第一篇：建筑英文文獻及翻譯

外文原文出處: NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009, Increasing Seismic Safety by Combining Engineering Technologies and Seismological Data, Pages 147-149

動力性能對建筑物的破壞

引言：建筑物在地震的作用下，和一些薄弱的建筑結構中，動力學性能扮演了一個很重要的角色。特別是要滿足最基本的震動周期，無論是在設計的新建筑，或者是評估已經有的建筑，使他們可以了解地震的影響。

許多標準(例如：歐標，2003；歐標，2006)，建議用簡單的表達式來表達一個建筑物的高度和他的基本周期。這樣的表達式被牢記在心，得出標定設計(高爾和喬譜拉人，1997)，從而人為的低估了標準周期。因為這個原因，他們通常提供比較低的設計標準當與那些把設計基礎標準牢記在心的人(例：喬普拉本和高爾，2000)。當后者從已進行仔細建立的數字模型中得到數值(例：克勞利普和皮諾，2004；普里斯特利權威，2007)。當數字估計與周圍震動測量的實驗結果相比較，有大的差異，提供非常低的周期標準(例：納瓦洛蘇達權威，2004)。一個概述不同的方式比較確切的結果刊登在馬西和馬里奧(2008)；另外，一個高級的表達式來指定更有說服力的堅固建筑類型，提出了更加準確的結構參數表(建筑高度，開裂，空隙填實，等等)。

聯系基礎和上層建筑的震動周期可能發生共振的效果。這個原因對于他們的振動，可能建筑物和土地在非線性運動下受到到破壞，這個必須被重視。通常，結構工程師和巖土工程師有不同的觀點在共振作用和一些變化的地震活動。結構工程師們認為盡管建筑物和土壤的自振周期和地震周期都非常的接近。但對于建筑物周期而言，到底是因為結構還是非結構造成的破壞提出了疑問。如果加大振動，建筑物減輕自身的重量對共振產生的破壞有很大的減輕效果。巖土工程的工程師們還沒有完全同意這個觀點，因為土壤可以提高自身的振動周期，與建筑物有相同的振動周期，從而建立了產生共振的條件。這個問題的處理在于這個增加量到底是多少？一般來說這種答案是不可能的，因為它取決于建筑類型和土壤類型。例如，一些普通的混凝土建筑物，對這建筑物增加一個非常大的震動周期，可以知道在平常的振動下就會迅速的遭到破壞，尤其是那些砌體建筑，比如，馬雪凱利建筑(2004)和克勞福建筑(2006)。

最后，估計在改裝或者加固后參數表數字的變化，通過計算機計算來改變標準的振動周期，阻尼因數和振動波形。這可以是一個非常好的評估工具對于存在的一些干擾(法拉斯等，2008)。這種效果也可以作為一種診斷工具，對周圍的振動測量很有幫助(布丁和漢斯，2008)。

對以上問題的進一步研究，強烈要求建立更加寬廣的原地實驗或者是實驗室實驗，得出實驗結果來估算。用一個經濟實用的方式，來營造動態特性。

Role of Dynamic Properties on Building Vulnerability NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009, Increasing Seismic Safety by Combining Engineering Technologies and Seismological Data, Pages 147-149 Introduction Dynamic properties have a major role on the seismic behavior and vulnerability of building structures.Particularly, fundamental periods of vibration are needed, both in design of new buildings and in assessment of existing ones, so that their seismic response can be evaluated.Several codes(e.g.CEN, 2003;NZSEE, 2006)recommend empirical simplified expressions between the height of a building type and its fundamental period.Such expressions were calibrated keeping in mind a force-based design(Goel and Chopra, 1997), thus intentionally aim at underestimating period values.For this reason they usually provide rather low values when compared to those ones obtained keeping in mind a displacement-based design(see e.g.Chopra and Goel, 2000), also when the latter were obtained from numerical simulations performed on carefully set up models(see e.g.Crowley and Pinho, 2004;Priestley et al., 2007).Even larger differences appear when numerical estimates are compared to experimental results based on ambient vibration measurements that provide very low period values(see e.g.Navarro et al., 2004).An overview of the different approaches together with a comparison of the relevant results is reported in Masi and Vona(2008);further, period-height expressions for some reinforced concrete building types are given, where the role of important structural characteristics(building height, cracking, masonry infills, elevation irregularities, etc.)is carefully taken into account.Coupling between soil and building fundamental periods of vibration may cause resonance effects.For this reason also their variation, as a consequence of possible building damage and/or soil non linear behavior during the motion, needs to be considered.Typically, structural and geotechnical engineers have different points of view about resonance effect and its variation during a seismic motion.Structural engineers say that whereas building and soil have initially close periods and an earthquake occurs, the building period, as a result of structural and non structural damage, is expected to increase during the motion, so that the building “hides” itself reducing the heaviest effects of resonance.Geotechnical engineers do not completely agree with this opinion saying that also the soil period can shift towards higher values, that is in the same direction of the building one, thus the resonance condition could arise again.The question to be dealt with is: how much is the relative amount of that increase? A general answer is not possible, as it depends on building and soil type.For example, in case of reinforced concrete buildings with masonry infill, a very large increase of the building period can be expected with the level of shaking due to cracking of structural members and, particularly, of brittle masonry infill, see e.g.Mucciarelli et al.(2004), Calvi et al.(2006).Finally, estimating the variation of the dynamic characteristics after retrofitting or strengthening interventions, by computing the modified values of fundamental periods, damping factors and mode shapes, can be a practical tool to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention(Farsi et al., 2008).To this purpose and also as a diagnosis tool, ambient vibration measurements can be very helpful(Boutin and Hans, 2008).All the above questions strongly require that further studies as well wide in-situ and laboratory experimental campaigns are carried out to set up procedures able to evaluate, in a reliable as well not expensive way, building dynamic properties.

第二篇：英文文獻翻譯

數字印刷的未來

------北大方正的董事長劉小琨在國際論壇上對于印刷技術的發展的發言

在我們外國友人介紹了他們的數字印刷技術和創新后，我想借這次機會去介紹北大方正對于印刷業的想法。

北大方正是一個基于它擁有自己的偉大的獨立的技術，服務與全球媒體行業的技術公司。我們提供一個先進的商業模式和一個廣闊的市場營銷觀點。我們提供報紙和出版行業的一個從最初的內容到最終的內容出版的完整的應用程序解決方案。我們提供商業印刷公司印刷過程的一個完整的解決方案和印前，印刷，印后的管理，并提供政府機關完整和可靠的系統制作和發送官方文件。

數字印刷和北大方正的造詣

作為數字印刷，我相信它包含三個方面，第一方面是數字化的生產流程，第二個方面是印刷過程，第三個方面是管理。

首先，我想去解釋生產流程的數字化。生產流程的數字化包括排版，imposition，打樣，制版，印刷，印前JDF指令和工作流程。隨著技術的發展，數字化生產流程已經包含越來越多的項目。印刷技術已經改變了激光圖像雕刻到CTP和數字印刷，從印前的數字化到印前，印刷和印后的集成。數字化生產流程是數字印刷的基礎。它是效率、質量和成本的一個重要保證。

生產流程的數字化將必然導致印刷內容的數字化。數字化文件基于更方便長距離傳輸的文件格式。這需要我們去創建一個可存儲、查詢和轉載的印刷文件數據庫，提供印刷購買者較好的印刷服務。電子通訊、圖書和雜志已經成為印刷媒體多次輸入及輸出技術的一個重要的完整的模型技術。

最后，管理數字化已成為印刷數字化的一個重要的部分。管理數字化包括設置印刷服務網絡，它指的是自動提供更快的服務報價，跟蹤工作等等。管理數字化還包括加強員工和財產資源的管理，項目管理的準確的項目計算，客戶關系管理系統的市場和銷售數據庫的實現，以及編輯、印刷、分工的集成管理。管理數字化已經越來越緊跟生產流程的數字化的腳步。

印刷數字化的這三個方面是我的觀點。那么方正在這三個方面已經做了或者實現了什么呢？ 方正在生產流程的數字化的實現是包含一下產品在內的，包括方正FIT頁面布局軟件，Wenhe 拼版軟件，EagleProof，EagleDot 數碼打樣，語言文體庫，RIP，打印控制器，ElecRoc 工作流程和CTP，EasiPrint 數碼印刷系統和SuperLine 防偽系統。同時在印刷內容數字化中，方正有多媒體內容系統和數字化資產管理印刷系統。我們在數字化管理上也有RIP和分配系統。對于數字化印刷，方正已經做了很多貢獻。

我們現在看看全球印前數字化的進程。CTF已經進入了它的發展的最后階段。CTF已經在其發展的頂峰。數字化彩色印刷正在迅速發展。

數碼印刷的全球趨勢

數字化印前軟件的全球進程是怎樣呢？我們可以看到，RIP應用程序已經達到了頂峰。印刷和可變數據印刷正迅速發展，同時完整綜合的印刷工作流程在穩健地發展。中國的印刷趨勢與全球印刷趨勢有一點點差異。這些差異體現在發達地區和發展中地區。發展中地區需要很長時間和很大空間去達到發達地區的水平。

接下來讓我們去看看CTP的趨勢。我之前已經提到，CTF已經進入它的生命周期的最后階段，但是它仍有一些新的發展，原因如下：成熟的CTF生產流程，集成系統的特性，高成本高效率的性能，高投資高回報的性能，廣泛的市場基礎和在中國不同地區，需求的不同。在中國接下來的三年里，CTF的就職人員數量每年將約100人。在接下來的幾年里，CTF和CTP將并存在市場上。

對于CTP，在一些發達國家和發達地區，它已經十分受歡迎。由于CTP的全面數字化，CTP的生命歷程將比CTF的生命歷程長。在中國，CTP仍處于一個發展的階段。隨著CTP設備和制版的價格的降低，CTP應用程序將使生產最大化。從2006年起，在中國，CTP的安裝已經達到750臺，以后的每年增加200-300臺。我們相信未來的幾年里，CTP將以高成本高效率的性能成為印刷市場的主流。至于全球市場，我們可以看到，CTP的應用程序的發展在美國變得越來越慢，同時，在歐洲，CTP應用程序的發展也變得平緩，但是在中國和南美，CTP仍處于一個快速增長的階段。

接下來我想分享一下數字化工作流程的所有應用趨勢。CTP和工作流程組成CTP系統。CTP的安裝不僅僅是對設備的購買，而是擁有工作流程軟件，程序，制版和系統設備。基于JDF/JDF的工作流程能夠連接印前到印刷到印后，它已經成為CTP系統的核心。我想在這兒提到的是：方正的ElecRoc 工作流程系統和CTP 應用技術是被特別設計的，符合中國（和亞洲）的印刷企業。對于工作流程來說，網點，色彩管理，字體語言庫，捕捉和油墨控制是最重要的組成部分。正在應用的是膠印和數碼印刷合成的集成工作流程。在印刷企業里，對于公司的管理，緊密結合ERP系統的數字化工作流程將變成基本的平臺。

現在，讓我們來看一下印刷進程的全球趨勢。從2005年到2010年，膠印，數碼印刷和附加服務的全球百分比將會增加。印刷進程中將逐漸從膠版印刷向數碼印刷，然后再向附加服務轉移。

傳統膠印雖然仍處于正在增長的趨勢，但是它在印刷市場所占的份額卻正在下降，而數碼印刷所占印刷市場的份額正以我們可見的狀態迅速增長。這是印刷工藝的一個改變，盡管在未來很長一段時間里，膠印將仍然是印刷技術的主要力量。由于數碼印刷的快速增長，它將提高它在印刷市場的份額。數碼印刷有短版活件，可變數據印刷，高速印刷，遠程印刷和印刷個性化這些特殊的優勢。印刷現在不僅僅是一個工藝，它還讓我們有廣泛的為購買者提供附加服務的機會。

下面是我們對噴墨印刷發展的看法。從2005年到2010年，在商業印刷的領域里，直郵，傳統印刷，包裝印刷，標簽和出版都將快速發展。直郵行業的增長率將達到24%，包裝印刷將達到60%，標簽印刷將達到39.9%。我們可以得出結論，噴墨印刷即將突破中國市場。

噴墨印刷發展是隨著數碼印刷發展起來的，干墨粉成像是最受歡迎的成像技術。但是由于格式，速度和襯底的限制，干墨粉成像技術的發展面臨限制。以上所有的限制和劣勢都能夠被克服來滿足生產的需求。噴墨印刷技術近年來已經在迅速發展，并且將成為數碼印刷的主流。在包裝，標簽和出版領域，噴墨印刷的行業增長率將顯著增加。數碼印刷將隨著高性能印刷服務和工作流程的支持而發展。

印刷行業不僅僅是一個制造行業或者是一個服務行業，而更重要的是，也是繼承我們民族文化的一個最初的行業。全球印刷行業是非常大的，收入多達六千億美元。它對于中國，是一個挑戰，更是一個機會。面對如此激烈的競爭，全球印刷購買者想要尋求擁有更好的成本效益性能的印刷服務的提供者。中國印刷行業將持續創新和發展。印刷質量的改善和印刷服務的成本優勢將使得中國成為國際合作印刷服務的供應商。

數碼印刷為印刷需求帶來新的機會，為客戶提供個性化印刷和短版印刷。它為附加服務提供了極大的潛在的機會。傳統印刷將與數碼印刷共存，并且通過集成的工作流程一起工作。基于互聯網的電子期刊將對紙質出版帶來一些影響，但對于整個印刷行業，它幾乎沒有影響。

基于之前提到的數碼印刷的不同方面，方正提供一個集成的從工作流程的數字化到內容創建再到管理的解決方案。這個集成的解決方案包含從手稿的最初材料到成品的最終出版的完整的工作流程的管理。它是一個基于數字化內容資源管理和資源管理工作流程的平臺。在這個集成的解決方案里，方正也為每一個領域提供個性化的解決方案。

結語

最后，我想總結一下方正對于數碼印刷的看法。數字化技術不僅僅為印刷行業提供了先進的工具，還提供了準確的管理方法。數字化技術使得印刷，出版和信息服務合成一體成為可能。它將改變印刷和出版的配置。它將帶來新的機遇。方正將致力于中國印刷和出版行業和其他隨從行業的技術改進。

第三篇：英文文獻翻譯

2.2 影響SO3濃度的過程因素

一直減少的體積流量和引入的富氧燃燒過程的煙氣循環增加了煙氣中SO3的濃度。例如Ochs等人計算的SO2濃度從空氣燃燒條件中的200ppm增加到富氧燃燒條件中900ppm，Kakaras等人估算的以褐煤為基礎時模型由空氣到O2/CO2（有循環的）時，SO2濃度從270ppm增加到到800ppm。

試驗結果說明雖然實際中SO2的濃度依賴于很多的因素（概括在表4中），但是從空氣燃燒到富氧燃燒SO2的濃度增加2-4倍。對于同一個研究中濕煙氣循環（沒有凝結水）已經表明它比干煙氣循環（在循環之前使水凝結）的SO2的濃度的高。

表4 富氧燃燒條件下影響熔爐中SO2濃度的因素

變量控制因素相關結果

燃料中硫煤的質量

礦物質煤/灰分的質量

理論配比需煤的質量

求的氧氣量

（燃料/O2比率）

過量O2，火焰的控制

階級風/燃盡風

氧濃度火焰的控制

煙氣循環的比率火焰的控制

一次風/二次風

送風量，速度的型線

煙氣的雜質（空氣分離單元，不

O2,N2,Ar,H2O）控制的空氣入口

酸露點熱量傳遞的控制灰分的化學成分，SO3/SO2的轉化，H2SO4的轉化 飛灰中Na,K,Ca,Mg傾向于形成硫酸鹽從而減少SO2的濃度。在飛灰中硫的捕獲率依賴于數量，微粒粒徑，金屬氧化物在灰分中的形成和分布。更高濃度的水分和灰分使燃料/O2的比值更小。S的生成物H2S和COS在還原氣氛中間斷的形成，焦炭的燃盡影響影響整個燃料中硫元素的轉化。碳的燃盡，火焰的溫度，傳遞給鍋爐的輻射熱。通過燃燒器的煙氣流體積的改變，稀釋/SO2的循環。通過燃燒器的氣體流體積發生改變，SO2稀釋 在煙氣酸露點下運行的熱量交換單元將會導致H2SO4的沉

積而引起腐蝕的問題。在富氧燃燒條件下，特定的煙氣溫度

將發生改變，SO3和H2O的濃度也將隨著改變。

第四篇：建筑項目招投標外文翻譯外文文獻英文文獻

Building engineering bidding

Abstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding work.Because the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.key : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasures Bidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism.Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender.Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills.All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective

understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding.The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding.Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a

general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents.If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation.The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme.In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instruments.Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding.Bidding documents are the legal instruments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents-making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of legal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice.However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks.This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding(project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy.This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation.Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures.In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved.The spirit of “the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price” principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity.Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity.Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects.The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the work

Construction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender.I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for Tender The meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives，according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention.Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits;construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significance Construction Cost Management from the “quantity-one price” plan model to “price of separation volume” model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs.In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing.Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model.With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative.Therefore, “the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder” My future is the most important evaluation methods.At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China

at this stage “ in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost.This article is a scientific and fast set ”reasonable cost“ to study the key.First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates.Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through ”close-degree,“ the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a ”framework structure,“ the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the ”quantity-one price“ plan model to ”price of separation volume“ model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the ”open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market.In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.建筑項目招投標

摘要:目前在工程建設項目行業中，以工程招投標為特征的建筑市場已經形成，施工企業為創造良好經濟效益，必須嚴格控制成本，加強成本控制管理，才能提高市場適應能力和競爭力。本文從降低成本、增加收入兩方面闡述對施工成本的有效控制。投標文件的編制是投標工作的一個重要環節，直接影響投標工作的成敗，投標的成敗對企業的生存和發展有著直接的影響，因此要編制出高質量的投標文件，提高單位的中標率，防止無效標及廢標出現。關鍵詞：

招投標

不正當競爭

防范對策

招標投標是一種工程交易形式，工程招投標的過程就是確定中標人和工程價格的過程，而工程價格的確定，是工程招投標工作中非常重要的一個環節，搞好招投標工程的價格確定工作，可以有效地控制工程造價，創造公平、公正的市場環境，營造有序競爭的機制。在建筑工程招標投標活動中，建筑施工企業要想在投標中立于不敗之地，中標得到工程，然后又要從承包工程中贏利，就需要綜合考慮各種主觀條件與客觀因素、研究投標策略，確定投標方法。

投標策略包括投標策略和作價技巧。所有的策略和技巧來自承包商的無數次投標的經驗積累以及對客觀規律的認識和對實際情況的了解，同時也與承包商的決策能力和魄力息息相關。

從招標進程上講，招標文件是招標活動的總綱和劇本。每項招標工作如何開始，如何發出招標文件，對投標人有什么要求，如何評標，如何決標，招標程序是什么，都在招標文件中做出規定，所以編制招標文件的人員首先要對本次招標工作有一個全局性的認識，把本次招標的要求和安排反映到招標文件當中，在編制當中也會遇到事先沒有想到的問題，那就在編制當中逐一解決，編制招標文件的過程也是制定招標方案的過程。

從另一個意義上來講，招標文件也是法律文件，除了相關的法律法規外，在招標的全過程中招標人，投標人，招標代理機構共同遵循的游戲規則就是招標文件，這是參加招標工作三方人士必須遵循的法律文件，具有法律效力，所以編制招標文件的人員須有法律意識和素質，在招標文件中體現出公平、公正、合法的要求。

我國建筑工程招投標法實施以及工程施工監理制度的實踐，對規范我國建筑市場、提高建筑工程施工質量，起到了積極的作用。但是在實施過程中存在不

少缺陷，需要完善、充實和提高。本工程招標文件根據《中華人民共和國招投標法》規定，對投標人，投標企業進行嚴格把關，對競標者提出了專業性的要求，對工程的概況進行了說明。

目前在工程建設項目行業中，以工程招投標為特征的建筑市場已經形成，施工企業為創造良好經濟效益，必須嚴格控制成本，加強成本控制管理，才能提高市場適應能力和競爭力。本文從降低成本、增加收入兩方面闡述對施工成本的有效控制。

我國建筑工程招投標法實施以及工程施工監理制度的實踐，對規范我國建筑市場、提高建筑工程施工質量，起到了積極的作用。但是在實施過程中存在不少缺陷，需要完善、充實和提高。本工程招標文件根據《中華人民共和國招投標法》規定，對投標人，投標企業進行嚴格把關，對競標者提出了專業性的要求，對工程的概況進行了說明。

實行工程招投標的目的是為了市場競爭的公開、公平、公正。但是，由于建筑市場發育尚不規范，管理體制的束縛以及經驗不足等原因，建筑工程招標投標在具體操作中還存在不正當競爭行為和一些弊端。這顯然違背了招投標的目的，整個招標投標過程也就失去了意義，對其他未中標的投標人來講也是不公正的，擾亂了招投標（工程承發包市場）經濟活動秩序，對于這類行為必須予以禁止，只有這樣，才能使建設工程競爭性交易活動依法健康運行。因此本課題將結合本人所學及社會實踐，對目前的建設工程招投標制度及現狀進行闡述，并針對建設工程招投標存在的弊端與不正當競爭行為現象及產生原因進行分析，最后做出相應的防范對策研究。

造價管理體系的建設，既包括理論上的探討，又需要實踐中的創新。市場經濟條件下的工程造價管理，要為建筑市場有序競爭搭建管理服務平臺。在這樣一個大前提下，原有的定額和計價方法是不適應的，這就需要改革和完善。本著“政府宏觀調控、企業自主報價、市場形成價格”的原則，來推行實施工程量清單計價規范。清單計價模式下招投標活動是建立在市場經濟運行機制下，依據法律程序，以科學、公正、公開合理的方法確定中標人的一種經濟活動。招投標是構成招標投標活動中兩個最基本的環節。而招投標活動，無非是想通過招標，選擇一家具有工

工程施工能力、造價適中、質量較優、工期較短的施工企業，這也是進行招標的最終目的。本人在實習過程中曾參與過多個項目的招投標工作，并完成過

部分工程量清單的計算，結合畢業設計過程中的體會，簡要分析一下工程量清單計價模式下的招投標工作。

從風險的內涵和建設工程一般性風險特點出發，了建設工程最低價格密封招標法的幾種風險及其產生的誘因，根據其特性探討了風險控制與防范的可行性。比較了工程擔保與工程保險這兩種工程風險管理異同與優點；并對建設工程招投標過程中的投標人的行為特征進行了分析，揭示投標人的風險偏好行為特征隨著外部環境的改變而變化，當違約懲罰較輕時，投標人偏向于追求風險，而隨著違約懲罰標準加大超過某一值后，投標人表現出的風險行為改變為偏向于規避風險，懲罰標準越大投標人行為偏向于更加規避風險，這一結果對控制和防范投標人的行為風險具有重要的與現實意義。

工程造價管理由“量價合一”的計劃模式向“量價分離”的市場模式轉變，逐步建立市場形成價格為主的價格機制，把價格的決定權交給參與市場的各方，并最終通過市場來配置資源，從而真正實現通過市場機制決定工程造價。這對規范建筑市場的競爭行為和促進工程招標投標機制的創新發揮重要作用。可以說，實行工程量清單計價是我國工程造價管理制度的一大進步，也是在我國加入WTO后，與全球建筑業同行競爭的有力工具。

隨著工程建筑市場的深入發展，傳統的定額計價模式已不適應市場化經濟發展的需要。為了適應目前工程招投標由市場形成工程造價的需要，必須對現行工程計價方法和計價模式進行改革，實行工程量清單計價。工程量清單計價模式是一種與市場經濟相適應的、允許承包單位自主報價、通過市場競爭確定價格、與國際慣例接軌的計價模式。隨著工程量清單計價模式的推廣，按國際慣例招標投標勢在必行。因此“最低合理價中標”是我國今后最主要的評標辦法。現階段因實施工程量清單計價模式而出現的問題主要有，針對我國現階段《招標投標法》中規定的最低合理價中標的原則，多數承包商尚未建立自己的企業定額，無法確定企業的合理成本。本文就是以科學、快捷的確定“合理成本價”為研究的關鍵。首先從工程成本的基本概念入手，分析了工程量清單計價模式下的成本構成，為準確預測工程成本提供了基礎，綜合考慮了社會平均成本和企業個別成本來進行投標階段的成本估算。其次通過對模糊數學和指數平滑技術的深入分析，通過“貼近度”的概念，合理的將模糊數學與指數平滑技術結合起來，構建了工程成本模糊預測技術的數學模型，并根據統計的有關參考資料和經驗建立了“框架結構體系”的對比工程

一個健康的招投標制度應該是按照“公開、公正、公平”和誠實信用的原則，建立起統一、開放、競爭、有序的建筑市場。針對當前招投標過程中存在的問題，采取完善法規、明確職責、健全機構，強化過程監督等措施，才能更好地規范建筑市場秩序，從源頭上遏止腐敗，凈化建筑市場，促進建筑市場秩序逐步走向規范化，法制化的軌道，不斷提高工程招投標工作的質量和水平。

第五篇：土木工程類專業英文文獻及翻譯

PAVEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED

BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES

By Sandra L.Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE

(Reviewed by the Highway Division)

ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com-mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation.Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils.A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented.Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used.INTRODUCTION

When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume,increase in volume, or do nothing.A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil.The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting.Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be-ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs.The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials.Each project will have different design considerations, economic con-

straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account.However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made.For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include:(1)In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash;(2)seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems;or(3)a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod-ification of the design to “accept” the anticipated expansion.In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change(especially non-uniform volume change)must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data.Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem.The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple

methods for:(1)Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible;and(2)estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst.Prof., Ctr.for Advanced Res.in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287.Note.Discussion open until April 1, 1989.To extend the closing date one month,a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.The manuscript

for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 3, 1988.This paper is part of the Journal of Transportation.Engineering, Vol.114, No.6,November, 1988.ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/88/0006-0673/$1.00 + $.15 per page.Paper No.22902.67

3field for the collapsible soils.Then this information will place the engineer

in a position to make a rational design decision.Collapsible soils are fre-

quently encountered in an arid climate.The depositional process and for-

mation of these soils, and methods for identification and evaluation of the

amount of volume change that may occur, will be discussed in the following

sections.COLLAPSIBLE SOILS

Formation of Collapsible Soils

Collapsible soils have high void ratios and low densities and are typically

cohesionless or only slightly cohesive.In an arid climate, evaporation greatly

exceeds rainfall.Consequently, only the near-surface soils become wetted

from normal rainfall.It is the combination of the depositional process and

the climate conditions that leads to the formation of the collapsible soil.Although collapsible soils exist in nondesert regions, the dry environment in

which evaporation exceeds precipitation is very favorable for the formation

of the collapsible structure.As the soil dries by evaporation, capillary tension causes the remaining

water to withdraw into the soil grain interfaces, bringing with it soluble salts,clay, and silt particles.As the soil continues to dry, these salts, clays, and

silts come out of solution, and “tack-weld” the larger grains together.This

leads to a soil structure that has high apparent strength at its low, natural

water content.However, collapse of the “cemented” structure may occur

upon wetting because the bonding material weakens and softens, and the soil

is unstable at any stress level that exceeds that at which the soil had been

previously wetted.Thus, if the amount of water made available to the soil

is increased above that which naturally exists, collapse can occur at fairly

low levels of stress, equivalent only to overburden soil pressure.Additional

loads, such as traffic loading or the presence of a bridge structure, add to

the collapse, especially of shallow collapsible soil.The triggering mechanism

for collapse, however, is the addition of water.Highway Problems Resulting from Collapsible Soils

Nonuniform collapse can result from either a nonhomogeneous subgrade

deposit in which differing degrees of collapse potential exist and/or from

nonuniform wetting of subgrade materials.When differential collapse of

subgrade soils occurs, the result is a rough, wavy surface, and potentially

many miles of extensively damaged highway.There have been several re-

ported cases for which differential collapse has been cited as the cause of

roadway or highway bridge distress.A few of these in the Arizona and New

Mexico region include sections of 1-10 near Benson, Arizona, and sections

of 1-25 in the vicinity of Algadonas, New Mexico(Lovelace et al.1982;

Russman 1987).In addition to the excessive waviness of the roadway sur-

face, bridge foundations failures, such as the Steins Pass Highway bridge,1-10, in Arizona, have frequently been identified with collapse of foundation

soils.Identification of Collapsible Soils

There have been many techniques proposed for identifying a collapsible

soil problem.These methods range from qualitative index tests conducted on

4disturbed samples, to response to wetting tests conducted on relatively un-

disturbed samples, to in situ meausrement techniques.In all cases, the en-

gineer must first know if the soils may become wetted to a water content

above their natural moisture state, and if so, what the extent of the potential

wetted zone will be.Most methods for identifying collapsible soils are only

qualitative in nature, providing no information on the magnitude of the col-

lapse strain potential.These qualitative methods are based on various func-

tions of dry density, moisture content, void ratio, specific gravity, and At-

terberg limits.In situ measurement methods appear promising in some cases, in that many

researchers feel that sample disturbance is greatly reduced, and that a more

nearly quantitative measure of collapse potential is obtainable.However,in situ test methods for collapsible soils typically suffer from the deficien-

cy of an unknown extent and degree of wetting during the field test.This

makes a quantitative measurement difficult because the zone of material

being influenced is not well-known, and, therefore, the actual strains, in-

duced by the addition of stress and water, are not well-known.In addition,the degree of saturation achieved in the field test is variable and usually

unknown.Based on recently conducted research, it appears that the most reliable

method for identifying a collapsible soil problem is to obtain the best quality

undisturbed sample possible and to subject this sample to a response to wet-

ting test in the laboratory.The results of a simple oedometer test will indicate

whether the soil is collapsible and, at the same time, give a direct measure

of the amount of collapse strain potential that may occur in the field.Potential

problems associated with the direct sampling method include sample distur-

bance and the possibility that the degree of saturation achieved in the field

will be less than that achieved in the laboratory test.The quality of an undisturbed sample is related most strongly to the area

ratio of the tube that is used for sample collection.The area ratio is a measure

of the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the sample collected to the cross-

sectional area of the sample tube.A thin-walled tube sampler by definition

has an area ratio of about 10-15%.Although undisturbed samples are best

obtained through the use of thin-walled tube samplers, it frequently occurs

that these stiff, cemented collapsible soils, especially those containing gravel,cannot be sampled unless a tube with a much thicker wall is used.Samplers

having an area ratio as great as 56% are commonly used for Arizona col-

lapsible soils.Further, it may take considerable hammering of the tube to

drive the sample.The result is, of course, some degree of sample distur-

bance, broken.bonds, densification, and a correspondingly reduced collapse

measured upon laboratory testing.However, for collapsible soils, which are

compressive by definition, the insertion of the sample tube leads to local

shear failure at the base of the cutting edge, and, therefore, there is less

sample disturbance than would be expected for soils that exhibit general shear

failure(i.e., saturated clays or dilative soils).Results of an ongoing study

of sample disturbance for collapsible soils indicate that block samples some-

times exhibit somewhat higher collapse strains compared to thick-walled tube

samples.Block samples are usually assumed to be the very best obtainable

undisturbed samples, although they are frequently difficult-to-impossible to

obtain, especially at substantial depths.The overall effect of sample distur-

bance is a slight underestimate of the collapse potential for the soil.67

5譯文：

濕陷性地基引起的路面問題

作者：...摘要：在干旱環境中，濕陷性土壤組成的路基材料是很常見的，干旱環境中的氣候條件、沉積以及風化作用都有利于濕陷性土的形成。在這方面包括了一種使用常用的實驗室設備和測試方法獲得這些問題的土壤的體積變化的可靠估計的預測技性討論。對典型的路面路基提供了一種方法去預測相關的應力和相應的濕陷張力。基于熟悉的實驗室測試結果，使用相對簡單的方法評估潛在體積的變化。

引言：當土壤接觸到水的時候，可能體積會減小或擴大，也可能不變化。遇到水體積增大的土叫做膨脹土，而體積減小的稱為濕陷性土。土壤的類型結構、最初的土壤密度、施加應力狀態以及土壤浸濕的程度范圍決定了體積變化量的大小。自從專業實踐開始由這些遇水體積變化的土組成的路基材料已經導致了許多公路病害，并且在維修方面已經花費了數百萬美元。處理這種路基材料做出經濟決策的第一步是做出可能發生的體積變化的預測。

每個工程項目都有不同的設計考慮、經濟限制和風險因素，所有這些情況都必須考慮到。然而，最好的和最合理的設計可能會具有更大的經濟優勢相比于可靠的體積變化預測。例如，典型的處理膨脹黏土的技術有：(1)在現場用例如石灰、粉煤灰或者水泥等處置處理；(2)設置滲流屏障或者排水設施；(3)進行適用性散失的計算來變更設計來接受預期膨脹。為了做出最經濟的決定，體積變化（特別是不均勻的體積變化）的量必須要精確計算，并且要從計算出的數據上估測出路面的平整度。同樣，不尋常的設計技術可利用到任何道路問題中。這里將重點對以下兩點提供簡單和經濟的方法：(1)決定路基材料是否是濕陷性膨脹性或者其他;(2)估算濕陷性土在路基中極有可能發生的體積變化量。這些信息將會是工程師做出合理的決定。濕陷性土在干旱地區是非常常見的。這種土的形成過程以及計算可能發生的體積變化量將在下文中介紹。

美國亞利桑那州皇家經濟學會高級助理教授Tempe

注：討論開放至1989年4月1日。增加截止日期一個月，必須要有ASCE期刊經理批準的書面請求。這篇文章是提交復審的初稿，可能出版的時間在1988年2月3日。本文是運輸雜志收錄的的一篇文章。114工程卷，6號，1988年11月。ASCE，ISSN 0733-947x / / / 88 0006-0673 1美元+每頁15美元。22902號文件

濕陷性土

濕陷性土的結構

濕陷性土有高孔隙率、低密度和較弱的黏性等特點。在干旱地區，有很高的蒸發量，而降水量較低。因此，當有降水時只有地面土壤濕潤。沉積作用和氣候條件共同造成了濕陷性土的形成。盡管濕陷性土存在于非沙漠地區，但干旱環境中蒸發量遠超降水量這一特點非常有利于濕陷性土結構的形成。

當土壤在蒸發過程中變干后，毛細張力使其余的水進入土壤顆粒的界面，同時帶出可溶性鹽、粘土和粉砂顆粒。隨著土壤繼續變干，可溶性鹽、黏土和粉砂顆粒逐漸從溶解狀態脫離出來，大量的顆粒物聚集在一起。這就導致這種土壤在低含水量時具有較高的表面強度。然而，當遇到水時，由于結合材料的弱化和軟化，土壤承受應力超過浸濕之前，會使土結構發生崩塌。這樣，如果提供給土壤水量高于自然狀態水量，可能在較低水平的壓力時就發生崩潰，或許

就在上覆土壓力作用下。額外的負荷，如交通荷載或橋梁結構的存在，增加了濕陷性，特別是對于淺層土。無論怎樣，觸發濕陷性的原因就是加入水。

濕陷性土引起的公路問題

不均勻的沉陷可能是因為地基礦床存在不同程度的不均勻性或者是地基材料濕度不一樣。當路基土發生微分崩潰時，結果是一個粗糙的、波浪狀的表面，并潛在存在許多英里路基的廣泛災害。已經有一些報道，微分崩潰已被引用作為道路或公路橋梁病害的原因。其中一些在亞利桑那州和新墨西哥州地區包括靠近本森,亞利桑那州125部分。除了道路表面的過度波動，橋梁基礎的問題，比如在亞利桑那州斯坦通公路橋梁，其他的經常被確定地基土的崩潰。

鑒別濕陷性土 已經有許多技術，提出了鑒別濕陷性土的問題。這些方法的范圍從干擾樣品進行質量指標的測試到比較浸濕前后土的性狀再到現場觀測技術。在所有的情況下，工程師首先必須要知道是否被浸濕的土壤含水量在天然含水量之上，如果是，那么就要確定潛在的浸濕范圍。大部分鑒定濕陷性土的方法在本質上都是定性的，沒有提供潛在崩塌規模的大小。這些定性的方法是基干密度、水分含量、空隙率、比重和阿太堡界限之上的。

原位檢測出現在某些較有前途的研究中，因為許多專家認為樣品干擾大大減少，而定量檢測更能得到潛在的崩塌結論。然而，濕陷性土原位測試方法在現場測試時通常遭受潤濕分布范圍和程度未知這一問題的困擾。由于該區域材料材料以及水和應力的影響是未知的，使得定量檢測難以進行。此外，在現場試驗取得的飽和度是變化的，通常也不能確定。

根據最近的研究，表明鑒別濕陷性土的最可靠地方法是在試驗室中觀測最優質的原狀樣品在接觸到水時的反應。簡單的土壓縮試驗結果將表明土壤是否是濕陷性的，與此同時，還能得到這些區域潛在濕陷應力的直接測量值。直接測量的方法存在的現在的問題包括樣品干擾以及測到的飽和度可能低于實驗室測得的。

未受干擾的樣品質量是與收集樣品的管的面積比有很大關系的。面積比是收集到的樣品橫截面積與樣品管橫截面積的比。根據定義，A型薄壁樣品管具有10%-15%的面積比率。雖然最好通過薄壁管來獲得原狀樣品，但實際情況下樣品很容易發生僵硬、膠結，尤其是封閉的砂礫，所以通常情況用較厚的管來采樣。亞利桑那州的土壤通常有56%的面積比。另外，可能需要相當大的錘擊該管一驅動樣品。當然，其結果是，樣品一定程度的干擾、斷鍵、致密化，并相應的減小實驗室測量時的崩潰。然而，符合定義的濕陷性土，樣品管插入時導致局部剪切破壞，比一般剪切的土壤樣品量更少干擾失敗。