”哲學定律。他們認為茫茫人海，蕓蕓眾生都應生活在原始社會，都應當自由自在而不應被人為的粗暴干涉。統治階級應“無為”而治?！疤斓夭蝗?，以萬物為芻狗；圣人不仁，以百姓為芻狗?！薄笆ト瞬凰?，大盜不止。”社會之所以不治，都是圣人惹的禍。反映在文學上，道家認為，文和用沒有直接關系，沒必要給文強行下達社會任務，文應和世間萬物一樣自由自在的存在，不要受約束，就像人的思想一樣，在廣闊的時空里“任逍遙”。“ 北溟有魚，其名為鯤。鯤之大，不知其幾千里也?；鵀轼B，其名為鵬。鵬之背。不知其幾千里也。怒而飛，其翼若垂天之云，是鳥也，海運則將徒于南溟，南溟者，天池也?！彼缘兰业奈恼聦懫鹆藫渌访噪x、漂泊不定，在自覺放棄文學的社會功能的同時給人以無邊無際的空間美感，反而增添了文學性。這可能是20世紀二三十年代出現的“意識流”文學的思想濫觴。

顯然這些都是儒士們不愿意看到的，這是圣人們無法容忍的事情。于是兩派互相攻擊，爭論不止，喋喋不休。社會影響很深很廣，引起有關部門注意，組織了幾次公開辯論會?？赡苁且驗槿寮宜枷敫喜块T利益，結果是作為正方的儒家險勝對手，而道家又回歸到他們崇拜的大自然去了，繼續著他們逍遙的夢。

儒士們經過這次學術辯論，士氣大振，紛紛扼腕立志，認為大顯身手的機會來來，更覺得社會可愛了，更覺得圣人可敬了，更覺得經典可讀了，更覺得圣道可用了。理論是要不斷發展和完善的（這一愛好古今同是）?！段男牡颀垺肪褪侨寮椅膶W觀在新的歷史條件下的繼承和發展，是被統治階級證實了的科學的、好用的理論體系。在當時文學流派紛爭、學術觀點蕪雜的情況下起到了文學批評上撥亂反正的作用?！对馈菲瞧鞄悯r明地指出儒派文學觀

才是唯一正確的、與時俱進的文學觀。號召社會各界多讀儒家經典以便在實際文學創作和鑒賞中認真貫徹執行，形成指導方針。

2、儒家與墨家文學觀的區別

比孔子稍后，成為另一派顯學，就是墨家?！痘茨献印ひ浴氛f“墨子學儒者之業，受孔子之術”，他和儒家本是比較接近的，但是他取的是反對的態度，至少也是批判的態度。近人稱“墨子及其弟子是接近手工業者的士，也可以說是手工業者出身的知識分子”。所以孔子可以接受古代文化的詩書禮樂，而墨子只接受詩書而反對禮樂，把禮樂看作統治階級的奢侈浪費，這樣對于西周文化所謂制禮作樂這一點來講是不合的，所以《要略》說他“背周道而用夏政”。

“郁郁乎文哉，吾從周”，這是孔子的態度，而墨子是背周道而用夏政的，所以儒家尚文，墨家便尚質?？墒?，他們畢竟都是“學儒者之業”的，畢竟也是屬于“賢人作風”一流的，所以儒家尚用，墨家也尚用。

問題就在這兒：儒家文學觀中的尚文與尚用是一致的，是不沖突的；墨家文學觀中的尚質與尚用，當然也是一致的，也是不沖突的。可是他們卻是不同階級的發言人，思想的階級基礎不同，所以形成觀點肯定是不一樣的，那么區別到底在哪？我認為至少有以下幾個點。

第一、對“用”的理解不同。因為他們的思想，他們的文學觀并不矛盾，所以儒家的尚用和墨家的尚用也就不可能是同一意義。因此，我們可以這樣說：儒家的尚用是“非功利”的尚用，是為復古的尚用，是為剝削階級服務的用，更多地作用上層建筑，更多地作用于思想認識領域，用“君君、臣臣、父父、子子”的倫理和“綱?！毙叛鰜碇厮芊饨A級道德體系。說到底是統治階級思想意識的普教活動?！坝^天文以極變，察人文以成化，發揮事業，彪炳辭義”。欲把影響造得更大些，則進一步“原道心以設章，研神理而設教。取象乎河洛，問數乎蓍龜?！钡竭@里便是鼓勵人們去頂禮膜拜了，拜天拜君拜圣人。所以與尚文思想不相沖突，文也正就是用；墨家的尚用是絕對功利主義的尚用，是強調百姓人民之利的用，所以充其量可成為極端的尚質。這是儒墨文學觀不同的一點。

其次對“文”的態度不同。前面說過儒家為了使其統治階級思想外顯，需作大量的粉飾工作，所以對文有著特殊的需要。另一方面，對文的重視可能還和士大夫的“階級趣味”有關。作為一個高高在上的、完全脫離勞動生產的階級，他們需要一種聲音來美化自己，需要把“官腔官調”說的漂亮些來強化宣傳效果?！暗酪蚴ヒ源刮?，圣因文以明道”。這些任務自然而然落到了文學作品上，自然而然地對文學作品的審美性提出了要求。站著說話的人往往更容易把話說的漂亮些，而作為統治階級的發言人的儒家也愿意站著說話?？墒悄覄t不同，他們從本階級立場出發，反對以文害意。因為他們認為文學性太強的作品很容易分散人們的注意力從而導致對作品實用性的忽略。“昔秦伯嫁其女于晉公子，為之飾裝，從文衣之媵七十人。至晉，晉人愛其妾而賤公女。此可謂善嫁妾而未可謂善嫁女也。楚人有賣其珠于鄭者，為木蘭之柜，熏以桂椒，綴以珠玉，飾以玫瑰，輯以羽翠。鄭人買其櫝而還其珠。此可謂善賣櫝矣，未可謂善鬻珠也。今世之談也，皆道辯說文辭之言，人主覽其文而忘其用。墨子之說，傳先王之道，論圣人之言，以宣告之；若辯其辭，則恐人懷其文，忘其用，直以文害用也。此與楚人鬻珠、秦伯嫁女同類。故其言多不辯。”這就是墨家這種尚用反文的文學觀。

總之，儒家思想是劉氏文學思想的立足點和歸結點。可以說他的整個文學思想體系是為儒家學派服務的，是儒家思想在那個時代的回光返照。為了實現這一目的，劉氏旁征博引、援古證今給文學披上了一層神秘而華麗的外衣。從此儒家“尚文”和“尚用”的文學思想得以香火不斷，成為士大夫們宦海浮沉中一顆不滅的“馬里亞納海的愛情燈”。

參考文獻：

袁濟喜、陳建農 《文心雕龍解讀》 中國人民大學出版社

郭紹虞《中國文學批評史》百花文藝出版社

繆文選《戰國策》中華書局

從《文心雕龍·原道》篇看儒家文學觀

（寫作提綱）

一、序論

《文心雕龍·原道》篇到底反映出作者什么樣的文學觀歷來眾說紛紜，有人從道家思想出發，有人從儒家思想出發，有人甚至認為作者表現的是佛學思想。筆者查閱了大量資料，結合自己的看法認為劉勰在作此篇時，應持的是儒家傳統的“尚文”、“尚用”文學觀。

二、本論

（一）、傳統的儒家文學觀

1、“尚文”和“尚用”的文學觀

2“文道合一”的文學觀

（二）、劉勰心中的文道觀

（三）、儒家文學觀和其他學派的區別

１、儒家與道家文學觀的區別

2、儒家與墨家文學觀的區別

三、結論

總之，儒家思想是劉氏文學思想的立足點和歸結點?？梢哉f他的整個文學思想體系是為儒家學派服務的，是儒家思想在那個時代的回光返照。為了實現這一目的，劉氏旁征博引、援古證今給文學披上了一層神秘而華麗的外衣。從此儒家“尚文”和“尚用”的文學思想得以香火不斷，成為士大夫們宦海浮沉中一顆不滅的“馬里亞納海的愛情燈”。

第四篇：從合作原則看英語委婉語研究

[Abstract] The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek, eu--means “good”, and –pheme-, “speech” or “saying”, and together it means literally “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”.Euphemism, as a cultural phenomenon as well as a linguistic concept, has attracted people’s attention for a long time.It has long been a topic of much interest.Generally speaking, people would use more euphemisms in communicating with the opposite sex;women would use more than men would;older people would use more than younger generations.people would more use euphemisms in “power” relations than in close relations.people with higher education would use more euphemisms.The above factors: age, sex, social status, education, etc.do not work separately.In communicating, they are interlaced with each other and guide our choice of euphemisms.Whether to use euphemisms or taboo words also depends, to a large extent, on the attitudes of participants(particularly speakers)and the purpose of conversations.The article consists of six parts.part one explains what the meaning of euphemism is.part two is saying the Cooperative principle in briefly.Cooperative principle, the cornerstone theory of pragmatics, is one of the main principles that guide people’s communication.The Cooperative principle and its maxims can explain what the literal meaning is and its real intention in communication and ensure that in an exchange of conversation.part three presents, the formation euphemism, namely, formal innovation, semantic innovation, rhetorical devices, and grammatical ways.part four discusses the communicative function of euphemism is substitution, politeness, disguise, defense, etc.part five serves as the main body of this article.Generally speaking, euphemisms violate the Quality, Quantity and Manner Maxim of the Cp due to different reasons like substitution, disguise etc.And basically euphemisms observe the Relation Maxim.From the analysis, it can be also found that sometimes an euphemism can be regarded as violation of two maxims of the Cp at the same time.part six concludes the whole article.[Key Words] Cooperative principle;Euphemism;Communicative function

【摘 要】委婉語(euphemism)一詞起源于希臘語。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“話語”，因此字面上的意思是說好聽的話或用禮貌的方式說話。委婉語是一個語言學概念，同時也是一種文化現象，長久以來一直受到人們的關注?？傮w上講人們在與異性進行言語交際時，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉語，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉語，年長的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉語。人們在“權勢關系”的語境中往往要比在“親密關系”的語境中更多地使用委婉語。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言談，因而更多地使用委婉語。上述因素年齡、性別、社會地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交際中，他們交織在一起決定著委婉語的使用。是否使用委婉語還要考慮說話者的態度和交談的目的。文章由六個部分組成。第一部分解釋了什么是委婉語。第二部分簡單列出合作原則的各項原則。它作為語用學的理論基石之一，是指導人們語言交際的原則之一。它可以很好地解釋話語的字面意義和實際意義的關系，這對于交際委婉語顯得尤為重要。第三部分說明委婉語的構成可以有很多種方式：形式變化，語義變化，修辭手段和語法手段。第四部分闡述了交際委婉語出于替代、掩飾、和禮貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主體，并說明委婉語出于替代、掩飾、和禮貌等原因主要違反了合作原則中的質、量和方式三個次則，基本上是遵循了合作原則中的相關原則。第六部分總結全文。

【關鍵字】合作原則;委婉語;交際功能

1.Introduction

In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English – Chinese Dictionary the explanation of Euphemism is “(example of the)use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones”[1].And in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English the explanation of Euphemism is “(an example of)the use of a pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant”[2].For example, the man who wants to us to call him a “sanitation engineer” instead of a “garbage man” is hoping we will treat him with more respect than we presently do.“The word 'euphemism' comes from the Greek eu meaning 'good' and pheme meaning 'speech' or 'saying', and thus means literally 'to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner'”[3].Euphemisms have various reasons for existence.They conceal the things people fear the most—death, the dead, the supernatural.They cover up the facts of life—of sex and reproduction and excretion—which inevitably remind even the most refined people that they are made of clay, or worse.They are beloved by individuals and institutions(governments, especially)that are anxious to present only the handsomest possible images of themselves to the world.And they are imbedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them.But some people still mistake the euphemisms in the conversation by the Cooperative principle.Violating the Cp, people also can continue the conversation with euphemisms, which make the author interest in attitudes of participants and the purpose of conversation.That is our body today.2.Formation of euphemisms

2.1 Formal innovation

To avoid the emergence of certain letter or sound may achieve the effect of euphemizing.The formal innovation can hide audio-visually those words we don’t want to say or we shouldn’t say so as to achieve better outcome in communication.2.1.1Abbreviation

Abbreviation is the shortening of a word and may be seen in the use of the British expression LADIES for ladies’ room.There also is GENTS for gentlemen’s room.2.1.2 Apocopation

Apocopation is another form of abbreviation apparent in the use of vamp for vampire here meaning a seductive woman.And lav is for lavatory;homo is for homosexual;coca is for cocaine;bra is for brassiere.2.1.3 Initialing

Initialing is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in “JC for “Jesus Christ”, BM for bowel movement”[4], “W.C for water closet, B.O for body odor, V.D for venereal disease, AIDS for acquired immune deficiency syndrome, SARS for severe acute respiratory syndrome”[5].2.1.4 Backforming

Backforming is the substitution for one part of speech(used in shortened form)for another, as in “burgle(rob)which is derived from 'burglar'”[6].2.1.5 Reduplication

Reduplication is the repetition of a syllable or letter of a word.particularly common in children’s bathroom vocabulary, it substitutes “pee-pee for'piss', poo-poo for 'bowel movement'”[7].2.1.6 Blend word

A blend word is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together both orthographically and phonetically.An example of this is “gezunda for a chamber pot, a term derived from the fact that this object 'goes under the bed'”[8].2.1.7 Diminutive

A diminutive is the formation of a new term by nicking or shortening a name and adding a suffix indicating affection or smallness.“Heinie, for example, is the diminutive of 'hind end' and refers to the buttocks”[9].2.2 Semantic innovation

2.2.1 Borrowing

Most obviously, euphemisms may be formed by borrowing words from other languages—terms that are less freighted with negative associations.Thus, we use Greek and Latin expressions for many bodily parts and functions.We have coined halitosis(bad breath)from the Latin(halitus)for “breath” and we have substituted micturition for the more vulgar Indo-European “piss”.In addition, English euphemisms also borrowed a lot of scientific or academic terms, which are believed to be more euphemistic and objective than the usual terms, such as magnetic for “sexy” and perspire for “sweat” and so on.2.2.2 Widening

Euphemisms may be made by a semantic process called widening.When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid, we move up in the ladder of abstraction.In this way, cancer becomes growth and a girdle becomes a foundation.Sometimes, in addition to widening we divide the negative connotations of a single direct term between two or more words.Instead of saying “syphilis” openly, we speak of a social disease.2.2.3 Semantic shift

Allied to the phenomenon of widening is that of semantic shift.This is the substitution of the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not choose to discuss.We may create such metonymies(substitutions of the whole for the part)as rear end for “buttocks”.Sometimes, as in the expressions “to sleep with/go to bed with someone”[10], we use words naming the larger event in place of more precise references to the sexual relations that are part of the process.2.3 Rhetorical devices

2.3.1 Metaphor

Euphemisms may be made by a process called metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things of another.The euphemisms chosen are often romanticizing, poeticizing and softening of the original words like “go to sleep;go to his long home;be home and free;rest in peace;be at rest;go to Heaven/paradise;join one's ancestors;be gathered to one's fathers;join the immorals for die”[11], shock for random bombing, constructive destruction for severe damage, have a road to travel for have a long time to reach an agreement and etc..2.3.2 Aposiopesis

In English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesis that can also act as the way of euphemizing.When we think we should not say something under certain conditions, we suddenly stop as when we say someone is out(of work);she is expecting(a baby);“to take precautions(against pregnancy);to depart(from this world)”[12]

2.3.3Analogy

Analogy can often be seen in the vocabularies of work.A tendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobs—sometimes substituting a grand title for a large salary—can make offal smell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitation engineers or even to waste--reduction managers.By implication, they become highly trained technicians and executives.Health-club staffs become fitness coordinators, and senators now have their shoes shined by the footwear maintenance engineer, formerly the Senate bootblack.Even if you are not a government official, your janitor is now your buiding maintenance engineer.2.3.4 Understatement

Understatement displays people’s desire to make their language less painful and direct.So there is never an ugly woman in this world, she is at least plain.Teachers only tell parents that their child is a bit slow for his age, not retarded.And call senior citizen for old person.“Take other's things without permission” can be instead of “steal”.2.3.5 periphrasis

periphrasis is just beating around the bush.people often say euphemisms are weasel words, because people never call a spade a spade when using euphemisms.Fart is not pleasant to ear, so people call it wind from the behind.Someone wants you to go away, but he only says he will call your carriage for you.Someone living at the government expense may make you envy him, but actually he is in prison.“Many sayings about going to WC make a good use of periphrasis like wash one’s hands, powder one’s nose, spend a penny.So do the 'drop' for 'adjustment downward'[13]”

2.4.Grammatical ways

According to Bolinger, “Euphemism is not restricted to the lexicon.There are grammatical ways of toning something down”.Therefore, euphemizing should not be limited to lexical ways;it can also be achieved by grammatical ways.2.4.1 Tense

In English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color to the expressions for something undesired.Especially when people use want, hope, think and wonder or words like that they may also make use of the tense to sound more euphemistically.For example, I wondered if you would mind helping me? or ”I wondered if you could help me?“[14].Asking help this way, people won’t feel so embarrassed if they were refused.2.4.2 Syntactical negation

This method can lesson the painful impact of the language that is not welcomed.We say she is not pretty(Actually she is very ugly), but that is acceptable, because not pretty does not equal to “ugly”, it could be “plain” too.Not pretty has a wider range of meaning than ugly.Similar usages are as the following: I don’t think, I am afraid, I am not sure, I don't like,etc.2.4.3 First personal pronouns

The use of first personal pronouns like we, ours, us, etc, can also make our speeches sound more euphemistic.You would feel more welcomed if you used we or our quite often.If a doctor said to you how do we feel today, you would feel very warm and comfortable, because it makes you think that this kind doctor takes your illness as mutual concern.Communicative functions of euphemisms

Language is for communication, whereas euphemisms may lead to better communication.Using euphemisms can avoid being presumptuous in language communication.When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more euphemistic expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s feeling.We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s politeness principle.Euphemisms just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication.The functions of euphemisms are in agreement with those of politeness principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other.As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.3.1 Substitution

According to the definitions of euphemism and we know that a great number of English euphemisms serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos.The term taboo(ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”)of polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances.Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in press conferences.The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities.While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, euphemistic expression or terms are required.So diplomatic euphemisms have a very serious reason for being.They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural.Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc.so as to relieve people psychologically.3.2 politeness

politeness is another very important function that euphemisms serve in social life.”Some of the euphemisms are used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation.“[15] Grice formulated Cooperative principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific;To avoid obscurity;To avoid ambiguity;To be brief and to be orderly.” The roundabout nature of euphemisms goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s politeness principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”.In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.3.3 Disguise

Besides the two functions of euphemisms mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in euphemistic communication, namely, the Disguise Function.Here we mean that because of the vagueness of euphemisms, it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have done.For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.and we may find many such kind of these euphemisms in press conferences.The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic euphemisms in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth.In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic euphemisms are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.4.The Cooperative principle

Before going on, we look at two examples, as follows:

(1)”A: Can you tell me the time?

B: Well, the mail has already come.(2)A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?

B: I’ve heard Mary is going.“[16]

It seems there are some mistake in the conversations.But in fact, it is correct.The Cooperative principle will help us understand more.The Cooperative principle is as follows:” Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.“[17]

According Grice, Cooperative principle is classified into four categories: quantity, quality, relation and manner.The category of quantity relates to the quantity ofinformation to be provided, and under it fall the following maxims：

4.1 The maxim of Quality:

”Try to make your contribution one that is true,.specifically:

(i)do not say what you believe to be false.(ii)do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence“[18]

4.2 The maxim of Quantity:

”(i)Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange

(ii)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required“[19]

4.3 The maxim of Relation:

”Make your contribution relevant.“[20]

4.4 The maxim of Manner:

”Be perspicuous and specifically:

(i)avoid obscurity of expression.(ii)avoid ambiguity.(iii)be brief

(iv)be orderly.“[21]

From what mentioned above, we may know that the Cooperative principle enables one participant in a conversation to communicate on the assumption that the other participant is being cooperative.These four maxims form a necessary part of the description of linguistic meaning in that they explain how it is that the speakers often “mean more than they say” in their communications.”We may decide to withhold whatever information we possess:’ No comment!’ We may inadvertently infringe a maxim or we can secretly violate a maxim—e.g.A could maliciously and falsely tell B that Janet had walked in the opposite direction from the post office.Or – more importantly – we can make a blatant show of breaking one of the maxims(Grice terms this flouting a maxim), in order to lead the addressee to look for a covert, implied meaning.“[22].For examples,(3)”At the time of recording, all the members of the cast were members of The BBC players.(Implicature: One or more of them are no longer members of The BBC players.)“[23]

Generally speaking, ”in Grice’s analysis, the speaker’s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption that the speaker has nor really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature“[24].One thing that deserves our attention is that the four maxims, expressed in the imperative mood have sometimes been misunderstood as instructions for a speaker to behave in conversation.5.possible violating the Cooperative principle in the use of euphemisms

In the light of the foregoing literature review and the theoretical bases, we know that euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are important and people often use them in communication.In reality, it can be found that these diplomats and statesmen etc.also use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions in the question-answer patterns.These statesmen make sharp things or unpleasant things sound pleasant etc.otherwise the use of euphemisms may even cause misunderstandings.So the next we will talk about communication with the theories of Cooperative principle.For example, to be specific, diplomatic euphemisms of press conferences are mainly chosen as the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive word or expression for one that is harsh, indelicate or unpleasant to the other side.They are chosen from both the lexical approach and the rhetorical approach.In communication like the question-answer patterns in press conferences, generally people or participants are required to observe the Cp in order to make their conversation moves forward smoothly and successfully.But in reality, in order to meet a certain communicative need, especially in press conferences concerning diplomacy, actually people seldom speaks by always faithfully observing these four maxims of the Cp.Therefore Grice himself also suggests 5 ways participants can deal with these maxims.First, speakers can straightforwardly follow the maxims, that is, they can speak the truth while giving just enough relevant information in a clear, unambiguous, succinct and orderly manner.Many people do just that most of time.Second, someone may violate a maxim, as you would do if you told a deliberate lie.A third thing that can happen is that a speaker can ‘opt out’ of a maxim, this seems to be an uncommon occurrence.The fourth possibility is the maxim clash;cases in which you would have to violate one maxim in order to fulfill another.And perhaps this is the most case of violation of the maxims in press conferences.The fifth and most intriguing way to deal with the maxims of conversation is to flout one of them.When a maxim is flouted, a speaker doesn't observe the maxim, but cannot be accused of violating it either, because the transgression is so flagrant that it is totally obvious that the speaker knows he or she is not observing it and realizes everyone else in the conversation knows it too.The existence of the maxims of the Cp makes the conversational implicature possible especially on the conditions like in press conferences etc..Conversational implicature allows a speaker of any side in press conferences to convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed.Speakers in press conferences can often use euphemisms or euphemistic expressions to produce conversational implicature or more meaning that the hearers can also figure out its real intentions rather than the literal meaning by violating some certain maxims.5.1.Violation of Quality Maxim

”Violation of Quality Maxim means by saying things that are not true or the fact and making irresponsible and insincere remarks by the speakers.It can produce some specifical content: humor, or disguise the intention such as Ministry of Defence for Ministry of War, life insurence for insurance when you are dead, freedom fighters for terrorists.“[25] Frankly speaking, euphemisms have a tendency to violate Quality Maxim in order to express unpleasant things or ideas etc.in an indirect, roundabout and pleasant way.Therefore if hearers want to know the real intentions , they should infer the conversational implicature from the illocutionary meaning based on the special context.Moreover hyperbole and understatement also don't obey the Quality Maxim, for all these contribution are true.Let us look at some examples as follows:

(4)Q: Britain and France both put troops on standby alert … for possible movement into Kosovo.While … has the U.S.put any units on stand-by for a possible movement to Kosovo?

A: In view of the fact that … our forces remain at their current state of readiness.There … increase that state of alertness at this point.Obviously… on short stand-by… air operations, would….In the above Q-A patterns of the transcripts, we can see diplomatic euphemisms like “possible movement”, “at their current state of readiness” and “air operation” etc.are used in press conferences that violate the Quality Maxim.From the specific context we know that here “possible movement” mainly means “possible military attack”, “at their current state of readiness” refers to “at their current state of fighting ” and “air operation” refers to “air war” or “air fight” etc..Still we can find more examples violating Quality Maxim of the Cp in press conferences like “Ministry of Defense” for “Ministry of War”, “entering into Kosovo” or “go into Kosovo” for “invade Kosovo” or “invasion” and “information” for “military intelligence” and also “active defense” for “attack” etc..By saying that, the authority can distort the facts to some extent and also reduce its bad impressions on the public.Hence the authority can present a false picture to the public and to beautify or disguise whatever they have done.5.2 Violation of Quantity Maxim

”Violation of Quantity Maxim is by providing non-informative information or by either providing less or more information than actually needed.Strictly speaking, acronym and abbreviation, two main ways of the formation of euphemism, are the two main ways of violating the Quantity Maxim.For example, execute is for execute death penalty, I need to go is for I need to go to the lavatory, commfu for complete monumental military fuck up , S.O.S for son-of-a-bitch.“[26] Some euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are created by contributing less information to violate the Quantity Maxim in order to make unpleasant, rude or offensive words sound more pleasant, polite and elegant.Let us have a look at some expressions used in press conferences violate the Quantity Maxim of the Cp.(5)Q: General Naumann said … military targets?

A:(Cohen): As we indicated the ACTORD was … Serbian forces were really posing a serious threat to several … the cold or from starving.That ACTORD was … innocent people.That ACTORD remains … General Naumann has referred to.Let us have a look at another example:

(6)Q: General, … Could you … in the event of a conflict and … in terms of a liaison with the NGOs and …?

A: Well, their role is…civil-military affairs organizations, … in the CENTCOM theater …

In the above two question-answer patterns in press conferences we may say that these diplomatic euphemisms violate the Quantity Maxim because they failed to give us the right amount of information we needed or we may also say that they provided less information.By using these euphemisms the speakers like the diplomats and statesmen etc.can avoid mentioning these unpleasant terms or notions like central command and activation order etc.in press conferences.Among the euphemisms used in press conferences, we may still find that some of the euphemisms can be regarded as a special case that violate both the Quality Maxim and the Quantity Maxim etc..Hence in a broad sense we may say that euphemisms that violate the Quality Maxim can also be regarded as a special case that violate the Quantity Maxim because the two maxims are closely related.If a euphemism violates Quality Maxim, it also violates Quantity Maxim to a certain extent.For example, the euphemisms like “possible movement” for “possible military attack” or “possible war”;“brought the world together” mainly refers to those countries led by the USA.Hence from this point of view we may that euphemisms like “possible movement”, “brought the world together” etc.not only violate the Quality Maxim but also violate the Quantity Maxim because to a certain extent they distort the facts and provide less information than people actually need.5.3 Euphemisms and the Relation Maxim

As we mentioned before that the Maxim of Relation refers to “Be relevant” and violation of Relation Maxim means that the utterance of a speaker is irrelevant to the conversation or the specific context for some reasons or some purposes.Sometimes we may find English euphemisms are to use irrelevant utterances on the surface to express something that the speakers want to say and cannot say.In fact the implied meaning of the utterances is relevant partially because the formation of English euphemisms abides these formative principles like pleasant-sound principle etc..For example,(7)”I approached her very hesitatly.“Want to come and play?”

piquette looked at me with a sudduen flash of scorn.“I ain't a kid,” she said.Wounded, I stamped angrily away...“[27]

Here, ”I ain't a kid“ seems no relationto this conversation.But there implicature meaning is only kids play--I ain't kid--I won't play with you.So, it is indirect refuse of communicating.In English “to pass away” is used in a euphemistic sense for “to die” now.The denotation of “to pass away” is “to go away for a time”;while “to die” means “to go away forever”.“To die” is euphemized as “to go away” by violating the Relation Maxim on the surface, in fact, both the two phrases have the relevant meaning to “to go away”.Their difference lies only in the time, one is for a period of time, the other is forever.So when the speaker use “to pass away” to replace “to die”, the hearers may infer the conversational implicature of “to die” from the relevant meaning “to go away”.So with time goes on, it is now almost used as a fixed usage for “to die” in almost all the circumstances.5.4 Violation of Manner Maxim

Violation of Manner Maxim means giving obscure and ambiguous information etc..Sometimes under the communicative circumstances, the speaker, in order to avoid mentioning unpleasant and embarrassed things in a direct way, say something obscurely and ambiguously, then the hearers should carefully infer the conversational implicature of the speaker and what is their real intentions and meaning according to the specific context.So we may find many euphemisms tend to violate the Maxim of Manner so as to achieve the mild, agreeable, roundabout and pleasant-sound effects.We can also take the following as examples to illustrate how euphemisms violate the Manner Maxim.”A educator cannot say a student is lazy, idle, stupid, or clever.Instead of them is educationally and socially disadvantaged groups, underachieved, those on the lower end of the ability-scale, high verbal-ability subjects, disadvantaged home enviornments, underprivileged child.“[28] Obviously, these words violates Manner Maxim o f being brief.Another example, ”perhaps you had better get your affairs in order." This is a notion of death from the doctor.it's wordy but not unnecessary.one-way-ticket is for die.It reflect one's experience and cognition.6.Conclusion

As we stated earlier, euphemism is one of the important and universal linguistic phenomena.Due to the special characteristics like substitution, indirectness etc.it is becoming one of the main communicative approaches This thesis has attempted to study the euphemistic expressions used in the question-answer patterns from the perspective of pragmatics.The article is an overview of the functions and communicative functions of euphemism, and from the pragmatic analysis of the materials, it can be seen clearly that the use of euphemisms basically violate the Quality Maxim, the Quantity Maxim, and the Manner Maxim of the Cooperative principle and the frequency of violating the Quality Maxim is the highest among the three ones.That is to say, the euphemisms used in the question-answer patterns generally do not violate the Relation Maxim of the Cooperative principle.There is an old saying in English: Necessity is the mother of invention.The creation of euphemisms also cannot depart from people’s needs of them.people need euphemisms for social communication, to euphemize the taboo, to show their politeness and to disguise.As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, the formation of euphemisms is the result of the combination of various social psychological factors and pragmatic factors.Studies on euphemisms from a pragmatic perspective reveal how euphemisms flout the Cooperative principle so as to obey the politeness principle in communication and how factors from their sociocultural and communicational context influence their application in communication.Any change of one or more factors of a communication event, will have an effect on our decision of whether to use euphemisms.The expressive euphemisms play a non-fungible role in communication.It is euphemism that makes language more powerful, magical and pleasant.people’s speech does reflect their background, their activities, and the values they hold, therefore, we can learn much about the English people by looking at their use of euphemisms.The studies on English euphemisms can not only help to develop intercultural communicative competence, but also enlighten English language learning and teaching.Therefore, multidisciplinary, multi-angle, and multi-level studies on euphemisms are necessary for English learners to understand the English history and society and communicate with native English speakers better.There are still a lot in this field waiting to be explored, and euphemisms deserve more attention and comprehensive studies.Bibliography

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[7] 同[5], p30

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[9] 同[4], p3

[10] 同[3], p379

[11] 同[6], p19

5[12] 同[6], p197

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[14] 同[4], p4

[15] 同[5], p32

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[18] 同[16], p154

[19] 同[16], p154

[20] 同[16], p154

[21] 同[16], p154

[22] N.E Collinge.An Encyclpaedia of Language.London: Routledge London and New York, 1990: p181

[23] 同[22], p182

[24] Jean Stilwell peccei.pragmaics語用學[M].北京: 外語教學與研究出版社, 2000: p30

[25] 徐莉娜.跨文化交際中的委婉語解讀策略[J].外語與外語教學, 2002,(9):p8

[26] 同[25], p8

[27] 同[25], p8

[28] 同[25], p8

第五篇：從李原事件看大學生如何培養自己道德品質

從李原事件看大學生如何培養自己道德品質

1997年4月中國科學院高能所助理研究員，清華大學工物系肄業博士生李原手持利刃，兇殘地殺害了該所著名學者、研究員、博士生導師王泰杰。同年8月，李原被判處死刑。李原行兇的緣由來自他與被害人的“矛盾”：1995年，王泰杰任李原所在的計算中心的主任，一天，中心的一個課題組長反映，中心的計算機需要聯網，線路要穿過李原的辦公室，李原與這位課題組長素有矛盾，多次蠻橫地扯斷線路，并粗暴地謾罵來接線的同事，為此王泰然批評了李原。此后不久，由于所內因特網用戶增加，線路不夠，中心決定取消各辦公室的直播電話，將這些電話線路改用計算機網絡。李原的電話被停用，他大為不滿，竟將因特網的一個服務器擅自拆除，嚴重影響了工作。為此王泰然再次地批評了他，李原則認為王泰然有意與自己過不去。1996年李原從瑞士工作一年回國，按所里規定，出國人員應向所里交納少量的管理費，但李原拒絕這項執行了十年的“土政策”，拒不交納這筆費用，說是要與王泰然作對。此外，由于人際關系緊張，計算中心的許多課題組都不愿意接納李原，李原卻認為這是王泰然的錯誤，后來所里為李原聯系一個新單位，希望他調離。于是李原開始鋌而走險，行兇殺人。

李原是一個什么樣的人？所有接觸過李原的人，都說他性格內項、孤僻，不愛說話，行為有些古怪，對大多數人來說，他的內心是一個無法探求的封閉的世界，人們可以與之交談，但卻不能理解他、與他溝通。他對人、對事過于敏感，常懷疑有人故意與自己過不去，不斷懷疑自己受到了別人的壓制和迫害。他心胸狹窄，不善交往，與人發生矛盾時，一味強調自己有理，片面夸大別人的缺點和錯誤。1990年他考入清華大學攻讀博士學位，1991年在學校中期考核中，他的義務學習、科研工作被評為“中”，德育評為“差”。盡管老師對他進行幫助和鼓勵，但李原還是于1992年3月向學校遞交了退學申請，這表明了他在困難面前的自卑和退卻。

資料來源：《作家文摘報》1997年10月24日

討論與思考：李原事件表明大學生培養良好思想品德和成熟心理素質的必要性，以及培養處理人與人之間關系的能力和道德人格修養的意義。同學們聯系這一事件和自己的學習、生活實際，認真思考大學生如何培養自己的道德品質。