第一篇：英語翻譯論文

食品安全的對(duì)策

2010年9月16日，美國(guó)食品藥物管理局的調(diào)查人員抵達(dá)上海一家供應(yīng)面粉、通心粉和嬰兒米粉的廠家。聯(lián)邦當(dāng)局早就懷疑上海Chuangi食品有限公司的食品不衛(wèi)生，他們生產(chǎn)的許多產(chǎn)品，比如湯料，被運(yùn)往紐約港口，放在一些未知的食品之間并最終出現(xiàn)在美國(guó)的餐桌上。這也就是為什么FDA指派一個(gè)中國(guó)新辦事處去突襲的原因。美國(guó)FDA調(diào)查員和一名翻譯去了上海的幾家上市公司，每次，都被門衛(wèi)禁止進(jìn)入或調(diào)查，他們甚至說他們沒有貨物運(yùn)往紐約，當(dāng)然，這是一個(gè)謊言。一個(gè)月之內(nèi)，美國(guó)FDA簽發(fā)了禁止從上海Chuangi公司進(jìn)口的文件。

如果你覺得上面的故事還尚且差強(qiáng)人意，但是，你錯(cuò)了。美國(guó)每年都能收到很多關(guān)于進(jìn)口食品不安全的警告，但是FDA檢查到的卻只是數(shù)千萬進(jìn)口食品的1%。這在一定程度上是因?yàn)橘Y金的不足以及沒有權(quán)威的機(jī)構(gòu)鑒定。

然而今年1月份，情況發(fā)生了改變，奧巴馬總統(tǒng)簽署了食品安全現(xiàn)代化法案。該法案表示可能在70年內(nèi)對(duì)國(guó)家食品安全進(jìn)行最徹底的變革。新法讓FDA對(duì)美國(guó)80%的食品消費(fèi)進(jìn)行監(jiān)管，防止沙門氏菌等食源性疾病的爆發(fā)。這可不是一件小事：每年每6個(gè)美國(guó)人中就有1個(gè)（大約48億）經(jīng)由食物傳播而生病，3000人死亡。新法大部分內(nèi)容是關(guān)于國(guó)產(chǎn)食品的，大約占到美國(guó)人消費(fèi)的85%，但最為有趣的地方是，新法將會(huì)花費(fèi)大量的精力去監(jiān)管越來越多的進(jìn)口食品。在未來的幾年內(nèi)，F(xiàn)DA將花費(fèi)將近140億左右去聘請(qǐng)數(shù)百名員工或私人承包商去監(jiān)管不斷增多的外國(guó)食品進(jìn)口供應(yīng)商。

問題是，F(xiàn)DA能否監(jiān)管全世界。一個(gè)世紀(jì)前，辛克萊寫了一部《屠場(chǎng)》，一部開創(chuàng)性的書，書中恐怖地描述了如何用蘇打去除腐爛的肉上的臭味，然后扔上免費(fèi)午餐的餐桌。該書導(dǎo)致天然食品和藥品法的頒布以及FDA的成立。（見2010年醫(yī)學(xué)十大突破）

當(dāng)然現(xiàn)在美國(guó)食品藥品管理局已經(jīng)是個(gè)龐大的機(jī)構(gòu)。它管理著超過價(jià)值4660億的食品，美國(guó)人每消費(fèi)1美元就有25美分是由它管理的。然而進(jìn)口食品的管理任務(wù)仍然是艱巨的，大部分原因在于全球化急劇的擴(kuò)大了美國(guó)餐桌上的食品。在芝加哥、夏洛特、北卡羅來納州、博伊西、愛達(dá)荷州等地方的普通超市里，像墨西哥干辣椒醬、蒸丸子、椰子汁等進(jìn)口食品不再受限制。如果這樣的話，美國(guó)大約有60%的新鮮水果和80%的海產(chǎn)品來源于國(guó)外進(jìn)口。這些進(jìn)口食品中的大部分來源于食品安全條例有爭(zhēng)議的國(guó)家。邁克爾·泰勒，美國(guó)食品藥物管理局食品副稅務(wù)長(zhǎng)，最近對(duì)一位上海的觀眾說，“全球化正在挑戰(zhàn)食品安全，這個(gè)問題應(yīng)該被重視。”

事實(shí)上，F(xiàn)DA一直在積極努力地關(guān)注進(jìn)口食品，晚間電視新聞經(jīng)常報(bào)導(dǎo)這方面就是證據(jù)：2008年三聚氰胺，一種常用于制造塑料的化合物，在中國(guó)嬰幼兒配方奶粉中發(fā)現(xiàn)之后，F(xiàn)DA給予警告，并禁止進(jìn)口此類食品。當(dāng)年另外一個(gè)事件，美國(guó)流行病的爆發(fā)促使FDA開始調(diào)查從墨西哥進(jìn)口的jalape?o和及Serrano辣椒粉如何導(dǎo)致沙門氏菌感染的。最后，F(xiàn)DA警告消費(fèi)者不要購(gòu)買這種辣椒粉。美國(guó)在一些比較遠(yuǎn)的城市像廣州、孟買、墨西哥等設(shè)立辦事處，甚至派了一個(gè)海鮮專家小組前往孟加拉國(guó)對(duì)他們的官員培訓(xùn)美國(guó)食品安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，這有部分是因?yàn)樯鲜鲋愂录钠毓狻?/p>

新法將會(huì)使這些努力更上一個(gè)臺(tái)階。首先，在接下來的幾年里，美國(guó)將雇傭成千上百的員工去監(jiān)視國(guó)外成千上萬的食品機(jī)構(gòu)。泰勒近來在上海說，“FDA不能任何時(shí)候都無處不在，尤其是涉及到進(jìn)口食品出現(xiàn)問題的時(shí)候。”因此，F(xiàn)DA將聘請(qǐng)一個(gè)第三方機(jī)構(gòu)，食品監(jiān)管和認(rèn)證的企業(yè)現(xiàn)在是朝陽企業(yè)。必維國(guó)際檢驗(yàn)集團(tuán)就是其中之一，它是一家法國(guó)企業(yè)，對(duì)美國(guó)的監(jiān)管流程非常熟悉。它位于阿肯色州本頓維爾的沃爾瑪總部對(duì)面，為這個(gè)零售業(yè)的霸主如何使他們的商品符合美國(guó)安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)提供建議。該公司已就越南蝦與FDA進(jìn)行認(rèn)證測(cè)試。帕特里克·百麗，Veritas的食品業(yè)務(wù)開發(fā)經(jīng)理，就新法說：“它將提供更多的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)，投資更多的實(shí)驗(yàn)，對(duì)我們的工作有一個(gè)推動(dòng)作用。”

新法實(shí)施過程中可能會(huì)受到資金和政治這兩個(gè)因素的影響。國(guó)會(huì)共和黨人已經(jīng)建議把美國(guó)食品藥品管理局的預(yù)算削減至2.2億美元。格魯吉亞共和黨人，國(guó)會(huì)議員杰克金斯敦認(rèn)為食源性疾病的減少說明現(xiàn)行制度是有效的，他說：“食品安全具有高度優(yōu)先權(quán)，但是，資金是有限。”

因?yàn)閰⒆h院仍然在民主黨的掌控下，這種說法很難付諸于實(shí)際行動(dòng)，也不可能削弱有奧巴馬政府和龐大的食品集團(tuán)作為支撐的新法的實(shí)施。但是新法的擁護(hù)者們害怕在未來的兩到4年內(nèi)，如果共和黨人掌控兩會(huì)，F(xiàn)DA的預(yù)算將會(huì)縮減。公共興趣科學(xué)中心的食品安全負(fù)責(zé)人卡羅琳·史密斯·德瓦女士說，“認(rèn)為食品安全固然很好，但是需要一種方式去證明它。如果接觸污染的食品，他們自己也會(huì)有危險(xiǎn)，共和黨人將會(huì)獨(dú)自承擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。”

與此同時(shí)，中國(guó)上海Chuangi公司并沒有做諸如測(cè)試有問題植物這樣實(shí)質(zhì)性的行為。ＦＤＡ檢察員也將會(huì)再度檢查它。如果沒有足夠的資金，他們是否愿意回來檢查值得懷疑。

寶寶夜晚經(jīng)常哭泣可能預(yù)示著將來的一些行為問題

新生兒在前幾個(gè)月里半夜哭醒是很正常的，但是這種行為在一年之后還繼續(xù)的話，就有可能意味將來會(huì)出現(xiàn)某些行為問題。這是歐洲的一些研究人員在研究近24個(gè)專家認(rèn)為是可控行為的問題之后的發(fā)現(xiàn)，這些問題包括：失眠，不停的哭，挑食等。《小兒疾病文獻(xiàn)》中有報(bào)導(dǎo)稱：在上學(xué)時(shí)，那些三個(gè)月后還一直半夜哭醒的小孩得多動(dòng)癥、抑郁癥、好斗、品行障礙的幾率是普通小孩的兩倍。

最常見的行為問題包括：自我控制不足、煩躁、適應(yīng)性差。英國(guó)華威大學(xué)發(fā)展心理學(xué)Dieter Wolke教授，這篇文章的另外一個(gè)作者，稱他們發(fā)現(xiàn)嬰兒期的可控行為與品行障礙、多動(dòng)癥之間有著很大的聯(lián)系。這些是兒童在管束時(shí)出現(xiàn)的注意力不集中、發(fā)火、自控力不足的表現(xiàn)。

Wolke教授稱嬰兒期的這些不停哭和挑食行為對(duì)后來的這些行為問題到底是怎樣產(chǎn)生影響的，目前還沒有明顯的數(shù)據(jù)顯示，但是這之間存在著很大的聯(lián)系。首先，半夜哭醒僅僅是自我控制行為缺乏的初步跡象，每一個(gè)嬰兒都會(huì)一晚上醒好幾次，然后哭，但是大多數(shù)都會(huì)自己停止哭泣，然后繼續(xù)睡覺。因?yàn)樗麄冎肋@就夠了，爸媽不會(huì)每一次他們哭泣時(shí)都能來到。如果嬰兒已經(jīng)有行為障礙了，他們就不會(huì)學(xué)會(huì)自控，所以他們?cè)谝荒曛笕匀粫?huì)一直哭泣。

此外，Wolke教授說，有些嬰兒有由于遺傳方面的因素更易產(chǎn)生行為障礙，具體地說，專家已經(jīng)在多巴胺中識(shí)別出一種控制人的心情、情緒以及運(yùn)動(dòng)功能的基因。它可能導(dǎo)致嬰兒對(duì)行為障礙更為敏感。

嬰兒或者他們的父母中有一個(gè)對(duì)于這些行為會(huì)印象深刻，要么嬰兒，要么是他們的父母。因?yàn)閶雰翰煌５目奁吞羰常改覆坏貌蝗プ鲂┦裁矗皇亲屗麄兊膶殞氃谀强奁Ｈ绻?dāng)寶寶半夜哭醒時(shí)，父母?jìng)冞M(jìn)來哄他們，搖他們，給他們喂奶或者其他其他方式轉(zhuǎn)移他們的注意力，而不是讓寶寶們自己學(xué)會(huì)平靜下來，然后睡覺。當(dāng)這些小孩長(zhǎng)大時(shí)，他們會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)他們比較難控制自己的行為或情緒，包括侵犯或者怒火。

當(dāng)然，我們清楚地知道，這些結(jié)果并不暗示著那些愛哭，老是半夜醒，挑食的小孩長(zhǎng)大后就一定有行為問題。Wolke教授說，大約有20%的小孩會(huì)有行為問題，通常情況下超過三個(gè)月的新生兒一般都有固定的睡眠和飲食習(xí)慣，而且沒有那么頻繁的哭鬧，但不會(huì)也不可能停止哭鬧。

不過，即使你的寶寶在這20%之內(nèi)，也并不意味著你的寶寶將來一定有行為問題。最近研究成果表明，如果家長(zhǎng)能盡早地覺察到這些可控行為的信號(hào)，他們將會(huì)在問題變得更加嚴(yán)重時(shí)采取一定的措施來幫助寶寶學(xué)會(huì)自我控制。

不要每一次寶寶哭了就跑過去抱起他，父母固定在某一時(shí)間點(diǎn)讓寶寶睡覺，這樣可以讓寶寶睡得更香，更舒適。在寶寶即將入睡時(shí)，可以讓寶寶一個(gè)人呆著，這樣可能對(duì)寶寶的入睡有幫助，也會(huì)鼓勵(lì)他們自己解決如何防止瞌睡。

Wolke教授是第一個(gè)承認(rèn)為了證明這些干擾行為對(duì)兒童時(shí)期的行為障礙有影響還有很多的工作需要做。但是，根據(jù)我們所發(fā)現(xiàn)的這些關(guān)系，如果寶寶能夠更早的自己學(xué)會(huì)停止哭泣或者入睡，我們將會(huì)在對(duì)孩童時(shí)期的其他行為問題上有更廣泛的公眾影響。

如果情況屬實(shí)，這肯定會(huì)幫助成千上萬的家長(zhǎng)和他們的孩子——不只是為了孩子頭幾個(gè)月有個(gè)好的睡眠，也是對(duì)他們整個(gè)一生都有幫助的。

鎮(zhèn)壓烏干達(dá)步走抗議活動(dòng)

在反對(duì)黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人Kizza Besigye第三次競(jìng)選烏干達(dá)總統(tǒng)失敗后，今年2月份，他對(duì)政府濫用職權(quán)的咆哮聲已經(jīng)顯得徒勞無力了。反對(duì)派的示威，比如上個(gè)月在坎帕拉的Kiseka市場(chǎng)上舉行的抗議選舉中出現(xiàn)一邊倒的問題時(shí)僅有幾十名的支持者。因此，當(dāng)貝西杰在民主變革論壇上宣布他和其他反對(duì)派領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人將步行上班，以抗議燃料和食品價(jià)格飛漲時(shí)并沒有多少人在意。

誰也沒有想到烏干達(dá)的安全部隊(duì)會(huì)在4月11日全副武裝對(duì)反對(duì)派的第一支游行隊(duì)伍發(fā)射催淚瓦斯并將反對(duì)派領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人拖上警車。

公眾對(duì)政府的高壓手段瞬間感到憤怒了，4月14日，貝西杰被槍傷后站在坎帕拉醫(yī)院外，手被包扎并吊在脖子上的圖片到處可見。然后步走活動(dòng)一下子蔓延到全國(guó)四個(gè)城市.但是到周五，抗議活動(dòng)已經(jīng)演變成暴力活動(dòng)。游行者之間的沖突，抗議者與警察之間的沖突已經(jīng)導(dǎo)致5人死亡——其中包括一名被安全部隊(duì)射擊頭部和臉頰的2歲小孩——幾十人受傷，成百人被捕。

穆塞韋尼，烏干達(dá)總統(tǒng)，在1986年率領(lǐng)前反政府武裝推翻布什米爾頓奧博特，聲明絕不對(duì)反動(dòng)政府妥協(xié)。但是他炫耀武力，迄今為止，只會(huì)對(duì)公眾一系列不滿產(chǎn)生更壞的效果。這些不滿包括：日益增加的失業(yè)率，腐敗，無謂的政府開支等。

在據(jù)報(bào)道國(guó)庫已經(jīng)衰竭后，穆塞韋尼總統(tǒng)的競(jìng)選連任估計(jì)已耗資3.5億美元，并且還有一個(gè)補(bǔ)充預(yù)算需要買單。他領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的政府已經(jīng)在戰(zhàn)斗機(jī)上花了7.4億美元，在下個(gè)月他的入職宣誓儀式上估計(jì)至少要130萬美元，國(guó)內(nèi)的通貨膨脹率已經(jīng)由6%飆升至11%。

現(xiàn)在，政府對(duì)貝西杰支持者的殘酷鎮(zhèn)壓，破壞穆塞韋尼作為解放者和和平締造者的形象，并且對(duì)于烏干達(dá)在國(guó)內(nèi)和國(guó)際的聲望有很壞的影響。捐助國(guó)都譴責(zé)烏干達(dá)過度使用武力，國(guó)內(nèi)媒體也質(zhì)疑穆塞韋尼將引導(dǎo)烏干達(dá)走向何方。

因?yàn)?8%的選票，2月份，他的任期將延長(zhǎng)至30年，穆塞韋尼——因民粹主義而聞名——有時(shí)卻對(duì)市民關(guān)心的問題答非所問，甚至發(fā)表一些荒誕的言論。對(duì)于從1月份開始上漲50%的燃料價(jià)格，上周他說，“我只是號(hào)召民眾節(jié)約使用，不要開車去酒吧之類的。”對(duì)于近來食品價(jià)格不斷上漲，他說這樣是為了農(nóng)民的利益。上周，還還對(duì)他家鄉(xiāng)記者說：“我能預(yù)見自己因?yàn)橹卫韲?guó)家，尤其是軍隊(duì)而獲得諾貝爾和平獎(jiǎng)。”

在他執(zhí)政烏干達(dá)的25年里，烏干達(dá)迎來了前所未有的穩(wěn)定和自由舒展的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。去年貧困人口已經(jīng)從1992年的56％降至25％，對(duì)于捐助者的依賴也降至25%左右。在防治艾滋病方面也在非洲是佼佼者，而且政府準(zhǔn)備開發(fā)2億桶儲(chǔ)量的油田，這將增加一倍的財(cái)政收入。然而，基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施趨于崩潰，教育和醫(yī)療衛(wèi)生事業(yè)也不盡人意。為了收買潛在的政治對(duì)手，穆塞韋尼增加了許多新的行政地區(qū)。烏干達(dá)，一個(gè)32萬人口的國(guó)家，已經(jīng)是非洲行政單位最多的國(guó)家，在世界排名第四。根據(jù)國(guó)際貨幣基金組織顯示，烏干達(dá)人均國(guó)內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值只有$ 509，人民仍然生活在水深火熱之中。

在2月大選前，穆塞韋尼在他的連任競(jìng)選和宣傳資料上聲稱，他將做一些歷史上沒人做到的——成為一個(gè)統(tǒng)領(lǐng)國(guó)家發(fā)展四分之一世紀(jì)的代言人。但是烏干達(dá)坑坑洼洼的首都暗示著穩(wěn)定的代理人最終成為穩(wěn)定的威脅者。貝西杰在幾個(gè)星期前反對(duì)總統(tǒng)時(shí)還靠邊站，現(xiàn)在很巧妙的將一種放大政府武力使用的和平的、經(jīng)濟(jì)的、環(huán)保的步走活動(dòng)與這種擔(dān)憂結(jié)合在一起。

上周四，貝西杰拒絕以非法集會(huì)的罪名保釋，他和另外一個(gè)反對(duì)派領(lǐng)袖Norbert Mao一起押往離坎帕拉約60英里的納卡松戈拉監(jiān)獄。穆塞韋尼意識(shí)到，在他的前任混亂統(tǒng)治下的烏干達(dá)人不會(huì)在恐怖的鎮(zhèn)壓下回歸到政治分離的自然狀態(tài)。但是被催淚瓦斯窒息的兒童，殘酷的殺戮，打著繃帶被扔在門后面的這些畫面遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)比武力的震撼更強(qiáng)。

第二篇：英語翻譯論文

桂林航天工業(yè)高等專科學(xué)校

英文翻譯

專業(yè)：通信技術(shù)

姓名： 盧僑生

學(xué)號(hào)：200704120124

指導(dǎo)教師：嵇建波

****年**月**日

Modern mobile communication technology In now highly the informationization society, the information and the correspondence have become the modern society “the life”.The information exchange mainly relies on the computer correspondence, but corresponds takes the transmission method, with the sensing technology, the computer technology fuses mutually, has become in the 21st century the international society and the world economic development powerful engine.In order to of adapt the time request, the new generation of mobile communication technology seasonable and lives, the new generation of mobile communication technology is the people said that third generation's core characteristic is the wide band addressing turns on non-gap roaming between the rigid network and numerous different communications system's, gains the multimedia communication services.Along with the time progress, the technical innovation, people's life request's enhancement, the mobile communication technology renewal speed is quite astonishing, almost every other ten year mobile communication technology has a transformation update, from the 1980s “the mobile phone” to present's 3G handset, during has had two mobile communication technology transformation, transits from 1G AMPS to 2G GSM, from GSM to IMT-2000(i.e.3G technology).Knows modern on me the mobile communication technology to have the following several aspect important technology:

1.wideband modulation and multiple access technique

The wireless high speed data transmission cannot only depend on the frequency spectrum constantly the expansion, should be higher than the present number magnitude at least in the frequency spectrum efficiency, may use three technologies in the physical level, namely OFDM, UWB and free time modulation code.OFDM with other encoding method's union, nimbly OFDM and TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, SDMA combines the multiple access technique.In the 1960s the OFDM multi-channel data transmission has succeeded uses in Kineplex and the Kathryn high frequency military channels.OFDM has used in 1.6 Mbit/s high bit rate digital subscriber line(HDSL), 6 Mbit/s asymmetrical digital subscriber line(ADSL), 100 Mbit/s really high speed figure subscriber's line(VDSL), digital audio frequency broadcast and digital video broadcast and so on.OFDM applies on 5 GHz provides 54 Mbit/s wireless local network IEEE 802.11 a and IEEE 802.11g, high performance this region network Hiper LAN/2 and ETSI-BRAN, but also takes metropolitan area network IEEE 802.16 and the integrated service digit broadcast(ISDB-T)the standard.Compares with the single load frequency modulation system service pattern, the OFDM modulation service pattern needs to solve the relatively big peak even power ratio(PAPR, Peak to Average Power Ratio)and to the frequency shifting and the phase noise sensitive question.High speed mobile communication's another request is under the wide noise bandwidth, must demodulate the signal-to-noise ratio to reduce as far as possible, thus increases the cover area.May adopt the anti-fading the full start power control and the pilot frequency auxiliary fast track demodulation technology, like the frequency range anti-fading's Rake receive and the track technology, the OFDMA technology which declines from the time domain and the frequency range resistance time and the frequency selectivity, the link auto-adapted technology, the union coding technique.2.frequency spectrum use factor lift technique

The fundamental research pointed out: In the independent Rayleigh scattering channel, the data rate and the antenna several tenth linear relationships, the capacity may reach Shannon 90%.Is launching and the receiving end may obtain the capacity and the frequency spectrum efficiency gain by the multi-antenna development channel space.The MIMO technology mainly includes the spatial multiplying and the space diversity technology, concurrent or the salvo same information enhances the transmission reliability on the independent channel.Receives and dispatches the bilateral space diversity is the high-capacity wireless communication system uses one of technical.Bell Lab free time's opposite angle BLAST(D-BLAST)capacity increase to receive and dispatch the bilateral smallest antenna number in administrative levels the function.The cross time domain which and the air zone expansion signal constitutes using MIMO may also resist the multi-diameter disturbance.V-BLAST system when indoor 24~34 dB, the frequency spectrum use factor is 20~40 bit/s/Hz.But launches and the receiving end uses 16 antennas, when 30 dB, the frequency spectrum use factor increases to 60~70 bit/s/Hz.The smart antenna automatic tracking needs the signal and the 2 auto-adapted free time processing algorithm, produces the dimensional orientation wave beam using the antenna array, causes the main wave beam alignment subscriber signal direction of arrival through the digital signal processing technology, the side lobe or zero falls the alignment unwanted signal direction of arrival.The auto-adapted array antennas(AAA, Adaptive Array Antennas)disturbs the counter-balance balancer(ICE, Interference Canceling Equalizer)to be possible to reduce disturbs and cuts the emissive power.3.software radio technology

The software radio technology is in the hardware platform through the software edition by a terminal implementation different system in many kinds of communication services.It uses the digital signal processing language description telecommunication part, downloads the digital signal processing hardware by the software routine(DSPH, Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware).By has the general opening wireless structure(OWA, Open Wireless Architecture), compatible many kinds of patterns between many kinds of technical standards seamless cut.UWB is also called the pulse to be radio, the modulation uses the pulse width in the nanosecond level fast rise and the drop pulse, the pulse cover frequency spectrum from the cocurrent to the lucky hertz, does not need in the radio frequency which the convention narrow band frequency modulation needs to transform, after pulse formation, may deliver directly to the antenna launch.4.software radio technology

The software radio technology is in the hardware platform through the software edition by a terminal implementation different system in many kinds of communication services.It uses the digital signal processing language description telecommunication part, downloads the digital signal processing hardware by the software routine(DSPH, Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware).By has the general opening wireless structure(OWA, Open Wireless Architecture), compatible many kinds of patterns between many kinds of technical standards seamless cut.5.network security and QoS

QoS divides into wireless and the wired side two parts, wireless side's QoS involves the radio resource management and the dispatch, the admission 3 control and the mobility management and so on, the mobility management mainly includes the terminal mobility, individual mobility and service mobility.Wired side's QoS involves based on the IP diffSer discrimination service and the RSVP end-to-end resources reservation mechanism.Mechanism maps the wireless side IP diffSer IP the QoS.Network security including network turning on security, core network security, application security, safety mechanism visibility and configurable.In the above modern mobile communication key technologies's foundation, has had the land honeycomb mobile communication, the satellite communication as well as the wireless Internet communication, these mailing address caused the correspondence appearance to have the huge change, used the digital technique the modern wireless communication already to permeate the national economy each domain and people's daily life, for this reason, we needed to care that its trend of development, hoped it developed toward more and more convenient people's life's direction, will let now us have a look at the modern mobile communication the future trend of development.modern mobile communication technological development seven new tendencies : First, mobility management already from terminal management to individual management and intelligent management development

Second, network already from synchronized digital circuit to asynchronous digital grouping and asynchronous transfer mode(ATM)development;

the three, software's developments actuated from the algorithm to the procedure-oriented and face the goal tendency development;the four, information processing have developed from the voice to the data and the image;

five, wireless frequency spectrum processing already from narrow band simulation to the narrow band CDMA development;

the six, computers have developed from central processing to the distributional server and intellectualized processing;

the seven, semiconductor devices have developed from each chip 16,000,000,000,000 /150MHz speed VLSI to 0.5 /350MHz speed VLSI and 2,000,000,000,000,000 /550MHz speed VLSI.Bandwidth Efficient Baseband Multi-Modulator Abstract-The High Rate 4 Baseband Multi-Modulator(HRBM)ASIC is being developed to provide High-Speed Bandwidth Efficient Modulations to NASA missions.Bandwidth efficiencies from 2.0 bits/symbol/Hz to 2.75 bits/symbol/Hz are selectable from three CCSDS modulations: Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying(GMSK), Filter Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(Filtered-OQSK)and 8-Phase Shift Keying Trellis Coded Modulation(8-PSK TCM).An FPGA version of the HRBM is developed first to verify the individual modulation designs and characterize timing and performance issues involved with digital baseband modulation synthesis.A Finite Input Response(FIR)filter is included to provided baseband pulse shaping to reduce out-of-band spectral emissions.This is filter is programmable and can be tailored to meet system requirements.The ASIC is targeted to provide up to 600 Mbps throughput and will provide serial as well as parallel input.This paper provides an overview of the technology development and current status.INTRODUCTION

Confronted with increasing over utilization of radio frequency(RF)spectrum, the Space Frequency Coordination Group(SFCG)imposed a spectral mask(Recommendation 21-2 [1])for missions operating in the S-and X-bands.It’s goal is to prevent adjacent inadvertent RF interference and to promote efficient spectral use of the RF spectrum.Armed with this mandate, the CCSDS panel 1E group, RF and Modulation Systems, developed a set of recommendations(2.4.17A, 2.4.17B, and 2.4.18 [2])consistent with the SFCG mask for bandwidth efficiency.These modulation techniques range from Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK)-type modulations, i.e.GMSK, Filtered-OQPSK, Shaped-OQPSK(S-OQPSK), Feher QPSK-Type B(FQPSK-B)and also higher-order coded modulations, i.e.8-PSK TCM at 2.0, 2.25, 2.5, and 2.75 bits/symbol/Hz(a general reference for the principles of these modulations can be found in [4], and for performance and implementation information look in [3, 6]).The main concept behind the selection of the CCSDS modulations is the idea of pulse shaping the modulated waveform to reduce sideband emissions.There are two methods for pulse shaping the modulated waveform: 1.RF filtering after the transmitter power amplifier or 2.baseband filtering prior to RF modulation before the power amplifier.The HRBM utilizes the latter approach with the advantage that the pulse shaping can be digitally synthesized with finite impulse response 5(FIR)filtering.This allows for flexibility as practically any filter design can be implemented by reprogramming the tap coefficients of the FIR.The HRBM is developed to allow digital synthesis of a subset of the CCSDS modulation schemes as well as the inclusion of other non-CCSDS schemes(i.e.8-PSK, 16-QAM, and BPSK)that could be used in other frequency bands.Under this tendency's guidance, the mobile service rapid development, it satisfied the people in any time, any place to carry on the correspondence with any individual the desire.The mobile communication realizes in the future the ideal person-to-person communication service way that must be taken.In the information support technology, the market competition and under the demand combined action, the mobile communication technology's development is progresses by leaps and bounds, presents the following several general trends: 1)network service digitization, grouping;2)networking wide band;3)networking intellectualization;4)higher frequency band;5)more effective use frequency;6)each kind of network tends the fusion.The understanding, grasps these tendencies has the vital practical significance to the mobile communication operator and the equipment manufacturer.現(xiàn)代移動(dòng)通信

在當(dāng)今高度信息化的社會(huì)，信息和通信已成為現(xiàn)代社會(huì)的“命脈”。信息的交流主要依賴于計(jì)算機(jī)通信，而通信作為傳輸手段，與傳感技術(shù)、計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)相互融合，已成為21世紀(jì)國(guó)際社會(huì)和世界經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的強(qiáng)大動(dòng)力。為了適應(yīng)時(shí)代的要求，新的一代移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)應(yīng)時(shí)而生，新的一代移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)即人們稱之第三代的核心特征是寬帶尋址接入到固定網(wǎng)和眾多不同通信系統(tǒng)間的無隙縫漫游，獲取多媒體通信業(yè)務(wù)。

隨著時(shí)代的進(jìn)步、科技的創(chuàng)新、人們的生活要求的提高，移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)更新?lián)Q代速度相當(dāng)驚人，差不多每隔十年移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)就發(fā)生一次變革性換代，從上個(gè)世紀(jì)80年代的“大哥大”到現(xiàn)在的3G手機(jī)，其間發(fā)生了兩次移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)的變革，從1G的AMPS過渡到2G的GSM，從GSM到IMT-2000（即3G技術(shù)）。就我所知現(xiàn)代的移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)有以下幾方面的重要技術(shù)：

1.寬帶調(diào)制和多址技術(shù)

無線高速數(shù)據(jù)傳輸不能一味僅靠頻譜的擴(kuò)展，應(yīng)在頻譜效率上至少高于目前一個(gè)數(shù)量級(jí)，可在物理層采用三項(xiàng)技術(shù)，即OFDM、UWB和空時(shí)調(diào)制編碼。OFDM與其他編碼方式的結(jié)合，靈活把OFDM與TDMA、FDMA、CDMA、SDMA組合成多址技術(shù)。20世紀(jì)60年代OFDM的多路數(shù)據(jù)傳輸已成功用于Kineplex和Kathryn高頻軍事通信系統(tǒng)。OFDM已用于1.6 Mbit/s高比特率數(shù)字用戶線（HDSL），6 Mbit/s不對(duì)稱數(shù)字用戶線（ADSL），100 Mbit/s甚高速數(shù)字用戶線（VDSL），數(shù)字音頻廣播和數(shù)字視頻廣播等。OFDM應(yīng)用于5 GHz上提供54 Mbit/s無線本地網(wǎng)IEEE 802.11 a和IEEE 802.11g，高性能本地域網(wǎng)絡(luò)Hiper LAN/2和ETSI-BRAN，還作為城域網(wǎng)IEEE 802.16和集成業(yè)務(wù)數(shù)字廣播（ISDB-T）標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。與單載頻調(diào)制制式相比，OFDM調(diào)制制式要解決相對(duì)大的峰均功率比（PAPR，Peak to Average Power Ratio）和對(duì)頻率位移和相位噪聲敏感的問題。

高速移動(dòng)通信的另一要求是在寬噪聲帶寬下，所需解調(diào)信噪比應(yīng)盡可能降低，從而增加覆蓋面積。可采取抗衰落的快速發(fā)射功率控制和導(dǎo)頻輔助快速跟蹤相干解調(diào)技術(shù)，如頻域抗衰落的Rake接收和跟蹤技術(shù)，從時(shí)域和頻域抵抗時(shí)間和頻率選擇性衰落的OFDMA技術(shù)，鏈路自適應(yīng)技術(shù)，聯(lián)合編碼技術(shù)。

2.頻譜利用率提升技術(shù)

理論研究指出：在獨(dú)立Rayleigh散射信道中，數(shù)據(jù)速率與天線數(shù)成線性關(guān)系，容量可達(dá)Shannon的90%。在發(fā)射和接收端以多天線開發(fā)信道空間可取得容量和頻譜效率的增益。MIMO技術(shù)主要包括空間復(fù)用和空間分集技術(shù)，在獨(dú)立信道上并發(fā)或連發(fā)相同信息來提高傳輸可靠性。

收發(fā)雙方的空間分集是高容量無線通信系統(tǒng)采用技術(shù)之一。貝爾實(shí)驗(yàn)室分層次空時(shí)的對(duì)角BLAST（D-BLAST）容量的增加為收發(fā)雙方最小天線數(shù)的函數(shù)。利用MIMO所構(gòu)成的跨時(shí)域和空域的擴(kuò)展信號(hào)還可以抵抗多徑干擾。V-BLAST系統(tǒng)在室內(nèi)24～34 dB時(shí)，頻譜利用率為20～40 bit/s/Hz。而發(fā)射和接收端均采用16天線，在30 dB時(shí)，頻譜利用率增至60～70 bit/s/Hz。

智能天線自動(dòng)跟蹤所需信號(hào)和自適應(yīng)空時(shí)處理算法，利用天線陣產(chǎn)生空間定向波束，通過數(shù)字信號(hào)處理技術(shù)使主波束對(duì)準(zhǔn)用戶信號(hào)到達(dá)方向，旁瓣或零陷對(duì)準(zhǔn)干擾信號(hào)到達(dá)方向。自適應(yīng)陣列天線（AAA，Adaptive Array Antennas）中干擾抵消均衡器（ICE，Interference Canceling Equalizer）可減少干擾和降低發(fā)射功率。

3.軟件無線電技術(shù)

軟件無線電技術(shù)是在硬件平臺(tái)上通過軟件編輯以一個(gè)終端實(shí)施不同系統(tǒng)中多種通信業(yè)務(wù)。它用數(shù)字信號(hào)處理語言描述電信元件，以軟件程序下載成數(shù)字信號(hào)處理硬件（DSPH，Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware）。以具有通用開放無線結(jié)構(gòu)（OWA，Open Wireless Architecture），兼容多種模式在多種技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)之間無縫切換。

UWB也稱為脈沖無線電，調(diào)制采用脈沖寬度在納秒級(jí)的快速上升和下降脈沖，脈沖覆蓋的頻譜從直流至吉赫茲，不需常規(guī)窄帶調(diào)制所需的射頻上變換，脈 7 沖成型后可直接送至天線發(fā)射。

4.軟件無線電技術(shù)

軟件無線電技術(shù)是在硬件平臺(tái)上通過軟件編輯以一個(gè)終端實(shí)施不同系統(tǒng)中多種通信業(yè)務(wù)。它用數(shù)字信號(hào)處理語言描述電信元件，以軟件程序下載成數(shù)字信號(hào)處理硬件（DSPH，Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware）。以具有通用開放無線結(jié)構(gòu)（OWA，Open Wireless Architecture），兼容多種模式在多種技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)之間無縫切換。

5.網(wǎng)絡(luò)安全和QoS QoS分為無線和有線側(cè)兩部分，無線側(cè)的QoS涉及無線資源管理和調(diào)度，接納控制和移動(dòng)性管理等，移動(dòng)性管理主要包括終端移動(dòng)性，個(gè)人移動(dòng)性和業(yè)務(wù)移動(dòng)性。有線側(cè)的QoS涉及基于IP diffSer的區(qū)分業(yè)務(wù)和RSVP的端到端資源預(yù)留機(jī)制。把IP diffSer的IP QoS機(jī)制映射到無線側(cè)。網(wǎng)絡(luò)安全包括網(wǎng)絡(luò)接入安全，核心網(wǎng)安全，應(yīng)用安全，安全機(jī)制可見性與可配置性。

在上述現(xiàn)代移動(dòng)通信關(guān)鍵技術(shù)的基礎(chǔ)上，產(chǎn)生了陸地蜂窩移動(dòng)通信、衛(wèi)星通信以及無線因特網(wǎng)通信技術(shù)，這些通信方式使通信面貌發(fā)生了巨大的變化，采用數(shù)字技術(shù)的現(xiàn)代無線通信已經(jīng)滲入國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)的各個(gè)領(lǐng)域和人們的日常生活，為此，我們需要關(guān)心它的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)，希望它朝著越來越方便人們的生活的方向發(fā)展，現(xiàn)在就讓我們來看看現(xiàn)代移動(dòng)通信的未來發(fā)展趨勢(shì)吧。

現(xiàn)代移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)發(fā)展的七個(gè)新趨勢(shì):

一、移動(dòng)管理已從終端管理向個(gè)人管理和智能管理發(fā)展

二、網(wǎng)絡(luò)已從同步的數(shù)字電路向異步的數(shù)字分組和異步傳遞方式(ATM)發(fā)展;

三、軟件的開發(fā)已從算法驅(qū)動(dòng)到面向過程和面向目標(biāo)的趨勢(shì)發(fā)展;

四、信息處理已從話音發(fā)展到數(shù)據(jù)和圖像;

五、無線頻譜的處理已從窄帶模擬向窄帶CDMA發(fā)展;

六、計(jì)算機(jī)已從集中式處理發(fā)展到分布式服務(wù)器和智能化處理;

七、半導(dǎo)體器件已從每芯片16兆門/150MHz速率的VLSI發(fā)展到0.5千兆門/350MHz速率的VLSI和2千兆門 /550MHz速率的 VLSI。

帶寬效率的多基帶調(diào)制抽象率高的多基帶調(diào)制(hrbm)芯片正在開發(fā)提供高速帶寬是否有效調(diào)制航天任務(wù)。帶寬效率由2.0比特/符號(hào)/赫茲至2.75比特/符號(hào)/赫茲都是選擇從三個(gè)CCSDS標(biāo)準(zhǔn)調(diào)制方式；高斯最小移鍵控-荷蘭(GMSK的)，濾波器抵消正交相移鍵控(費(fèi)爾-197b)并且高階編碼調(diào)制，即8云芝中藥為2.0，2.25，2.5，2.75比特/符號(hào)/赫茲(一般參考的原則，這些調(diào)制可以發(fā)現(xiàn)[4]為執(zhí)行和實(shí)施情況的資料看,在[ 3,6 ])，主體理念，選用的調(diào)制CCSDS標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的構(gòu)思,塑造脈沖調(diào)制波型減少邊排放。一般有兩種方法，為脈沖調(diào)制波形： 1.射頻濾波后發(fā)射機(jī)功放。2.基帶濾波之前射頻調(diào)制前的功率放大器。該hrbm利用后者的方法有一定的優(yōu)越性，脈沖整形，可以用數(shù)碼合成有限沖激響應(yīng)(FIR)濾波器，這就允許靈活性，實(shí)用性的補(bǔ)充要求任何濾波器的設(shè)計(jì)，可以通過實(shí)施重整塔系數(shù)的杉木。hrbm的發(fā)展,使數(shù)字頻率合成器的一個(gè)子的CCSDS標(biāo)準(zhǔn)調(diào)制以及在兔子的其他非CCSDS標(biāo)準(zhǔn)計(jì)劃(即8角，16比特，編碼)，可以用在其他的頻帶。

在這種趨勢(shì)的引導(dǎo)下，移動(dòng)通信業(yè)務(wù)迅猛發(fā)展，它滿足了人們?cè)谌魏螘r(shí)間、任何地點(diǎn)與任何個(gè)人進(jìn)行通信的愿望。移動(dòng)通信是實(shí)現(xiàn)未來理想的個(gè)人通信服務(wù)的必由之路。在信息支撐技術(shù)、市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)和需求的共同作用下，移動(dòng)通信技術(shù)的發(fā)展更是突飛猛進(jìn)，呈現(xiàn)出以下幾大趨勢(shì)：1)網(wǎng)絡(luò)業(yè)務(wù)數(shù)據(jù)化、分組化；2)網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)寬帶化；3)網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)智能化；4)更高的頻段；5)更有效利用頻率；6)各種網(wǎng)絡(luò)趨于融合。了解、掌握這些趨勢(shì)對(duì)移動(dòng)通信運(yùn)營(yíng)商和設(shè)備制造商均具有重要的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。

第三篇：英語翻譯論文

引言

當(dāng)今社會(huì)隨著對(duì)外交流的不斷擴(kuò)大，國(guó)際商務(wù)往來也在向縱深方向發(fā)展，作為主要交流形式之一的商務(wù)英語信函也越來越受到人們的廣泛關(guān)注。作為聯(lián)系客商的工具，一則好的商務(wù)信函一般都很注重禮貌的傳達(dá)，只有這樣才能獲得對(duì)方的好感。商務(wù)英語信函作為一種具有特定商務(wù)語境的書面語言形式，禮貌的表現(xiàn)和應(yīng)用十分顯著。

日常生活中，禮貌無時(shí)不在、無處不在，并且在社會(huì)關(guān)系中發(fā)揮著重大的調(diào)節(jié)作用。禮貌是人類文明的標(biāo)志，是人類社會(huì)活動(dòng)的一條重要準(zhǔn)繩。禮貌的定義

中國(guó)現(xiàn)代漢語中的“禮貌”源于古代的“禮”。據(jù)《說文解字》注：“禮，履也。所以事神致福也。從示，從豐。”由此看出，“禮”的本義是“事神致福”，是一種祭祀行為[1]。然而，現(xiàn)代意義上的“禮貌”與古代的“禮”有著很大的差別。根據(jù)鄒金宏《禮儀》的解釋:禮貌，是指人與人之間和諧相處的意念和行為，是言談舉止對(duì)別人尊重與友好的體現(xiàn)[2]。如“禮貌語言”、“禮貌待人”等便是關(guān)于言語行為，待人接物等行為的某種規(guī)范。

英語中的禮貌研究可以追溯到15至17世紀(jì)，《牛津高階英漢雙解詞典》（第六版）中對(duì)polite（禮貌的）這個(gè)詞是這樣定義的：having or showing that one has good manners and consideration for other people[3].由此可以看出無論是漢語還是英語當(dāng)中的禮貌，“尊敬”、“敬意”都是其基本要素之一。商務(wù)英語信函的禮貌原則

禮貌是從一個(gè)“您為重”的角度考慮問題。禮貌原則是在商務(wù)英語寫作中最需要重視的基本原則。20世紀(jì)80年代，英國(guó)語言學(xué)家Leech在“合作原則”的基礎(chǔ)上，從修辭學(xué)、語體學(xué)的角度出發(fā)，提出了著名的“禮貌原則[5]”。這一原則又可細(xì)分為贊譽(yù)準(zhǔn)則、得體準(zhǔn)則、一致準(zhǔn)則三大類。

[4]3.1 贊譽(yù)準(zhǔn)則

贊譽(yù)準(zhǔn)則就是要多贊美對(duì)方，不要吝嗇對(duì)別人的贊美，減少最好避免對(duì)對(duì)方 的貶低。這里的贊美是有講究的，盡量要做到適度贊美，過度的贊美就是虛情假意了，我們要讓對(duì)方感覺到的是真誠(chéng)而不是虛情假意。

3.2 得體準(zhǔn)則

得體準(zhǔn)則簡(jiǎn)單的說就是在適合的場(chǎng)合說該說的話，做該做的事，減少表達(dá)有損于對(duì)方的觀點(diǎn)。盡量站在對(duì)方的利益角度思考問題，寧可自己吃虧也要盡量讓對(duì)方多受益，這樣才會(huì)讓對(duì)方感受到你的真誠(chéng)度，取得對(duì)方的好感，從而增加合作的機(jī)會(huì)。

3.3 一致準(zhǔn)則

一致準(zhǔn)則是指減少自己與別人在觀點(diǎn)上的不一致，盡量使自己的思維往對(duì)方的觀點(diǎn)上靠。這樣做是為了減少雙方的分歧，盡量增加雙方的一致性，使整個(gè)合作的過程變得輕松愉快，增加以后合作的機(jī)會(huì)。

簡(jiǎn)言之，禮貌原則的核心內(nèi)容就是盡量使自己吃虧，而使別人獲益，以便取得對(duì)方好感，使交易順利進(jìn)行，并使自己從中獲得更大的利益。商務(wù)英語信函中的禮貌表現(xiàn)

4.1 商務(wù)英語信函中的積極禮貌表現(xiàn)

積極禮貌表現(xiàn)就是說話人在合作過程中要表現(xiàn)的積極主動(dòng)點(diǎn)、禮貌點(diǎn)，而不是用消極、被動(dòng)的態(tài)度做事。特別是在合作的前期階段，積極禮貌會(huì)讓聽話人覺得合作者非常樂意和自己合作，可以使聽話人在還沒有完成交易前或在還沒有交易時(shí)就有一種成就的快感，感覺到自己的價(jià)值觀得到認(rèn)同。但我們?cè)谑褂眠^程中一定要謹(jǐn)慎，如果使用不好就會(huì)產(chǎn)生負(fù)面效果。在商務(wù)英語信函的寫作中，做到積極禮貌表現(xiàn)，首先要學(xué)會(huì)贊美別人，并且是恰如其分的贊美。再者就是要避免和對(duì)方產(chǎn)生正面沖突，把一切不和的因素轉(zhuǎn)化為委婉的建議。筆者在大二時(shí)所學(xué)的《外貿(mào)函電》第六單元第八十一頁的信函中就運(yùn)用了積極禮貌表現(xiàn)。如：

We are pleased to inform you that your first shipment turns out to the entire satisfaction of our users.此句翻譯為我們很高興告知您，我方用戶對(duì)你方第一批貨物非常滿意。很顯然是對(duì)對(duì)方貨物的贊美，其實(shí)隱形中是對(duì)對(duì)方的贊美，對(duì)對(duì)方的肯定，使對(duì)方感覺到自我價(jià)值的實(shí)現(xiàn)。

再看第二例：

We find both the price and quality of your products satisfactory to our clients and are pleased to give you an order for the following items.此句翻譯為我方用戶對(duì)貴方產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量和價(jià)格都十分滿意，現(xiàn)附上訂單一份，訂購(gòu)如下產(chǎn)品。這一句開頭和第一例表達(dá)的意思是一樣的，都是對(duì)對(duì)方貨物的肯定，“and”后面的句子是下訂單，這樣講就會(huì)讓對(duì)方覺得說話人特別想和和自己合作，在還沒有合作前就會(huì)有一種成就感，這樣說話者就比較成功了。

4.2 商務(wù)英語信函中的間接禮貌表現(xiàn)

間接禮貌表現(xiàn)就是用比較委婉的方式做事，最后還是達(dá)到一樣的說話人所期待的效果。這是在說話人考慮會(huì)危及對(duì)方面子的情況下采用的方式。為了不讓自己和對(duì)方?jīng)]臺(tái)階下，給對(duì)方也給自己留有余地，這樣的情況多半會(huì)在還盤時(shí)出現(xiàn)。《外貿(mào)函電》第五單元第五十七頁的回盤中就采用了間接禮貌表現(xiàn)。如：

Regrettably, we are unable to accept your offer as your prices are too high.In fact we want to enter into business relations with you, but your price is too high for us to pay.這里“regrettably”很委婉的表達(dá)了自己的想法，傳遞一個(gè)信息給對(duì)方，讓對(duì)方感覺就是我們很愿意和貴方合作，但心有余力不足，這樣給雙方一個(gè)臺(tái)階下，對(duì)方很有可能會(huì)再降價(jià)，既達(dá)到了說話人所期待的結(jié)果，又不會(huì)讓彼此太尷尬。

4.3 商務(wù)英語信函中的直接禮貌表現(xiàn)

直接禮貌表現(xiàn)是說話人不需要道歉或說一些客氣話，直接開門見山的做某事，不過前提是：說話人與聽話人有很多共同之處或者是關(guān)系比較好的合作者。因此，在使用的過程中必須注意對(duì)方和自己的關(guān)系，如果關(guān)系很好，使用時(shí)就不必太注意形式。但如果關(guān)系一般或是初次合作，就千萬要注意自己的話語。《外貿(mào)函電》第五單元第五十六頁中的還盤中直接禮貌表現(xiàn)就表達(dá)的恰到好處。如：

We have some regular orders at hand.If you are interested in our products, please place your order as soon as possible.如果合作雙方關(guān)系很好，使用此句就十分適合，就不用太注意一些形式上的話語，但如果是關(guān)系一般或是初次合作，就會(huì)讓聽話者認(rèn)為對(duì)方并不是很樂意和自己合作，或者讓聽話 者產(chǎn)生一種對(duì)方在強(qiáng)迫自己的錯(cuò)覺。所以在使用直接禮貌表現(xiàn)時(shí)要特別注意。商務(wù)英語信函中的禮貌策略

5.1積極禮貌策略

采用積極禮貌策略，主要是遵守贊譽(yù)原則，結(jié)合積極禮貌表現(xiàn)，突出對(duì)他人的贊美和對(duì)自身適當(dāng)?shù)馁H損，這里對(duì)自己適當(dāng)?shù)馁H損主要是為了讓對(duì)方覺得自己比別人強(qiáng)，滿足對(duì)方自我價(jià)值的實(shí)現(xiàn)。特別是在信函主體部分的開始和結(jié)尾處使用積極禮貌策略，顯得特別關(guān)注對(duì)方，對(duì)對(duì)方能力上的肯定，突出對(duì)方受惠，讓對(duì)方感到寫信人的友好。

商務(wù)英語信函的第一段對(duì)于確立商務(wù)伙伴關(guān)系至關(guān)重要。友好的開始能夠引起對(duì)方的積極響應(yīng)，為下文的磋商打下良好的基礎(chǔ)。第一段應(yīng)該從表示感謝或自謙的句子開始，《外貿(mào)函電》一書中出現(xiàn)了許多類似的句子，如第三單元建立商務(wù)關(guān)系的第二十九頁有這樣的句子：

Thank you for your letter of 28th May ?

We acknowledge with thanks, receipt of your letter of May 25?這些句子很簡(jiǎn)單，說的通俗一點(diǎn)就是一些客氣話，但又絕非可有可無，很多失敗的業(yè)務(wù)往來的問題往往就出在對(duì)這些“客氣話”的不用或誤用上。

在文章的結(jié)尾處需要再次表示尊重，并且提出期望和祝愿，突顯寫信人的真誠(chéng)，提出將來合作的愿望。用積極友好的消息結(jié)尾，這樣才能在更大程度上保持良好的商務(wù)伙伴關(guān)系。外貿(mào)函電一書第三單元第二十九頁出現(xiàn)這樣的句子：

We are looking forward to your favorable and prompt reply.此句意為靜候佳音，簡(jiǎn)短的幾個(gè)字卻能透露出說話人希望合作的急切心情。

5.2 間接禮貌策略

使用間接禮貌策略，遵守得體原則，結(jié)合間接禮貌表現(xiàn)，突出對(duì)方受益，自己受損。當(dāng)說話人所說的內(nèi)容損及聽話人時(shí)，話語越間接，供聽話人選擇的余地越大，話語就顯得越禮貌。當(dāng)說話人所說的內(nèi)容惠及聽話人時(shí)，在向?qū)Ψ教岢鲆蠡蚺u(píng)時(shí)，應(yīng)該體現(xiàn)為對(duì)方著想，使用間接性的語言，給對(duì)方留有選擇的余地。提出對(duì)方受惠，自己受損，顯示說話者對(duì)聽話者的尊重。5.2.1使用疑問句、條件句或虛擬語氣 使用疑問句型。疑問句型可以通過詢問別人的意愿，去表達(dá)一種請(qǐng)求，隱藏了威脅對(duì)方利益的因素，給聽話人留面子，會(huì)讓聽話人覺得說話人在和他們商量，自己占有主導(dǎo)權(quán)。又如《外貿(mào)函電》第四單元第四十二頁的句子：

Will you please quote us the lowest price CIF Pusan, inclusive of 5% commission, stating the earliest date of shipment and terms of payment.此句表達(dá)了說話人對(duì)聽話人的一種請(qǐng)求、一種愿望,在征求對(duì)方的同意，間接的表現(xiàn)出說話人對(duì)聽話人的尊重和重視，自然而然的就會(huì)讓聽話人覺得說話人很禮貌。

條件句和虛擬語氣則表達(dá)一種假設(shè)的前提，語氣其實(shí)是很具彈性的，使得其建議具有試探的性質(zhì)，給對(duì)方一種選擇的余地，去掉了威脅對(duì)方面子的成分，從而使得語氣變得友好，而且最后也能達(dá)到預(yù)期的效果。如《外貿(mào)函電》第四單元第四十三頁的詢盤中寫的句子：

Should your price be found competitive and delivery date acceptable ,we intend to place a large order with you.此句使用虛擬語氣可以使語氣具有很強(qiáng)的間接性，給對(duì)方留有一定的選擇余地或希望得到對(duì)方的允許或關(guān)照，維護(hù)對(duì)方的虛榮心。5.2.2.使用非人稱化手段

在向?qū)Ψ教岢鲆蠡蚓芙^對(duì)方要求時(shí)，使用間接禮貌策略中的非人稱化手段（it 作形式主語、被動(dòng)語態(tài)等），強(qiáng)調(diào)問題或要求的客觀性，淡化行為主體，可以避免以“你”作為主語，以保護(hù)聽話者的自我價(jià)值，從而讓對(duì)方覺得是自己在受益。如《外貿(mào)函電》第三單元第三十八頁中這樣寫道：

It would help us greatly if you could send us statistics on your sales.再如第十二單元第一百五十七頁談及支付方式時(shí)：

Payment should be made by an irrevocable and confirmed letter of credit.這兩句都是使用了間接禮貌策略的人稱化手段，間接的要求對(duì)方做某事，雖然最終的結(jié)果和明確要求對(duì)方做事時(shí)的一樣，卻比直接要求對(duì)方有禮貌的多，讓聽話人覺得很舒心，自然就會(huì)增加合作的機(jī)會(huì)。

5.3 直接禮貌策略

使用直接禮貌策略，遵守一致原則，結(jié)合直接禮貌表現(xiàn)，縮小自身和他人之 間的分歧，突出一致性。5.3.1使用積極樂觀的表達(dá)方式

積極樂觀的態(tài)度可以顯示說話人的慷慨、真誠(chéng)和主動(dòng)，讓聽眾感覺到對(duì)方對(duì)自己的信任和友好，從而引起積極的反應(yīng)，增加合作的機(jī)會(huì)。如外貿(mào)函電一書第四單元第五十三頁的句子：

We assure you of our full cooperation with you at all time.很簡(jiǎn)單的一句，意思就是承諾對(duì)方建立永久的合作關(guān)系，直截了當(dāng)?shù)娘@示了說話人積極、主動(dòng)、自信的態(tài)度，讓聽眾看了就覺得很輕松。5.3.2話語積極肯定，避免消極否定

使用消極的語言直接否定或拒絕對(duì)方的要求會(huì)威脅到對(duì)方的面子，使得雙方很尷尬，所以要盡量用積極肯定的語言讓對(duì)方主要看到共同關(guān)注的積極結(jié)果，而不是雙方的分歧。盡量適度的吹捧對(duì)方，讓雙方都有一個(gè)積極的心態(tài)做事，從而能夠在非常輕松友好的情況下達(dá)到交易的目的。如《外貿(mào)函電》第六單元第六十八頁的信函中提到：

As to our credit and financial standing, we refer you to Midland Bank, United Kingdom.此句反映了說話人對(duì)自己資信情況的肯定，積極主動(dòng)的要求對(duì)方去指定的銀行，雖然很直接，但不缺乏禮貌，反而會(huì)讓對(duì)方感覺到說話人的真誠(chéng)。

結(jié)論

因?yàn)椴煌奈幕尘埃诳缥幕虅?wù)交流中所導(dǎo)致的文化障礙時(shí)有發(fā)生。中西方的文化有著很多的差異，文化差異是一種客觀存在、是歷史上形成的東西。面對(duì)復(fù)雜的國(guó)際環(huán)境,跨國(guó)商務(wù)活動(dòng)一定要適應(yīng)當(dāng)?shù)匚幕?遵守國(guó)際商務(wù)合作契約和交際禮儀,了解不同文化背景的經(jīng)營(yíng)者或合作者的心理,充分尊重和理解當(dāng)?shù)匚幕Ｎ覀冊(cè)谏虅?wù)活動(dòng)中, 不是一種文化支配另一種文化, 而是雙方一起去創(chuàng)造另一種超越原來的文化而服務(wù)于雙方文化。如果能注意到這些文化差異，能合理的運(yùn)用創(chuàng)造出來的這種文化，并能有意識(shí)地求同存異、互相尊重，就能促進(jìn)商務(wù)活動(dòng)的順利開展，達(dá)到雙贏的局面。

致謝

本文是在我的指導(dǎo)老師楊偉雪老師和錢楓老師的親切關(guān)懷和悉心指導(dǎo)下完成的。兩位老師都特別認(rèn)真，他們對(duì)事情認(rèn)真嚴(yán)肅的態(tài)度，讓我覺得很緊張，但更多的是敬佩和欣賞，這種精神深深地吸引著我，激勵(lì)著我。從課題的選擇、正文的修改到論文的最終完成，兩位老師都始終給予我細(xì)心的指導(dǎo)和不懈的支持。在本次論文設(shè)計(jì)過程中，錢楓老師對(duì)該論文從選題、構(gòu)思到最后定稿的各個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)給予細(xì)心指引與教導(dǎo),使我得以最終完成畢業(yè)論文設(shè)計(jì)。在此，謹(jǐn)向兩位老師致以衷心的感謝和崇高的敬意！最后，我要向百忙之中抽時(shí)間對(duì)本文進(jìn)行審閱、評(píng)議和參與本人論文答辯的各位老師表示感謝。

參考文獻(xiàn)

[1]許慎.說文解字[M].北京：中國(guó)書店出版社.1998第1版：32 [2]鄒金宏.禮儀[M].廣東：廣東經(jīng)濟(jì)出版社.1998第1版：6 [3]霍恩比.牛津高階英漢雙解詞典[M].北京：商務(wù)印書館.2002第6版:1325 [4]陳楚君.禮貌原則在商務(wù)英語信函中的運(yùn)用[J].重慶工商大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),2008,(3)[5]Leech, G,N.Principles of Politeness[J].淮陰師范學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版,2002,(3)[6]楊燕.商務(wù)英語信函中的禮貌表現(xiàn)[J].重慶交通大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),2009,(6)[7]楊柳.外貿(mào)英語信函寫作中的運(yùn)用[J].宿州教育學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào),2007,(8)[8]黃東梅.商業(yè)信函中的禮貌策略[J].西南民族大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),2004,(12)

[9]鄭衛(wèi)、汪文格.禮貌與商務(wù)英語信函中禮貌的表現(xiàn)[J].云夢(mèng)學(xué)刊,2002,(23)

第四篇：英語翻譯論文

The Influence to Translation from the Perspectives of

Cultural Background and Thought Style

Abstract …………………………………………………..………………………..……Ⅱ 1.Introduction ………..……………………………………………………………..…..1 2.The specific analysis of the influence to translation from the perspectives

of cultural background and thought style ………..…………………………..…2.1 From the perspective of cultural background…………………………………..….2

2.1.1 The translation of idioms…………………………………………………….3

2.1.2 The translation of enigmatic sayings ………………………………………..4 2.1.3 The translation of allusions …………………………………………………6 2.2 From the perspective of thought style………………….………………….……....7 2.2.1 Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, and western emphasis on reasoning and logic……….……….………..………… ………….......7 2.2.2 Different ways of expression determined by different thought styles …........8 2.2.3 Chinese belief in integration and western belief in individuality………........9 3.Solutions ……………………………………..……………………………....…...….10 3.1 To the problems caused by different cultural backgrounds………………….……10 3.2 To the problems brought about by different thought styles………………….……12 4.Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..……..…...12 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..….......14 Research experience…………………………………………………....…...15 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….…….....…16

I

The Influence to Translation from the Perspectives of

Cultural Background and Thought Style

Abstract: Despite the fact that the world is becoming a global village, translation remains a major way for languages and cultures to interact and influence each other.It is generally accepted that translation, not as a separate entity, blooms into flower under such circumstances like culture, societal functions, politics and power relations.Translation should be the reappearance of the original work.In other words, the image, the artistic effect, and the meaning of the original works should all be successfully delivered in the translated version.But there exist some factors that make it impossible to produce excellent translations.Among the factors that affect translation, different cultural backgrounds and different thought styles are the most influential ones and idioms, enigmatic sayings and allusions are the most culturally specific expressions that cause great difficulties for translators.Thought style is the factor that affects the composition of a sentence, a paragraph, or an article, and even the understanding of them.Because of Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, Chinese characters are pictographic;and because westerners are reasonable and logical, objectivity is the main property of English vocabulary.Some unsuccessful translations resulting from different cultural backgrounds and different thought styles are easy to be found in translated works which is hard for target readers to understand.The aim of this paper is to analyze the elements of cultural background and thought style that affect translation , and then to provide some good methods to overcome these difficulties.Through analyzing these barriers, it can be concluded that, to produce good translated versions, a well awareness of different culture backgrounds, a good command of different thought styles, and an adoption of proper translation methods are needed.In this paper, English-Chinese translation will be the example to be discussed.Key Words:

translation;cultural background;thought style;translation method

摘要：盡管全世界漸漸成為一個(gè)地球村，翻譯仍然是語言和文化之間交流互動(dòng)，相互影響的主要方式之一。翻譯，并不是一個(gè)單一的個(gè)體，它只有在文化，社會(huì)職能，政治和權(quán)力關(guān)系的情境下進(jìn)行才能開枝散葉，這一點(diǎn)已普遍為人們所接受。翻譯應(yīng)該是原著

II 的重現(xiàn)，也就是原著的字面意思與其意象和藝術(shù)性的完美傳達(dá)。在影響翻譯的因素中，文化背景的不同以及思維方式的不同影響最深。在文化因素中，影響最大的是成語、歇后語以及典故。它們最具有文化特色，給譯者帶來很大麻煩。思維方式是影響寫作句子、段落、文章的因素，也是影響對(duì)它們理解的因素。因?yàn)橹袊?guó)人重感性與直覺，所以漢語詞匯較形象；而因?yàn)槲鞣饺酥赝评砼c邏輯，英語詞匯的表意較具有客觀性。一些由文化背景或思維方式不同引起的失敗翻譯隨處可見，它們讓讀者難以理解。這篇論文旨在通過對(duì)文化因素以及思維方式影響翻譯的探討，進(jìn)而提出一些翻譯方法，以解決這些問題。通過對(duì)這兩種因素的研究與分析，發(fā)現(xiàn)要做好翻譯，我們就必須對(duì)不同文化深入了解，對(duì)不同文化背景下的思維方式精通掌握，而且還要適當(dāng)選擇翻譯方法。在本篇論文中，英漢翻譯將作為例子進(jìn)行討論。

關(guān)鍵詞：翻譯；文化背景；思維方式；翻譯方法

III

The Influence to Translation from the Perspectives of

Cultural Background and Thought Style

1.Introduction Eugene A.Nida?s definition of translation is : “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message , first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” It?s a replacement of textual material in one language〔SL〕by equivalent textual material in another language〔TL〕.The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity.In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproducing of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance.Meanwhile, Newmark points out that only by combining both semantic and communicative translation, can we achieve the goal of keeping the ?spirit? of the original.Semantic translation requires the translator retain the aesthetic value of the original, trying his best to keep the linguistic feature and characteristic style of the author.According to semantic translation, the translator should always retain the semantic and syntactic structures of the original.Many translation examples are hard for a native Chinese to understand though it?s both grammatically and semantically right.Why sometimes we cannot get the right meaning from the original type? The problem lies in the improper choice of translation method.Translation should be the reappearance of the original version.In other words, the image and the artistic effect of the original version should all be successfully delivered, not just the meaning of the words in each sentence.There are many factors that affect understanding and translation, and the most influential factors are cultural background and thought style differences.This paper attempts to analyze these two factors.The first is cultural background difference.Language is produced and developed in pace with the production and the development of human culture.The differences of the development in different areas produce various idioms, enigmatic sayings and allusions which are broadly used in their languages.Only a thorough awareness of different cultural

backgrounds of both languages can well serve to produce qualified translated versions.The second is thought style difference and it determined different ways of expression.Easterners emphasize perception and intuition, while westerners are rather reasonable and logical;Chinese people stress ideas while Westerners stress forms, which will affect their respective ways of expression—hypostasis of the latter and the parataxis of the former;furthermore, Chinese people believe in integration while the westerners believe that the individual is the most important.What we can do for the translation is to know the difference and the culture of the two countries well and to make a great translated version.2.The specific analysis of the influence to translation from the perspectives of cultural background and thought style 2.1 From the perspective of cultural background Culture has always been the factor that affects translation most.Different countries develop their specific cultures in the process of history.Language is the embodiment of culture, and in dealing with the translation of the original version, what is most important? It is the culture.Consequently, good management of culture is one of the key points in doing translation.And in culture, idioms, enigmatic sayings and allusions are the most culturally specific expressions that cause great difficulties for translators.the word-for-word translation of the original version are possibly a wrong delivery of the image and the artistic effect of the original version.Furthermore, different cultural backgrounds make language users choose different subjects in describing the same thing because it can completely and accurately deliver the message to different people in different place.Culture has sharp nationality ,different cultures will naturally present different cultural forms.The cultural differences reflected to language is called linguistic difference.Cultural differences and thought style difference between Chinese and Western will cause certain effects.To really master English translation methods and skills, not only on the surface meaning of English words, it is more important to understand the foreign community, culture, historical background , customs and habits, understanding the cultural differences.To study the differences between languages from the perspective of cultural differences, can effectively hold the immanent connection between languages.2.1.1 The translation of idioms An idiom is “a phrase or a sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words, and which must be learnt as a whole unit”.It is produced, always in a historical story, in which some of the words or expressions are taken out to be used, spread and delivered to our modern society.Then idiom is bound to be one of the products of historical culture, and very culturally specific, and to some degree, untranslatable.The following examples aim at finding out some proper methods to overcome the difficulties in idiom translation.Example：鷸蚌相爭(zhēng)

If we translate it word-for-word ,then it will be “A snipe and a clam locked in combat”, foreigners cannot understand the real meaning, what does it mean? What does people want to express when they use this idiom? In fact, only Chinese people know ,there followed by a “profit”.There is a historical story: Long long a ago , there were seven countries in China.Seven countries always fought with each other or attacked one of them to get the right and area.At that time, Zhao ducal against Yan, Sue thought Zhao and Yan fought endlessly, and Qin must get the profit, so it is to say if two parties fight, a third party will benefit, when we translate, in order to easily understand ,we can do :two dogs strive for a bone ,and a third runs away with it.The idiom of the source for the translation is every important.If you want to translate well and truly, at least , you should know where is the source and the background story, not just literal meanings.2.1.2 The translation of enigmatic sayings

An enigmatic saying is “a two parts allegorical saying of which the first part, always

stated, is descriptive, while the second part, some times unstated, carries the massage”.The use of enigmatic sayings is a phenomenon only appears in China, and it is peculiar to Chinese culture.It has in it so many things which are closely related to Chinese culture.If not properly handled, the translated version may not be understood by target readers.As we often mention that “三個(gè)臭皮匠，頂過一個(gè)諸葛亮”，if we translate the literal meaning as “ three cobblers equal Zuge Liang, the mastermind ”, may the foreign people can not know it well.We have read a lot of stories about Zuge Liang, and very familiar with him, but westerner may even not know who is he and also do not know why Zuge Liang get together with stooges.If use the literal translation method, it is difficult to deliver the rich historical and cultural information, therefore, only know the background well and translate a way which is more easy to let the foreign people know.So it can be translated like “ Two heads are better than one “.Enigmatic saying also contains a farmer?s proverbs, such as “ 清明前后，栽瓜種豆 ”.Cobile security prepaid phonelanted beans.In Western countries, Tomb-sweeping Day is not existed, if do not explain clearly , they also don?t know what holiday it is.Thus the weather in Chinese and Western has a big difference, all these elements can cause direct or indirect influence.But if both westerners and easterners can understand the translated version by using general knowledge, we can use literal translation, because enigmatic sayings also need image and the artistic effect of the original version.In sum, different translation methods adapt to different enigmatic sayings.2.1.3.The translation of allusions An allusion is defined as “an implied or indirect reference to something assumed to be known, such as an historical event or personage, a well-known quotation from literature, or a famous work of art”.“牛郎織女”

“牛郎織女” is a very beautiful eternal love story : the east of the Milky Way lived a beautiful girl called Vega, who is the daughter of the Emperor.She worked very hard on the loom woven and make beautiful clothes, hardly have time to dress up herself.God have

mercy on her life alone, allow her to marry a cowboy who lived on the west of the Milky Way.But after Vega married , she waste the textile work.God was so angry, ordered her back to the east side to work and let them meet with each other once a year.Annual autumn of seventh days, we always see crow heads bald, it is because the gigolo knit a meet, uses the crows do bridge and walk over from their head.Nowadays many Westerners know the romantic love story.It is compared to be apart of lovers.The translation between different languages is a one big obstacle of translation and culture is one of the symptoms among them.Culture and language are closely related, not from the culture background of the language system, but not without the use of language reflects the culture.Therefore , due to cultural differences translation problem are inevitable.But under the environment of the international development, ethnic culture infiltrate each other, the cultural differences are gradually being reduced.The unique language of different countries are gradually tends assimilation, words from outside have been accepted by the local people.The effect of cultural difference on translation is desalting due to globalization further communication.2.2 From the perspective of thought style

2.2.1 Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, and western emphasis on reasoning and logic Because of Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, Chinese characters are pictographic;and because westerners are rather reasonable and logical, objectivity is the main property of English vocabulary.Chinese characters are full of images.For example, Chinese character “刀” resembles the image of a knife;“傘”(umbrella), the image of an open umbrella;“日”(sun)and “月”(moon), the image of the sun and moon in the sky, etc.When comparing Chinese character with English vocabulary, it is easy to find that the former is direct and full of images，while the later is objective and functional, without considering the image of a word.Furthermore, Chinese people like using concrete things to symbolize the abstract things.For example, in “兵敗如山”, Chinese people use “如山” to indicate the tendency of being defeated: nothing can resist and nothing can halt it, just like a falling mountain;“蠶食” is

used in Chinese to indicate the aggression is gradually done but never pulled back, just like the silkworms are eating the leaves.These two examples are very good examples to show concrete things symbolizing abstract meanings.In dealing with these translations, we should translate its intended meaning.This kind of translation makes loses in image, but it is understandable.For some of this kind of words, we can translate literally, but it should be based on the understanding of the translated version by using general knowledge.If it can be literally translated without affecting target readers? understanding, it is the best one.2.2.2 Different ways of expression determined by different thought styles Because of different thought styles of western people and Chinese people, there exists a distinct difference between English and Chinese ways of expression.For example, say hello, Chinese like to ask “ do you eat? “ to show his regard, while the foreign people do not know it for real, maybe they will think you want to invite them to dinner instead of thinking it is just a greeting like “how are u”.Chinese people very modest , they always use “ 鄙人，犬子” or some words like that to instead of themselves, because modest it trade as a virtue, but not the Westerners think so.For example, when we be praised, we will say : 慚愧； 不敢當(dāng)；哪里哪里；豈敢，maybe at this time, a foreign people will ask why, because the answer to the praise only one, that is “thank you”.On the eyes of Westerners , Chinese modesty is lack of confidence.For praise, Britain and the United States were frankly accepted and acknowledgments politely.We should pay attention to language and cultural differences when we do translations, unable to translate word-for-word, or it will be ”where where(哪里哪里)”，the kind of Chinese style English jokes.Another case: Did you enjoy your class time？(老師您辛苦了)In China, the greet from students will let teachers pleased, but in British and American culture, the greeting is regarded as the negative of teacher?s ability, very impolite.The specific circumstances, the traditional way of Chinese translation is different from the translation when it is translated into English.We should exchange and learning the thinking way of English and trying to avoid Chinglish translation.To sum up, a good consideration of the differences between English hypostasis and

Chinese parataxis is the foundation of translation.In translation from English to Chinese, after analyzing the property of hypostasis, we can produce paratactic Chinese version, while in translation from Chinese to English, after analyzing the property of parataxis, we can produce hypotactic English version.2.2.3 Chinese belief in integration and western belief in individuality

Chinese focus on the whole, used to one thought : make all to one.Oriental emphasizes holistic and comprehensive, Westerners emphasizes individuality.This can be seen manifestation of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine.Traditional Chinese medicine always make points on the whole, through the basic judging like “望，聞，問，切”.However , western medicine like anatomy, it focuses on the local only.Because of different thought styles, there is a difference in indicating things: the meanings of English words are concrete and specific, while that of Chinese characters are general.For example, when a Chinese say “車來了”, “車” here may refer to “bus”(公共汽車), “truck”(卡車), “taxi”(出租車), “coach”(長(zhǎng)途公共汽車), “car”(轎車), or “minibus”(面包車).Through this we can easily observe that Chinese language is so ambiguous.The concrete and specific feature leads to the numerousness and complexity of English vocabulary.We have to remember them one by one, accurately and broadly, so that we can use it as we want, and produce precisely translated versions.3.Solutions 3.1 To the problems caused by different cultural backgrounds A.Learn the cultures of both languages It is not very easy for a person to live in the environment of two languages.Limit exists for both Chinese learning English and westerners learning Chinese, because of the single language environment they are in.But if we want to do good translation, we have to try our best to learn broadly and deeply the cultures of both languages.Culture comes from history and history has been recorded in books, so reading more books is one of the best ways to

learn different cultures.Moreover, culture comes from classical legend and folk tells, so communication with foreigners, travel to foreign countries, and joining summer camp in western countries are all good ways to learn cultures of other countries.Only after one can handle the cultures of both languages well, can one translate well.B.Adopt proper translation methods There are many translation methods, such as literal translation method, free translation method, transliteration, change of the function of words, etc.There isn?t a perfect translation method, but a proper one in one circumstance.Because literal translation, free translation, transliteration are mostly used, more details about them will be followed.Literal translation refers to the translation that “the SL(source language)grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL(target language)equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved”(Newmark, 2001: 46).The advantage of it is the relatively perfect delivery of the meaning of the words and image of the original;the disadvantage is the difficulty in understanding caused by the cultural default of different nations.Free translation is the translation which “reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original.Usually it?s a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called ?intralingual translation?, often prolix and pretentious”(Newmark, 2001: 46).Take the translation of the sentence “He is a horse” for example, it should be translated into “他跑得很快”.Here, if we translate it into “他是一匹馬”, one is easy to misunderstand it as an obscene sentence.Only if we can translate the essence of it, can the readers really understand the meaning.“Transliteration is that, in order to deliver the main function of the language, the translation is done to reserve the pronunciation of the original language in the target language”(陳宏薇，1998：95).The translation of the brand “Coca-Cola” into “可口可樂” can be judged as a perfect translation.For Chinese pronunciation, the pronunciation of “可口可樂” is very close to that of the brand “Coca-Cola”;for the meaning, in China it means

that it tastes well and it is enjoyable, and the translated version expresses faithfully the meaning, the effect, and the pronunciation.3.2 To the problems brought about by different thought styles A.Learn more words and know how to use them “If a passage is a great building, words should be the bricks of it”(余光中.2002: 105).So it is necessary to learn more words to guarantee the comprehension.As an English learner, one should build up our vocabulary, and learn how to use it and become a good translator.B.Develop the ability of understanding both languages Translation is based on the understanding of the original version, so comprehensive ability is of great importance.Because of the differences of thought styles, the ways of composing sentences, paragraphs, and passages are different, and then the language produced is of great difference.So the ability of understanding the two languages is indispensable for a translator.“Practice makes perfect”.No matter how good you are at choosing proper methods, producing good translation is impossible if you refuse to practice it.4.Conclusion Through the above analysis of the translation examples and the research good methods of translation, we can see, not only should we consider the meaning of the words of the original, but also we should consider the following two factors: cultural backgrounds, and thought styles of different nations.Only a good awareness of the culture backgrounds of both languages can well serve to produce qualified translated works.Easterners, especially Chinese people, emphasize holistic and comprehensive, while westerners are rather reasonable and logical;Chinese people stress ideas while Westerners stress forms;Chinese people believe in integration while the westerners believe that the individual is the most important.Different cultural backgrounds call for our careful handling of cultures of the two nations.Through practice, we can strengthen our understanding and expressing abilities, and produce good translated versions.After all, only when our translation completely consider about the cultural backgrounds

and thought styles of different nations, together with the proper translation methods, can we well deliver the original version with excellent translated version produced.Bibliography

[1] 陳宏薇.漢英翻譯基礎(chǔ)[M].上海：上海外語教育出版社，1998.[2] 陳文伯.英漢成語對(duì)比與翻譯[M].北京：世界書城出版社，2005.[3] 霍恩比(Hornby).牛津高階英漢雙解詞典[M].北京：商務(wù)印書館，2002.[4] 賈文波.應(yīng)用翻譯功能論[M].北京：中國(guó)對(duì)外翻譯出版社，2004.[5] 連淑能.英漢對(duì)比研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社，1993.[6] 陸乃圣.英漢差異與翻譯[M].上海：華東化工學(xué)院出版社，1993.[7] 余光中.余光中談翻譯[M].北京：中國(guó)對(duì)外翻譯出版社，2002.Research experience

The thesis talks about the barriers that affect English-Chinese translation from the perspectives of cultural background and thought style.Translation is a difficult task.In order to provide thesis readers with a better understanding of the translation methods and guarantee a proper adoption of translation methods when they are doing translation, some examples and corresponding analyses have to be included in the thesis.So it is necessary for me to spend much time on data collection and in considering how to organize my thesis.Through the writing of this thesis, I have obtained more knowledge about the differences of Chinese and English, and the causes of them, which can make me recognize how I should use learning strategies to learn English culture and other knowledge well in the future.Moreover, through analyzing these factors and difficulties, I have learned some good translation methods and known how to use them.Acknowledgements

Firstly, great thanks will be given to our institute for giving me this chance to do some attempts to analyze these two barriers to English-Chinese translation.Then, I will thank all the teachers and friends who have helped me to get ideas in writing this thesis.And great thanks should be given to Xihua University Library for providing me with valuable data.The most special thanks will be given to Ms Li Xinxin for her carefulness in helping me to finish this paper.She is a responsible teacher.Without these above assistances, I could not finish this paper, so I want to thank them again.

第五篇：籃球英語翻譯論文

成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

The Translation of English Term of Basketball

Abstract: This article focuses on the discussion of the translation of English term of basketball.The author mainly discusses two aspects about the translation of English term of basketball, which is the definition of translation, the feature of translation of English term of basketball.Through analyzing the current situation of domestic basketball club, in order to achieve the purpose of finding out the influence of translation of English term of basketball on the basketball game.This article proved that a good English translator of basketball is very important.A good translator not only can affect players, coaches and club, but also can affect the result of a basketball game.It can be seen from this article that domestic clubs lack professional translators of English term of basketball now, so domestic clubs need to cultivate the talents of translation of English term of basketball.Keywords: basketball;translation;English

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成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

淺談籃球術(shù)語英語翻譯

摘要：本文是關(guān)于籃球英語術(shù)語翻譯的討論。作者主要從翻譯的基本概念和籃球英語術(shù)語翻譯的特點(diǎn)這兩方面對(duì)籃球英語術(shù)語翻譯進(jìn)行了討論，通過分析籃球俱樂部的現(xiàn)狀，從而達(dá)到找出在籃球比賽中籃球英語術(shù)語翻譯對(duì)比賽的影響的目的。本文證明了一個(gè)好的籃球英語術(shù)語翻譯的重要性。一個(gè)好的籃球英語翻譯不僅能影響球員，教練和俱樂部，而且能影響籃球比賽的結(jié)果。從本文可以看出，目前國(guó)內(nèi)俱樂部缺乏專業(yè)的籃球術(shù)語英語翻譯，所以國(guó)內(nèi)俱樂部需要培養(yǎng)這方面的人才。

關(guān)鍵詞：籃球；翻譯；英語

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成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

Contents

1.Introduction............................................................................................................................1 2.English translation..................................................................................................................1 2.1 Concept of translation.......................................................................................................1 2.2 The word feature of translation of basketball...................................................................2 2.3 The function feature of translation of basketball..............................................................3 3.The feature of translation of basketball..................................................................................3 3.1 The word is lively, interesting and vivid..........................................................................3 3.2 A rich of Compound words...............................................................................................3 3.3 Short term and easy to understand of words....................................................................4 4.The influence of English translation of basketball on basketball game.................................4 4.1 Element which influence the translation..........................................................................4 4.1.1 Interpreters have no standard pronunciation and lack of solid grounding in English........................................................................................................................................4

4.1.2 Management of English interpreters of basketball is not standardized...................5 4.1.3 Interpreters lack experience.....................................................................................5 4.2 Results of translator?s mistake..........................................................................................6 4.2.1 Tactical chaos of basketball.....................................................................................6 4.2.2 Success or failure of competition............................................................................6

5.Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………..6

Reference..................................................................................................錯(cuò)誤！未定義書簽。Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................8

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成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

The Translation of English Term of Basketball

1.Introduction Doctor James Naismith invented the basketball on December 1891.At that time, the purpose of invention of the basketball sports is to let people exercise physical better.But along with the development of the economy and the entertainment, in today's society，basketball has developed into a purely commercial movement, exercise is no longer the main purpose of playing basketball , more important is to earn much money.With NBA which represents the highest level basketball of the world entered into China since 1987, basketball sports has started to spread in China day and day.But with the improvement and development of the competitive level of basketball, the domestic local basketball players have been unable to meet the needs of the development level of basketball.Thus a large number of international basketball players began to enter the domestic market.Along with their entering, it brought a series of problems, and one of them is communication.In this situation, the translation of basketball plays an important role.This article focuses on the English translation of term of basketball, and the author tries to find out the influence of translation of English term of basketball on the basketball game.2.English translation

2.1 Definition of translation Translation refers to conversion of meaning from one language to another language.Simply put, it is an art of reproducing the author?s exact idea by means of another language from the original.According to the above definition of translation, author knows that the original thought of the expression should be retained as far as possible.Nothing should be added or taken away from the original work.Therefore, two essential elements should be involved in translation: accuracy and expressiveness.Accuracy is the first indispensable quality of translation.A translator should prudently adhere to the author?s idea, which means that the diction selected and syntactic structure must convey the exact original thought.Expressiveness is to make the translation readily understood.In other words, the translator

成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

must express the author?s idea as clearly and as forcibly as translator can by the medium translator employs.Accuracy is to make the translation definite and exact;while expressiveness is to make the translation vivid and attractive.There are many kinds of definitions of translation.With regards to translation, people can not simply define as “a kind of language of another kind of form.” With the development of translation theory and practice, translators are on the translation of the continuous generation of new knowledge, different translators, and translators in different periods of translation are also different interpretations of the concept, which explain the strengths and weaknesses, while others are more comprehensive, and some are more one-sided.Giving an accurate definition of translation is a thorny issue.At present, there are many kinds of definitions, and here are some typical definitions.ZhangPeiji thinks that translation is an activity of language which uses one language to express contents of another language accurately and completely.(Zhangpeiji, 1921)Caiyi thinks that translation is a language used to convey the information expressed in another language.(Caiyi, 1927)Fengqinghua believes that translation is a kind of activity in many languages, it is in a language form to another form of language where the contents of the re-shown by the language of practical activities.Translation is an art, is a re-creation of language arts.(Fengqinghua, 1958)Catford, a famous English translation theorist believes that the definition may be translated this way: put the chapter materials in a language in the chapter material in another language to be replaced.Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.(Eugene Nida, 1914)2.2 The word feature of translation of basketball To use ordinary indefinite tense instead of simple past tense, in order to express more vividly and effectively.For example, “The final score is 98 to 82 in the whole game.”；“Rockets beat Lakers 55 to 50 at first half.”

To use passive sentences express active significance.In general, when an appropriate action is issued, there is no need to be mentioned, or it is difficult to say people who want to emphasize the use of action of bearer.For example, “He got a nice ball.”

To use the imperative sentences frequently and simple language is necessary.For

成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

example, “Well saved”(漂亮的救球)，”good shot”(好球).Though these sentences have no subject, it expresses the meaning clearly, so there is no problem to understand.In general, the imperative sentences are so short that the recipient of language can not be understood the meaning clearly.2.3 The function of translation

The communication is the main function of English translation of basketball。Firstly translator must understand coach?s meaning, and then translators express the coach?s meaning to players clearly.Let the players understand the coach?s requirements and execute tactical better on the pitch and play their competitive level effectively.On the other hand, good translation can make foreign and local players? communicate with each other better, and make them cooperate better on the pitch.For example, translation can make foreign and local players know how to confirm their own positions and what they should do in the pitch.3.The characteristics of the words translating basketball games 3.1 Words of being lively In the translation of basketball, the words used are lively, interesting and vivid.For example, ?Pick?, it usually means selecting one from many things, but in the English term of basketball, people translate ?cover?.It means attacking players standing on one side or standing behind enemy defensive players to hinder defensive players.And ?press?, people usually translate ?use hands or something push something down?.In the English term of basketball, people translate ?tight defensive?.It includes “full-court press”, “half-court press”, “zone press”, “one-man press” and “two-man press”.There are many similar examples in the translation of English term of basketball, these words are vivid, and they make the translation of English term of basketball express more accurately.3.2 Rich in Compound words There are many compound words in English term of basketball.These compound words not only make the English term of basketball richer, but also break through the bound of basketball English.Such as ?free-throw?，when the foul will be appeared in game, it?s ?free-throw? time.And ?away game?, a basketball team goes to other city to play game, this situation we call ?away game?.The common meaning of “free agent” is an agent of institution.成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

In basketball English, it means a player who his contract expires, also means this professional player not bound by contract.There are two kinds of free agent: unrestricted free agent and restricted free agent.“behind-the-back”，in basketball game, this words have two meanings.One means when one player dribbles, he hides his ball behind his body, in order to avoid the defense;another means pass the ball behind his body, in order to the ball not to be stole.And in common translation, this word just means behind somebody.This kind of compound word not only so short that players can understand clearly in competitive game, it not only avoids long words wasting time, but also reduces translators? pressure and makes players can understand better.So the compound words are very important in basketball game.3.3 Short terms of words The words of basketball English is a kind of special vocabulary, many simple words have specific meaning in basketball English.Such as “tie”, the common meaning of tie is knotting something, but in English of basketball, tie means the game?s score is the same.Words are very short in the translation of English term of basketball.The feature is that it is intend to use less word as far as possible to express complicated meaning in the translation of English term of basketball, and make player understand couch?s arrangement quickly in competitive game.For example, ?charging foul? means when you are dribbling, you are hitting the opposite player at the same time.?Double team? means that using two players to defense a player.In the game, coaches just use these words to express his meaning.“Chest”, in common translation, it means a part above the waist and below the neck of our body.But in basketball translation, it means pass the ball before this part.This kind of short can save the time and let the information of coaches and players transfers quickly.4.The influence of the translation of English terms of basketball on basketball game.4.1 Elements which influence the translation 4.1.1 The interpreters’ language ability.To solve the problem of communication of between foreign players and local players in matches and trainings is the main purpose of club.The continuity of the basketball training process and specialization of technical requirements requires that translators should be quick，成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

accurate and efficient in language transformation.Especially in the game, the translation should be highlighted more effectively and accurately.Then foreign players just can improve their execution and play their competition effectively.Otherwise, it may cause the club?s unnecessary losses.So translators? level is very important for club.Most English translators have bilingual ability, but the masters? degrees are relatively few and lack the ability of good oral and written expression.Some translators have never take part in basketball game before, and they are more likely to make mistakes when translators translate some technical terms of basketball game terms.And the pronunciation of translator is not standard and often make player can not understand clearly.4.1.2 No standardized management The translation of English term of basketball is a new career.From the training, qualified certifications to obtain employment is the system of choosing an eligible translator of English terms of basketball.Currently there aren?t any special training institutions which can help choose the translation talents who accord with the requirements of basketball club, so it lacks the resource of professional basketball English translation talents.On the other hand, there aren?t any special administrative departments managing the English translators of basketball club.There are also no relevant service standards and qualified evaluation system in basketball management institution.This situation makes clubs are lack of effective way when they find translators.4.1.3 No translation training of basketball terminology

Ensuring proper training and correct translation of basketball game is the core of club work, so club?s translators must know the sports English and basketball English very well;they also must be familiar with the basic terms of basketball sports.Generally speaking, not only they need the ability of listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation, but also they should be able to deeply understand the various tactics terminology and truly comprehend the tactical intentions in terms of language expression.So if club can?t grasp this, it is difficult to finish the job.The translation of English term of basketball is a new career.Due to starting late，the development of this career is relatively immature.The translators? work ability of this field will be influenced by actual work experience.The investigation of researchers found that the

成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

professional basketball translators only worked 2 years on average, so it is unavoidable to lack work experience compare with the other industries.This will affect their working level.If translators make mistakes at the last moment of pitch or they don?t know terminology well, there are many mistakes and can?t communicate swimmingly.It is not accurate the meaning that some translators expresses between players and coaches.It is different between English translators and sports professional translators.Now more foreign coaches come to local basketball club, the club also needs foreign coaches to communicate with local coaches and players through sports professional translators.If foreign coaches need players to practice the tactics of “half-court press”, but translator translated “half press”, players will be confused.So sports professional translators are important to team.Author thinks that if there is a serious mistake in the translation it may affect results of competition or lose game.4.2 Results of translator’s mistakes

4.2.1 Tactical Chaos of Basketball Coach is a leader of a team.Coach?s words and tactic is order.Translator is a person who conveys order to foreign players.If the translators have no good level, they can not express couch?s meaning clearly, and then players can not executive couch?s tactics very well.On the other hand, foreigner players must communicate with local players, not only in the game or training, but also in life.The communication must be helped by translators.So a unqualified translator can make foreign players and local players appear turnovers frequently and not trippingly cooperate with each other，because they can not communicate with each other very well.4.2.2 Success or failure of competition The result of tactics chaos is losing the game at a critical moment.For example, at the key moment in the game, coach needs players to use the tactical of full-court press, but translator translates it to the foreign players as half-court press.Finally, due to the foreign player?s mistake makes club lose the game.After losing the game, the players probably will blame each other.Then the harmony of a team may be damaged.Coach will lose trust to foreign players.In today's society, basketball has developed into a purely commercial movement.So the game is related to club?s profit, if players lose the game, the club will suffer a loss.So a good translator can not only directly affect the players, but also can

成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

indirectly affect the game as well as the club?s business.5.Conclusion

It can be seen that a translator of English term of basketball can affect the players and the achievement of club.Through analyzing, author thinks that if somebody needs to be a good English translator of basketball term, not only the translators must have good English foundation, but also have much knowledge of basketball.So a good translator of English term of basketball is important to players, coaches and club.成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

Reference Bell, Roger T.Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice.Beijin: Foreign Language and Education Press, 2007.J．C.Catford.Linguistic of translation theory.Oxford University, 1965.Maria Tymoczko, Edwin Gentzler.Translation and power.Beijin: Foreign Language and Education Press, 2007.Nida,EugeneA.Language, culture and translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language and Education Press, 1993.程蘭芝.體育開臺(tái)sports English.世界圖書出版公司，2003.胡本東.中國(guó)職業(yè)籃球俱樂部體育英語翻譯人員現(xiàn)狀及發(fā)展和對(duì)策研究.濟(jì)寧學(xué)院體育系，山東，曲阜，2008.馬國(guó)力.體育英語.外語教學(xué)與研究出版社，2002.譚載喜.翻譯學(xué).武漢：湖北教育出版社，2000.趙桂華.翻譯理論與技巧.哈爾濱：哈爾濱工業(yè)大學(xué)出版，2002.http://fanyixueyuan.scientrans.com/tiyufanyi/Index.html 2010/4/23

成都信息工程學(xué)院銀杏酒店管理學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)論文

Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor Miss Xie for her invaluable guidance, enthusiasm and support throughout the course of this work.I am also very grateful to Owen Zhang for her helpful comments and insightful suggestions during the research and writing of this thesis.I would also like to thank Tonney for taking the time to help me.Many other people have helped and contributed their time to the research of this thesis.My thanks to Miss Min for their invaluable comments and suggestions.I would also like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude toward everyone in the English Department of Yinxing University, especially Miss Min, Mr Hou, for their valuable suggestions and help in these two years of study as well as their friendship.Thanks to all the other friends I have made at Yinxing University for making my stay at campus an enjoyable period of time.I will always be indebted to my family, especially my parents Sujianping and Xuhuiping.I would like to thank them for their support and confidence in me.My gratitude goes to everyone at home.This thesis would not have been possible without all their kindness and encouragement.