第一篇：建設部文獻(中英文對照)

貫徹落實科學發(fā)展觀大力發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑

（2005年2月23日）

中華人民共和國建設部

節(jié)能建筑是按節(jié)能設計標準進行設計和建造、使其在使用過程中降低能耗的建筑。

綠色建筑是指為人們提供健康、舒適、安全的居住、工作和活動的空間，同時在建筑全生命周期（物料生產(chǎn)，建筑規(guī)劃、設計、施工、運營維護及拆除過程）中實現(xiàn)高效率地利用資源（能源、土地、水資源、材料）、最低限度地影響環(huán)境的建筑物。綠色建筑也有人稱之為生態(tài)建筑、可持續(xù)建筑。

一、發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑的重要意義

建筑作為人工環(huán)境，是滿足人類物質(zhì)和精神生活需要的重要組成部分。然而，人類對感官享受的過度追求，以及不加節(jié)制的開發(fā)與建設，使現(xiàn)代建筑不僅疏離了人與自然的天然聯(lián)系和交流，也給環(huán)境和資源帶來了沉重的負擔。據(jù)統(tǒng)計，人類從自然界所獲得的50％以上的物質(zhì)原料用來建造各類建筑及其附屬設施，這些建筑在建造與使用過程中又消耗了全球能源的50％左右；在環(huán)境總體污染中，與建筑有關的空氣污染、光污染、電磁污染等就占了34％；建筑垃圾則占人類活動產(chǎn)生垃圾總量的40％；在發(fā)展中國家，劇增的建筑量還造成侵占土地、破壞生態(tài)環(huán)境等現(xiàn)象日益嚴重。中國正處于工業(yè)化和城鎮(zhèn)化快速發(fā)展階段，要在未來15年保持GDP年均增長7％以上，將面臨巨大的資源約束瓶頸和環(huán)境惡化壓力。嚴峻的事實告訴我們，中國要走可持續(xù)發(fā)展道路，發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑刻不容緩。

綠色建筑通過科學的整體設計，集成綠色配置、自然通風、自然采光、低能耗圍護結(jié)構(gòu)、新能源利用、中水回用、綠色建材和智能控制等高新技術，具有選址規(guī)劃合理、資源利用高效循環(huán)、節(jié)能措施綜合有效、建筑環(huán)境健康舒適、廢物排放減量無害、建筑功能靈活適宜等六大特點。它不僅可以滿足人們的生理和心理需求，而且能源和資源的消耗最為經(jīng)濟合理，對環(huán)境的影響最小。

胡錦濤同志指出：要大力發(fā)展節(jié)能省地型住宅，全面推廣節(jié)能技術，制定并強制執(zhí)行節(jié)能、節(jié)材、節(jié)水標準，按照減量化、再利用、資源化的原則，搞好資源綜合利用，實現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟社會的可持續(xù)發(fā)展。溫家寶和曾培炎同志也多次指出，建筑節(jié)能不僅是經(jīng)濟問題，而且是重要的戰(zhàn)略問題。

發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑是建設領域貫徹“三個代表”重要思想和十六大精神，認真落實以人為本，全面、協(xié)調(diào)、可持續(xù)的科學發(fā)展觀，統(tǒng)籌經(jīng)濟社會發(fā)展、人與自然和諧發(fā)展的重要舉措；是調(diào)整房地產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)和轉(zhuǎn)變建筑業(yè)增長方式，轉(zhuǎn)變經(jīng)濟增長方式，促進經(jīng)濟結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整的迫切需要；是按照減量化、再利用、資源化的原則，促進資源綜合利用，建設節(jié)約型社會，發(fā)展循環(huán)經(jīng)濟的必然要求；是堅持走生產(chǎn)發(fā)展、生活富裕、生態(tài)良好的文明發(fā)展道路的重要體現(xiàn)；是節(jié)約能源，保障國家能源安全的關鍵環(huán)節(jié)；是探索解決建設行業(yè)高投入、高消耗、高污染、低效益的根本途徑；是改造和提升傳統(tǒng)的建筑業(yè)、建材業(yè)，實現(xiàn)建設事業(yè)健康、協(xié)調(diào)、可持續(xù)發(fā)展的重大戰(zhàn)略性工作。

二、我國在發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑方面所做的主要工作

我國抓建筑節(jié)能是以1986年頒布北方地區(qū)居住建筑節(jié)能設計標準為標志啟動的。經(jīng)過近二十年的努力，建筑節(jié)能工作得到了逐步推進，取得了較大成績，主要體現(xiàn)在以下幾個方面：一是已初步建立起以節(jié)能50％為目標的建筑節(jié)能設計標準體系；二是初步形成了以《民用建筑節(jié)能管理規(guī)定》為主體的法規(guī)體系；三是初步形成了建筑節(jié)能的技術支撐體系；四是通過建筑節(jié)能試點示范工程，有效帶動了建筑節(jié)能工作的發(fā)展；五是通過國際合作項目，引入了國外先進的技術和管理經(jīng)驗。據(jù)不完全統(tǒng)計，到2002年，全國城鎮(zhèn)共建成節(jié)能建筑面積3.2億平方米，實現(xiàn)節(jié)能1094萬噸標準煤，減排CO22326萬噸。

與此同時，伴隨著可持續(xù)發(fā)展思想在國際社會的認同，綠色建筑理念在中國也逐漸受到了重視。1999年在北京召開的國際建筑師協(xié)會第二十屆世界建筑師大會發(fā)布的《北京憲章》明確要求將可持續(xù)發(fā)展作為建筑師和工程師在新世紀中的工作準則。中國在綠色建筑發(fā)展上做了大量的工作，開展了綠色建筑關鍵技術研究，設立了“全國綠色建筑創(chuàng)新獎”，在辦公建筑、高等院校圖書館、城市住宅小區(qū)、農(nóng)村住宅等建筑類型進行了綠色建筑的實踐。

三、目前存在的主要問題

（一）認識不到位

尚未將節(jié)能與綠色建筑工作放到貫徹科學發(fā)展觀、全面建設小康社會、保證國家能源安全、實施可持續(xù)發(fā)展的戰(zhàn)略高度來認識。

（二）缺乏有效的激勵政策和強有力的法律法規(guī)

長期以來，國家對能源的管理偏重工業(yè)和交通節(jié)能，缺乏有效的激勵政策引導和扶植節(jié)能與綠色建筑。我國現(xiàn)行的法律法規(guī)對能源、土地、水資源、材料的節(jié)約也沒有可操作的獎懲方法來強制各方利益主體必須積極參與；而我部頒發(fā)的《民用建筑節(jié)能管理規(guī)定》，作為一個部門規(guī)章，力度遠遠不夠。

（三）缺乏行之有效的新技術、新材料、新配件和新的設計及管理模式的推廣交流平臺

在西方發(fā)達國家，節(jié)能與綠色建筑已經(jīng)有幾十年的成功發(fā)展史。有的國家甚至已經(jīng)取得經(jīng)濟發(fā)展和能耗持續(xù)下降的突出成就。及時、系統(tǒng)、廣泛地引進它們的成功經(jīng)驗和技術，對引導我國剛起步的節(jié)能與綠色建筑的發(fā)展尤為重要。這對于我們少走彎路，加快節(jié)能與綠色建筑的新技術、新產(chǎn)品和管理經(jīng)驗的推廣是不可替代的。

（四）標準規(guī)范體系還未形成雖然已先后頒布實施針對三個氣候區(qū)的節(jié)能50％的設計標準，初步形成了比較完善的民用建筑節(jié)能標準體系；但針對公共建筑、工業(yè)建筑的節(jié)能標準尚未出臺；關于建筑節(jié)能、節(jié)地、節(jié)水、節(jié)材和環(huán)境保護的綜合性的標準體系還沒有建立。

（五）缺乏有效的行政監(jiān)管體系

對節(jié)能與綠色建筑工作相關的行政管理職能尚未予以高度的重視，缺乏有效的行政監(jiān)管體系，管理薄弱，個別地方甚至放任自流。

（六）城市能源結(jié)構(gòu)不合理，資源浪費現(xiàn)象嚴重

目前我國還是以煤為主要燃料，城市能源結(jié)構(gòu)不合理，天然氣等優(yōu)質(zhì)能源和太陽能、地熱、風能等清潔可再生能源在建筑中利用率還很低。目前我國每年城鄉(xiāng)新建房屋建筑面積近20億m2，其中80％以上為高耗能建筑；既有建筑近400億m2，95％以上是高能耗建筑。我國單位建筑面積能耗是發(fā)達國家的二至三倍，對社會造成了沉重的能源負擔和嚴重的環(huán)境污染，已成為制約我國可持續(xù)發(fā)展的突出問題。同時建設中還存在土地資源利用率低、水污染嚴重、建筑耗材高等問題。

四、發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑的主要工作

發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑的指導思想是貫徹落實科學發(fā)展觀，大力開展節(jié)能、節(jié)地、節(jié)水、節(jié)材等資源節(jié)約和環(huán)境保護工作，努力推進節(jié)能與綠色建筑的發(fā)展，實現(xiàn)建設事業(yè)可持續(xù)發(fā)展。

工作思路：一是全方位推進，包括在法規(guī)政策、標準規(guī)范、推廣措施、科技攻關等方面開展工作；二是全過程監(jiān)管，包括在立項、規(guī)劃、設計、審圖、施工、監(jiān)理、檢測、竣工驗收、核準銷售、維護使用等環(huán)節(jié)加強監(jiān)管；三是全面展開，制定并強制執(zhí)行包括節(jié)能、節(jié)地、節(jié)水、節(jié)材和環(huán)境保護標準；四是實行分類指導、區(qū)域統(tǒng)籌、整體推進、分階段實施的工作方法；五是全社會參與，從政府到設計單位、施工圖審查機構(gòu)、施工單位、監(jiān)理單位、質(zhì)量監(jiān)督機構(gòu)、房地產(chǎn)開發(fā)企業(yè)、物業(yè)管理企業(yè)以至廣大人民群眾都要積極參與。

工作目標是：通過全面推

廣節(jié)能與綠色建筑工作，爭取到2020年，大部分既有建筑實現(xiàn)節(jié)能改造，新建建筑完全實現(xiàn)建筑節(jié)能65％的總目標，東部地區(qū)要爭取實現(xiàn)更高的節(jié)能水平；基本實現(xiàn)新增建筑占地與整體節(jié)約用地的動態(tài)平衡；實現(xiàn)建筑建造和使用過程中節(jié)水率在現(xiàn)有基礎上提高30％以上；新建建筑對不可再生資源的總消耗比現(xiàn)在下降30％以上；到2020年，我國建筑的資源節(jié)約水平接近或達到現(xiàn)階段中等發(fā)達國家的水平，節(jié)能、節(jié)地、節(jié)水、節(jié)材和環(huán)境保護的經(jīng)濟和社會效益顯著，轉(zhuǎn)變經(jīng)濟的增長方式的成效突出。

主要措施為：

1、建立健全發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑的政策與法規(guī)體系；

2、完善節(jié)能與綠色建筑的技術標準支撐體系；

3、建立有效的發(fā)展節(jié)能與綠色建筑的行政監(jiān)管體系；

4、加強節(jié)能與綠色建筑領域的國際交流與合作和培訓宣傳工作。

當前，構(gòu)筑節(jié)能與綠色建筑先進技術與管理經(jīng)驗交流平臺已經(jīng)迫在眉睫。將于今年3月份召開的“首屆國際智能與綠色建筑技術研討會”暨“首屆國際智能與綠色建筑技術與產(chǎn)品展覽會”即是我部為加強國內(nèi)外綠色建筑領域的交流與合作，促進我國綠色建筑技術與管理水平的提高，推動我國綠色建筑的發(fā)展而與國內(nèi)外有關部門共同設立的一個交流平臺。我們將把這個研討會打造成為一年一度具有權(quán)威性、前沿性、廣泛性的國際盛會。我部部長汪光燾同志任大會組委會主任，我任執(zhí)行主任，我部原副部長、兩院院士周干峙先生為大會學術指導委員會主任。本屆大會的主辦單位是中國建設部、科技部、英國貿(mào)易投資總署、加拿大住房署、新加坡建設局、印度建筑業(yè)發(fā)展委員會等。共有五大主題：一是智能、綠色建筑整體設計理論、方法和實例；二是建筑智能化技術；三是建筑節(jié)能技術及產(chǎn)品；四是綠色生態(tài)技術；五是綠色建材技術與設備。現(xiàn)在大會各項準備工作已基本就緒，預計將有近2000名來自國內(nèi)外的智能和綠色建筑方面的政府官員、企業(yè)家、專家和學者參與技術交流和合作，這不僅對中國的建筑節(jié)能和綠色建筑發(fā)展有著積極的促進作用，而且對全球的可持續(xù)發(fā)展也將產(chǎn)生深遠的影響。

Adhering to the Scientific View of Development & Promoting the Development of Energy Efficient and Green Buildings

Ministry of Construction of the People's Republic of China February, 2005

Energy efficient buildings refer to those meeting energy efficient standards during design and building process and thus consuming less energy in use.Green buildings refer to those providing occupants with healthy, comfortable and safe living, working and leisure space, achieving high efficiency in utilizing resources(including energy, land, water, and materials)during the life cycle of buildings(including building materials production, planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance, and demolition), and minimizing the buildings' impact on the environment.Green buildings are also labeled as “Eco-Buildings” or “Sustainable Buildings”.I.The significance of promoting the energy efficient and green buildings.As a man-made environment, buildings play an integral part in physically and spiritually satisfying the demand of human being.However, due to the excessive pursuing of physical pleasure plus the over-exploitation of the natural resources, modern buildings have not only segregated the connection and communication between human beings and the nature, but also produced heavy burden on the natural environment and resources.According to statistics, more than 50％ of the materials man gathered from the nature are used for the construction of all kinds of buildings and their attached utilities, and another 50％ of the world energy are consumed during the construction and utilization of those buildings.Among environmental pollutions, construction-related air pollution, light pollution and electromagnetic pollution accounts for 34％;construction waste makes up 40％ of the trash produced by human.In the developing countries, the skyrocketing construction aggravates the misuse of land and the destruction of the ecological environment.China, in its process of industrialization and urbanization and with the objective of maintaining 7％-above annual growth rate of GDP in the next 15 years, will be faced with serious bottleneck of resource limitation and environmental deterioration.The situation shows that it is imperative for China to promote energy efficient and green buildings in the process of sustainable development.Through the scientific and systematic design, incorporated with such new and high technologies as green fittings, natural ventilation, natural lighting, low energy exterior protection system, new energy, water reuse, green building materials, intelligent control and so on, green buildings have with it six features: calculated site planning, efficient energy circulation, effective and comprehensive energy saving, healthy and comfortable building environment, innocuous and small amount of waste discharge, and flexible and convenient in functions.It could not only satisfy the physical and mental need of human beings, but also reduce the impact on the natural environment with its efficient energy consumption.Mr.President, Hu Jintao has pointed out that we shall develop land-saving housing, popularize energy efficient technology, and establish energy saving, material saving and water saving code;we shall utilize the resources in a thrifty way and apply the recycling methods in order to pursue the sustainable development of the economic society.Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao and Vice-Premier Zeng Peiyan has reaffirmed that construction energy saving is not only an economic issue but also an important strategy.The development of energy saving technology and green buildings is an important approach in the construction field for pursuing the essential thought of “Three Represents” and the spirit of the 16th National Congress.It carries out the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable scientific view of development, emphasizes the value of human beings, integrates the development of the economy and the society, and promotes the harmonization between the human beings and the nature.The purpose of this approach is to adjust the real estate structure, transform the mode of increase in the building and economy sector and promote the adjustment of economic structure.The principle lies in the thrifty utilization and recycling of the energy, thus facilitating the comprehensive utilization of the resources, building the saving-type society and developing the cyclic economy.It reflects that China is now sticking to its healthy developing path towards production development, wealthy life and sound environment.As a critical link in the process of energy saving and safeguarding national energy safety, this approach constitutes an essential method to solve such problems in the construction field as high investment, high consumption, heavy pollution and low profit, and it is the strategic work for the reform and upgrading of the traditional construction and construction material industry, facilitating the healthy, coordinated and sustainable development of the construction cause.II.Works have been done relating to energy efficient and green buildings

The Designing Standard for Energy Conservation in Civil Building of the Northern Areas 1986 was the landmark of Chinese energy efficient work.After almost two decades, great achievements have been made in the following aspects:

(1).Energy efficient design standard system with the goal of saving 50％ of the energy has been set up;

(2).Law system with The Regulations for the Administration of Energy Conservation in Civil Buildings as the principle has been set up;

(3).Technology supporting system of energy efficient building has been set up;

(4).Several pilot projects of energy efficient building has played the leading role of Chinese energy efficient building construction;

(5).Through international cooperation, advanced technologies and management experience have been introduced in China.According to incomplete statistics，there were 320 million square meters of energy efficient buildings in urban China, saving 10.94 million tons of standard coal, discharging CO2 223.26 million tons.At the same time, the ideology of sustainable development has been widely accepted by the international community, and green architecture has been more and more attached importance to.Beijing Charter, which had been issued in the 20th World Architect Convention Beijing 1999 of World Architect Association, clearly required that the sustainable development would be the working standard of all architects and engineers in the new century.China has done great job in the development of green buildings: the key tech-research of green architecture has been developed;“National for Green Buildings Innovation Award” has been set;many practices have been made in office buildings, libraries of colleges and institutions, urban residential communities, rural housing and other types of building.III.Problems to be addressed

(1)The lack of acquaintanceship

We shall place energy conservation and green buildings at the strategic level as implementing the scientific view of development, building a well-off society in an all-round way, safeguarding national energy and promoting the sustainable development.(2).The lack of efficient incentive policies and powerful law and regulations

The national policies have long laid particular stress on the energy efficient of industry and traffic, while energy efficient and green buildings lacks efficient encouragement policies and powerful laws and regulations.There are no existing laws and regulations in China with operational rewards and punishment methods to force all benefit parties to participate in the saving of energy, land, water and materials.The Designing Standard for Energy Conservation in Civil Buildings issued by Ministry of Construction as a ministry regulation has far less strength.(3).The lack of the communication platform of new technology, new material, new fittings and new design and management patterns.In the western developing countries, the energy efficient and green architecture has decades of histories.In some country, great achievement of economic development and lower the energy consumption has been made.To systematically introduce those successful experience and technology into China would help China to promote energy efficient and green architecture and spreading the relating new technology, new product and new management patterns.(4).The system of standards and norms has not been formed.The comparatively improved standard system of energy efficiency for residential buildings has preliminarily been shaped up, which enforces the designing standard for energy saving as 50％ for three climate areas one after another, but the standards for public and industrial buildings have not yet been promulgated and the comprehensive standard system for the building energy saving, the land, water and material efficiency and the environmental protection has not been set up.(5).The effective administrative regulatory framework is not in place.Importance has not been attached to the administrative functions related to energy efficiency and green buildings.Present administrative system is not effective with weak regulation.In some localities, management is even out of control.(6).The energy structure in cities is not reasonable and resources are wasted severely.Nowadays, by maintaining coal as the major energy source, the Chinese cities still remain unreasonable energy structure.The high quality energy such as natural gas and other clean renewable resources such as solar energy, geothermal energy, wind energy etc.are slimly utilized in buildings.At present, 2 billion square meters of new housing are built annually in urban and rural areas in China, over 80％ of which are the ones with high-energy consumption.Among 40 billion square meters of existing buildings, over 95％ are the ones with high-energy consumption.The energy consumption per construction unit area in China is twice to three times the one in the developed countries.This caused heavy energy burden and serious environmental pollution that become the outstanding problem constraining the sustainable development of China.Meanwhile, during the construction, there exist problems such as low utilizing rate of land resources, serious water pollution and high consumption of building materials.IV.The main tasks of developing energy efficient and green buildings

The guiding ideas to develop energy efficient and green buildings are, with a view to adhering to the scientific view of development and fulfilling the sustainable development of construction sector, to make major efforts to launch the campaigns of resource conservation and environmental protection including the efficiency of energy, land, water and materials and promote the development of energy efficient and green buildings.The train of thought:

1.To push the work on from all aspects including regulations and policies, norms and standards, disseminating measures, and tackling hard-nut problems in science and technology, etc.2.To regulating the overall process from setting-up a project, planning, designing, examining drawings, construction, supervising, checking up, checking upon completion, approving the selling to maintenance.3.To promulgate and enforce the standards of energy, land, water and material efficiency as well as environmental protection.4.To use work methods featured by guiding according to classifications, regional coordination, promoting comprehensively and implementing by dividing different stages.5.To encourage the involvement of the whole society, besides the governments, designing units, organizations for examining drawings, constructors, supervisors, quality supervision organizations, developers, property management enterprises and the broad masses of the people.The objectives:

Through overall promotion, by 2020 the general objective will be fulfilled, i.e.upgrading projects to improve the energy efficiency of most existing buildings will be finished and all the new buildings will save 65％ energy.At the same time, the eastern areas are encouraged to reach a higher level of energy saving;the dynamic equilibrium between newly-constructed areas and overall saved lands is expected sustained basically;the water saving rate in the process of construction and utilization can be improved by more than 30％ comparing with the present level;and the total consumption of irrenewable resources by new buildings can be dropped by over 30％ nowadays amount.By the year 2020, the level of resource saving in construction sector in China is expected to approach or reach the one in the moderately developed countries at present.The remarkable economic and social effect will be achieved which can change the way of economic growth notably.Major measures:

1.To establish and improve the policies and regulation framework of developing intelligent and green buildings;

2.To perfect the technical standard supporting system of intelligent and green buildings;

3.To set up the effective administrative regulatory system for developing intelligent and green buildings;

4.To intensify the international exchanges and cooperation, training and publicity campaign as well.At present, to put up a platform for exchanging advanced technology and management experience of intelligent and green buildings is extremely urgent.“The 1st International Conference on Technologies of Intelligent and Green Buildings & the 1st International Expo on Technologies and Products of Intelligent and Green Buildings” which will be held in this March is such a platform jointly put up by our Ministry and relevant departments home and abroad in order to enhance the international exchanges and cooperation and improve the technical and management level of green buildings in China.We are doing efforts to make the Conference an annual great international event with authoritative, forward-looking and wide-ranging characteristics.Mr.Wang Guangtao, our Minister is the chairman of organizing committee, I am the executive director, Mr.Zhou Ganzhi, our former vice minister and members for the two Academies is the director of academic guiding committee of the Conferece.The sponsors are the Ministry of Construction, the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China, Department of Trade and Industry of the United Kingdom, Housing Department of Canada, Construction Department of Singapore, and the Construction Development Commission of India.The five themes of the Conference are as follows:

1.The overall designing theory, methods and cases of intelligent and green buildings;

2.The intelligent technology for buildings;

3.The technology and products of energy efficiency;

4.The technology of green ecology;

5.The technology and equipment of green building materials.Up to now, the preparation work has been already finished.2,000 participants including government officials, entrepreneurs, experts and scholars devoting to the field of energy efficient and green buildings from all over the world will attend the conference.It will not only give a strong impetus to the development of intelligent and green buildings in China, but also exert a great influence to the global sustainable development.

第二篇：中英文對照資料外文翻譯文獻

中英文對照資料外文翻譯文獻

平設計任何時期平面設計可以參照一些藝術和專業(yè)學科側(cè)重于視覺傳達和介紹。采用多種方式相結(jié)合，創(chuàng)造和符號，圖像和語句創(chuàng)建一個代表性的想法和信息。平面設計師可以使用印刷，視覺藝術和排版技術產(chǎn)生的最終結(jié)果。平面設計常常提到的進程，其中溝通是創(chuàng)造和產(chǎn)品設計。共同使用的平面設計包括雜志，廣告，產(chǎn)品包裝和網(wǎng)頁設計。例如，可能包括產(chǎn)品包裝的標志或其他藝術作品，舉辦文字和純粹的設計元素，如形狀和顏色統(tǒng)一件。組成的一個最重要的特點，尤其是平面設計在使用前現(xiàn)有材料或不同的元素。平面設計涵蓋了人類歷史上諸多領域，在此漫長的歷史和在相對最近爆炸視覺傳達中的第20和21世紀，人們有時是模糊的區(qū)別和重疊的廣告藝術，平面設計和美術。畢竟，他們有著許多相同的內(nèi)容，理論，原則，做法和語言，有時同樣的客人或客戶。廣告藝術的最終目標是出售的商品和服務。在平面設計，“其實質(zhì)是使以信息，形成以思想，言論和感覺的經(jīng)驗”。在唐朝（618-906）之間的第4和第7世紀的木塊被切斷打印紡織品和后重現(xiàn)佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷書籍。在19世紀后期歐洲，尤其是在英國，平面設計開始以獨立的運動從美術中分離出來。蒙德里安稱為父親的圖形設計。他是一個很好的藝術家，但是他在現(xiàn)代廣告中利用現(xiàn)代電網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)在廣告、印刷和網(wǎng)絡布局網(wǎng)格。于1849年，在大不列顛亨利科爾成為的主要力量之一在設計教育界，該國政府通告設計在雜志設計和制造的重要性。他組織了大型的展覽作為慶祝現(xiàn)代工業(yè)技術和維多利亞式的設計。從1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凱爾姆斯科特出版社出版的書籍的一些最重要的平面設計產(chǎn)品和工藝美術運動，并提出了一個非常賺錢的商機就是出版?zhèn)ゴ笪谋菊摰膱D書并以高價出售給富人。莫里斯證明了市場的存在使平面設計在他們自己擁有的權(quán)利，并幫助開拓者從生產(chǎn)和美術分離設計。這歷史相對論是，然而，重要的，因為它為第一次重大的反應對于十九世紀的陳舊的平面設計。莫里斯的工作，以及與其他私營新聞運動，直接影響新藝術風格和間接負責20世紀初非專業(yè)性平面設計的事態(tài)發(fā)展。誰創(chuàng)造了最初的“平面設計”似乎存在爭議。這被歸因于英國的設計師和大學教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息來源于20世紀初美國圖書設計師William Addison Dwiggins。倫敦地鐵的標志設計是愛德華約翰斯頓于1916年設計的一個經(jīng)典的現(xiàn)代而且使用了系統(tǒng)字體設計。在20世紀20年代，蘇聯(lián)的建構(gòu)主義應用于“智能生產(chǎn)”在不同領域的生產(chǎn)。個性化的運動藝術在 2 俄羅斯大革命是沒有價值的，從而走向以創(chuàng)造物體的功利為目的。他們設計的建筑、劇院集、海報、面料、服裝、家具、徽標、菜單等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年書中編纂了新的現(xiàn)代印刷原則，他后來否認他在這本書的法西斯主義哲學主張，但它仍然是非常有影響力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷專家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一納吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面設計之父都被我們今天所知。他們首創(chuàng)的生產(chǎn)技術和文體設備，主要用于整個二十世紀。隨后的幾年看到平面設計在現(xiàn)代風格獲得廣泛的接受和應用。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后，美國經(jīng)濟的建立更需要平面設計，主要是廣告和包裝等。移居國外的德國包豪斯設計學院于1937年到芝加哥帶來了“大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)”極簡到美國;引發(fā)野火的“現(xiàn)代”建筑和設計。值得注意的名稱世紀中葉現(xiàn)代設計包括阿德里安Frutiger，設計師和Frutiger字體大學;保蘭德，從20世紀30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原則和適用包豪斯他們受歡迎的廣告和標志設計，幫助創(chuàng)造一個獨特的辦法，美國的歐洲簡約而成為一個主要的先驅(qū)。平面設計稱為企業(yè)形象;約瑟夫米勒，羅克曼，設計的海報嚴重尚未獲取1950年代和1960年代時代典型。從道路標志到技術圖表，從備忘錄到參考手冊，增強了平面設計的知識轉(zhuǎn)讓。可讀性增強了文字的視覺效果。設計還可以通過理念或有效的視覺傳播幫助銷售產(chǎn)品。將它應用到產(chǎn)品和公司識別系統(tǒng)的要素像標志、顏色和文字。連同這些被定義為品牌。品牌已日益成為重要的提供的服務范圍，許多平面設計師，企業(yè)形象和條件往往是同時交替使用。教科書的目的是本科目，如地理、科學和數(shù)學。這些出版物已布局理論設計說明和圖表。一個常見的例子，在使用圖形，教育是圖表人體解剖學。平面設計也適用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面設計是應用在娛樂行業(yè)的裝飾，景觀和視覺故事。其他的例子娛樂設計用途包括小說，漫畫，電影中的開幕和閉幕，在舞臺上節(jié)目的和道具的安排。這也包括藝術品在T恤衫的應用和其他物品的出售。從科學雜志報道，提出意見和事實往往是提高圖形和深思熟慮的組成視覺信息-被稱為信息的設計。報紙，雜志，博客，電視和電影紀錄片，可以使用平面設計通知及娛樂。隨著網(wǎng)絡，信息與經(jīng)驗的交互設計的工具，Adobe和Flash正越來越多地被用來說明的背景新聞。一個平面設計項目可能涉及程式化和介紹現(xiàn)有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或圖像開發(fā)的平面設計師。例如，一家報紙的故事始于記者和攝影記者，然后成為平面設計師的工作安排到一個合理的頁面布局，并確定是否有任何其他圖形元素應當要求。在一本雜志的文章或廣告，往往是平面設計師或藝術總監(jiān)將委員會攝影師或插圖創(chuàng)建原始文件只是被納入設計規(guī)劃。現(xiàn)代設計的做法已經(jīng)擴展到了現(xiàn)代的計算機，例如在使用所見的用戶界面，通常被稱為交互式設計，或多媒體設計。任何圖形元素用于設計之前，圖形元素必須是源于通過視覺藝術技能。這些圖形通常（但并不總是）被設計師開發(fā)。視覺藝術的作品主要是視覺性的東西從使用傳統(tǒng)的傳播媒介、攝影或電腦產(chǎn)生的藝術。平面設計原則可以適用于每一個人的版畫藝術元素，并最終組成。3 印刷術是藝術，工藝和技術型，修改類型字形，并安排類型的設計。類型字形（字符）的創(chuàng)建和修改使用各種說明方法。這項安排的類型是選擇字體、大小、線長、主要的（行距）和文字的間距。刷術是由排字工機，排字，印刷工人，圖形藝術家，藝術總監(jiān)，工作者和辦事員。直到數(shù)字時代，印刷成為一個專業(yè)的領域。數(shù)字化開辟了新的視覺設計師和用戶。排版設計師平面設計的一部分，是在網(wǎng)頁設計中是圖形設計，處理安排風格（內(nèi)容）的要素。從早期的照明網(wǎng)頁手工復制書籍的中世紀和程序，以錯綜復雜的現(xiàn)代雜志和目錄布局，適當?shù)木W(wǎng)頁設計公司長期以來一直是考慮的印刷材料，與印刷媒體，內(nèi)容通常包括類型（文字，圖片（照片）偶爾發(fā)生持有者圖形的內(nèi)容，沒有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，燙金壓印或盲目壓花。平面設計師常常專心研究于界面設計，如網(wǎng)頁設計和軟件設計，最終用戶的交互性是一個設計考慮的布局或接口。視覺溝通技巧、互動溝通技巧與用戶互動得相結(jié)合和在線品牌推廣，平面設計師往往與軟件開發(fā)和網(wǎng)絡開發(fā)人員創(chuàng)建的外觀和風格的網(wǎng)站或軟件應用程序，來加強用戶或網(wǎng)絡網(wǎng)站的訪問者互動體驗。版畫是在紙上，其他有機材料或者表面上印刷藝術品的過程。每一張不會被復制，但時最初的因為它不是一個復制的另一藝術作品，并在技術上稱為留下深刻的印象。繪畫或素描，另一方面，創(chuàng)造了獨特的原始藝術品。版畫是由一個單一的原始表面創(chuàng)造的，在技術上已經(jīng)作為基質(zhì)而被已知。常見的矩陣包括：金屬板，通常是銅或鋅的雕刻或蝕刻石料，用于光刻;塊木刻的木材，油氈和織物板的絲網(wǎng)印刷。但也有許多其他種類，討論如下：作品從一個單一的印刷板創(chuàng)造一個版本，在現(xiàn)代通常每個簽署和編號，形成限量。打印也可編制成冊，作為藝術家的書籍。一個單一的打印可能是產(chǎn)品的一種或多種技術。色彩學領域是如何在打印機上和顯示器上用眼睛識別顏色和如何解釋和組織這些色彩。眼睛的視網(wǎng)膜被兩個被命名為視桿和視錐的感光體涵蓋。視桿對光很敏感但是對顏色不是很敏感。視錐卻與視桿恰恰相反。他們對光不太敏感，但是顏色可以被感知。隨著科技的發(fā)展，人們越來越認識到環(huán)境問題日益嚴重，大氣污染、森林破壞、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水資源污染、大量物種滅絕、石油、天然氣、煤等資源枯竭。作為工業(yè)設計師，應該有強烈的環(huán)境 保護意識，使得自己的設計建立在不破壞環(huán)境及節(jié)約自然資源的基礎上。

其中，溫室效應、臭氧層破壞和酸雨是當今全球性的三大環(huán)境問題。

溫室效應就是大氣變暖的效應其形成原因是太陽短波輻射可以透過大氣射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的長波輻射卻被大氣中的二氧化碳就像一層厚厚的玻璃，把地球變成了一個大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烴以及水汽等也對溫室效應有所貢獻。隨著人口的急劇增加和工業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展，越來越多的二氧化碳 排入大氣中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大氣中原本應被森林吸收的二氧化碳沒有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐漸增加，溫室效應也不斷增強。溫室效應的后果十分嚴重，自然生態(tài)將隨之發(fā)生重大變化，荒漠將擴

大，土地侵蝕加重，森林退向極地，旱澇災害嚴重，雨量增加；溫帶冬天更濕、夏天更旱；熱帶也將變 得更濕，干熱的亞熱帶變得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新調(diào)整。沿海將受到嚴重威脅。由于氣溫升高，兩極冰塊將融化，使海平面上升，將會淹沒許多城市和港口。

臭氧層破壞現(xiàn)象引起科學界及整個國際社會的震動。美國的兩位科學家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人為的活動造成了今天的臭氧洞。元兇就是現(xiàn)在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龍。

酸雨目前已成為一種范圍廣泛、跨越國界的大氣污染現(xiàn)象。酸雨破壞土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害動植

物生長；刺激人的皮膚，誘發(fā)皮膚病，引起肺水腫、肺硬化；會腐蝕金屬制品、油漆、皮革、紡織品和 含碳酸鹽的建筑。

總而言之，人類生活的環(huán)境已經(jīng)日益惡化。

而惡化的原因大部分屬于人類本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客觀規(guī)律，急功近利，對于地球資源的使用沒有科學的計劃性，而且在設計、制造產(chǎn)品以及日常生

活中缺乏保護環(huán)境的意識，以至于自毀家園，其危害不僅于當代，而且嚴重影響了子孫后代的生存。

環(huán)境問題在很大程度上是由于人們的不良設計、生活方式造成的后果。于是給設計師們提出了一個

嚴肅的問題：作為設計師，應肩負起保護環(huán)境的歷史重任！

工業(yè)在為人類創(chuàng)造大量物質(zhì)財富的同時，也給世界帶來了災難。工業(yè)設計在為人類創(chuàng)造了現(xiàn)代生活

方式的同時，也加速了資源、能源的消耗，并對地球的生態(tài)平衡造成了巨大的破壞。

所以，作為工業(yè)設計師，建立環(huán)境意識體現(xiàn)了其道德和社會責任心。設計師必須對自己的設計負責，必須把人類的健康幸福，自然與人類的和諧共存作為設計中心遵循的原則。

設計師還必須掌握必要的材料、工藝、化工、制造等方面的知識，使得其設計不對環(huán)境造成危害而 成為可能。

“可持續(xù)發(fā)展設計” 這一概念的提出，對于人性的回歸及世界真正意義上的發(fā)展具有劃時代的意義。他體現(xiàn)了設計師的道德與責任，已成為 21 世紀設計發(fā)展的總趨勢。從此，人類傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)文明發(fā)展模式

轉(zhuǎn)向現(xiàn)代生態(tài)文明發(fā)展模式。它是社會進步，經(jīng)濟增長，環(huán)境保護三者之間的協(xié)同。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展是人們應遵循的一種全新的倫理、道德和價值觀念。其本質(zhì)在于：充分利用現(xiàn)代科技，大力開發(fā)綠色資源，發(fā)展清潔生產(chǎn)，不斷改善和優(yōu)化生態(tài)環(huán)境，促使人與自然的和諧發(fā)展，人口、資源 和環(huán)境相互協(xié)調(diào)。

解決可持續(xù)反展問題是一個技術創(chuàng)新和行為模式轉(zhuǎn)變的問題。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略是解決在不危害未來幾代人的需求前提下，盡量滿足當代人的需求的問題。實現(xiàn)目

前利益與長遠利益的統(tǒng)一，為子孫后代留下發(fā)展空間。

目前可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略考慮的問題有：循環(huán)性、綠色能源、生態(tài)效率。

綠色設計源于人們對于現(xiàn)代技術文化所引起的環(huán)境及生態(tài)破壞的反思。綠色設計著眼于人與自然的

生態(tài)平衡關系，在設計過程的每一個決策中都充分考慮到環(huán)境效益，盡量減少對環(huán)境的破壞。

對工業(yè)設計師而言，綠色設計的核心是“ 3R ”，即“減少”（Reduce）、“再循環(huán)”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不僅要盡量減少物質(zhì)和能源的消耗、減少有害物質(zhì)的排放，而且要使產(chǎn)品及零件能夠 5 方便的分類回收，并再生循環(huán)或重新利用。

綠色設計不僅是一種技術層面的考慮，更重要的是一種觀念 上的變革。

要求設計師放棄那種過分強調(diào)產(chǎn)品在外觀上標新立異的做法，而將重點放在真正意義上的創(chuàng) 新上面，已一種更為負責的方法去創(chuàng)造產(chǎn)品的形態(tài)，用更簡潔、長久的造型使產(chǎn)品盡可能地延長其使用 壽命。

從材料方面要考慮： 原材料的存量和可再生性，獲取材料時的環(huán)境能源的消耗與污染，后續(xù)加工時

環(huán)境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，報廢時的可回收性。

從加工制造方面要考慮：加工制造階段需要將污染減至最少，或?qū)⑽廴鞠麥缭谏a(chǎn)過程初始階段。

從包裝、運輸、銷售等方面要考慮：包裝的環(huán)境性能、綠色包裝，良好的可運輸性、降低自重、減 少能耗，當?shù)鼗a(chǎn)及減少物流過程消耗。

從產(chǎn)品的使用階段考慮： 使用中的能耗、資源消耗。

產(chǎn)品更新?lián)Q代時環(huán)境性能的模塊化、可重組性、產(chǎn)品的使用模式等因素。

從產(chǎn)品的報廢階段考慮：易拆卸性，便于分解和分類，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重組 性或移作它用等因素。

清潔的能源：如考慮太陽能、水電、風力的清潔燃料；清潔的材料，涉及低污染、無毒、易降解和 可回收性；清潔的制造過程，考慮低能耗、少排放的制造；清潔的產(chǎn)品，涉及使用中節(jié)能、環(huán)保、報廢 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用濕可持續(xù)戰(zhàn)略的有力措施。事實證明： 報廢的產(chǎn)品拆卸后，經(jīng)分析，其中材料在

改進設計后可重用和經(jīng)翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一輛報廢車中，金屬材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金屬占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界鋼產(chǎn)量中的 45 ％是 由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)出的。中國鋼產(chǎn)量的 25 ％是由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)的。

產(chǎn)品全生命周期管理是指從人對產(chǎn)品的需求開始，到產(chǎn)品淘汰報廢的全部生命歷程。其中包括產(chǎn)

品需求分析產(chǎn)品計劃、概念設計、產(chǎn)品設計、數(shù)字化仿真、工藝準備、工藝規(guī)劃、生產(chǎn)測試和質(zhì)量監(jiān)控、銷售與分銷、使用、維護與維修，以及報廢與回收等主要階段。將先進的管理理念和一流的信息技術有

機融入到現(xiàn)代企業(yè)的工業(yè)和商業(yè)運作中，從而使企業(yè)在數(shù)字經(jīng)濟時代能夠有效地調(diào)整經(jīng)營手段和管理方式，以發(fā)揮企業(yè)前所未有的競爭優(yōu)勢。幫助企業(yè)進行產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新，贏得市場，并獲得額外利潤，以提高企業(yè)產(chǎn)品的價值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single

第三篇：中英文對照A

《美國口語慣用法例句集粹》Ａ

A(Page 1-4)

1.about

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)I'd like to know what this is all about.我想知道這到底是怎么回事。How about a fish sandwich? 來一塊魚肉三明治怎么樣？What about me? 我怎么樣？I'm not about to go in that old house.我是不會進那幢舊房子的！Yes I remember that night.What about it? 是的，我記得那個晚上，那又怎樣？What's this all about? 這到底是怎么回事？It's about time you showed up!差不多是你該露面的時候了。

2.above

1)

2)Above all, I want everything quiet.首要的是：我要一切保持安定。Tom thinks he's above hard work.湯姆認為自己沒必要努力工作。

3.act

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)Would you please act out what happened? 你能把發(fā)生的事演示一下嗎？Watch Ricky.He sometimes likes to act up in class.注意里基，他又是喜歡在課堂上搗蛋。That profane comedian needs to clean up his act.那個愛說粗言穢語的喜劇演員應該凈化一下自己的言行。We need to get our act together and come to see you.我們需要統(tǒng)一意見后來見你。The newspapers called the earthquake an act of God.報紙上稱那次地震為天災。Masa is a class act.瑪莎是位杰出的女性。

4.action

1)

2)

3)

4)We're going to bring action against our debtors.我們打算控告我們的債務人。Did you see any action in yesterday's ballgame? 昨晚的棒球比賽中你看到有什么有趣的精彩場面嗎？Our community is going to take action against the proposed waste dump.我地區(qū)要采取行動反對那項垃圾處理場的提案。Jim wants to go where the action is.吉姆想去有刺激性的地方。

5.advantage

1)

2)Our opponents have a height advantage on us.我們的對手在身高上比我們占有優(yōu)勢。Nobody likes to be taken advantage of.沒有人喜歡被捉弄（或：被欺騙、利用）

6.after

1)

2)

3)

4)I think that girl is after you.我想那女孩是在追你。It looks like things are gonna work out after all.看起來事情終會解決的。This soft drink has a nasty aftertaste.這軟飲料有種讓人難受的余味。I see your point, but don't you think it's way after the fact.我明白你的意思，但你不覺

得這已是“事后諸葛亮”了嗎？

7.again

1)I could go to Japan again and again.我可以一而再、再而三地去日本。（注：意指不會感到

厭倦）

8.age

1)

2)Would you please act your age!請你做事要有一個與自己年齡相稱的樣子。This is a “coming of age” movie.這是一部成人影片。

9.air

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9)I need to go outside and get some air.我需要出去呼吸點新鮮空氣。I don't know what's wrong, but can feel it in the air.雖然我不知道到底是出了什么差錯，但我能隱隱約約感覺到。Mike was sad when they took his favorite program off the air.當邁克喜歡的節(jié)目被取消時，他感到很傷心。The sale of our house is still up in the air.我們的房子出勤率售一事還沒有最后定下來。After winning the championship, I felt I could walk on air.獲得冠軍后，我飄飄欲仙。Your sister is such an airhead.你姐姐真是來個沒有頭腦的人。Janet Jackson's new song is getting lots of airplay.珍妮〃杰克遜的新歌到處都在不斷地播放。That last time I took a plane, I got airsick.上次我乘飛機時暈機了。I hope there's no bad air between us.我希望我們之間的關系不要很別扭。

10.all

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

11)

12)

13)It's looks like we won't be going after all.看起來最后我們還是不能去。We've all but finished the project.我們已幾乎完成了那個項目。All in all I'd say it's been a very productive day.總的來說，我認為這一天過得很充實。Let's go all-out and win this game!讓我們盡全力來打贏這場比賽。We knew it was all over when we saw the building burst.當我們看見那座建筑突然起火時，我們知道一切全完了。We wish you all the best.我們大家祝福你一切如意。If it's all the same to you, I'd just as soon not go.如果這對你都是一回事的話，我就不想去了。They were running from the police like all get-out.他們以極快的速度逃脫警察的追趕。I didn't see them come in at all.我根本高沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)他們的進來。Let's settle this matter once and for all.讓我們來把這個問題一次性地徹底解決掉。Mark is an all-around athlete.馬克是一個全能運動員。Did you get to play in the all-star game? 你入選全明星隊的比賽了嗎？He bloke the all-time record in the 100-meter run at his school.他打破了他所在的學校

100米跑的歷史最高記錄。

11.alley

1)Working on cars isn't up my alley.修理汽車不是我拿手的活兒。

12.alone

1)

2)I just wanna be left alone.我只是想一個人呆會兒。Can't you just leave well enough alone? 你不能少管一些閑事嗎？

13.along

1)

2)You knew all along what was going on.你從一開始就知道所發(fā)生的事。Debbie doesn't get along with Steve.戴比和史蒂夫相處得不好。

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)Mr.Pak came here searching for the American dream.帕克先生來到這兒尋求他的“美國夢”。Some foreigners become Americanized while living in the U.S.一些外國人在美國居住時被美國化了。Not having any job freedom would be totally unAmerican.沒有選擇職業(yè)的自由是完全違背美國精神傳統(tǒng)的。Bill is an all-American quarterback.比爾是全美（橄欖球）明星賽的四分衛(wèi)隊員。I just can't go on the American way.我無法適應美國方式。

15.animal

1)

2)Water-skiing really brings out the animal in Tom.滑水運動真正激發(fā)出了湯姆的活力與激情。The young actor emits a lot of animal magnetism on the screen.那個年輕演員在熒幕

上充分顯示出他的性魅力。

16.answer

1)I called Emi but there was no answer.我給埃米打了電話，但是沒人接。

17.apple

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)Have you ever been to the Big Apple? 你去過紐約嗎？Do I sense an apple of discord between you two? 你問我有沒有感覺出你們兩人之間的不和，是嗎？Heather is the apple of my eye.希瑟是我的掌上明珠。Rita likes to keep everything in apple-pie order.麗塔喜歡把一切都弄得井井有條。Dennis has always been an apple polisher.丹尼斯一直就是一個馬屁精。

18.arm

1)

2)

3)

4)You don't have to twist my arm to get me to go with you.用不著你強迫我跟你走。My father is a hopeless armchair quarterback.我爸爸是一個沒救了的紙上談兵的人。The suspects are armed and dangerous.嫌疑犯帶有武器，十分危險。Every spring the park is filled with lovers walking arm in arm.每到春天公園里到處都是

手挽手散步的戀人。

19.around

1)

2)Coach Johnson has been around for 30 years.約翰遜教練已有三十年的經(jīng)驗了。Someone is on duty here around-the-clock.有人在這里晝夜值班。

20.as

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)It looks as if someone has already been here.看起來在人來過這里了。As for me, I'm going home.至于我，我準備回家。Marty is acting as if nothing happened.馬蒂表現(xiàn)得像什么也沒發(fā)生過一樣。I want this room left as is.我希望這間房子保持原樣。The changes will begin taking place as of tomorrow.變動從明天開始實施。Police are baffled as to the whereabouts of the kidnappers.警察局搜尋綁架者的工作受

挫。

1)

2)

3)

4)Our gas bill average about $50 a month.我們每個月的煤氣費平均50美元。On the average, I'd say we eat chicken once a week.我們平均每周吃一次雞肉。Kent describes himself as just an average Joe.肯特視自己為一名普通的美國人。On the average day, over 100,000 kids bring guns to school in the U.S.在美國平常日

子里，有100,000個孩子帶手槍去上學。

22.away

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)What makes you think you're gonna get away with this? 是什么使你認為你可以免受處罰？I wish they'd do away with these complicated tax forms.我希望他們能費除掉這些復雜的稅務表格。We're planning a weekend getaway for our anniversary.我們正在為慶祝我們的紀念日而安排一次周末的外出活動。Tom wants to run away from home.湯姆想從家里出逃。Dave and Kathy are going to steal away on vacation.戴夫和凱茜計劃在假期里偷偷跑出

去。

第四篇：中英文對照

AEROFLEX “亞羅弗”保溫 ALCO “艾科”自控 Alerton 雅利頓空調(diào) Alfa laval阿法拉伐換熱器 ARMSTRONG “阿姆斯壯”保溫 AUX 奧克斯

BELIMO 瑞士“搏力謀”閥門 BERONOR西班牙“北諾爾”電加熱器 BILTUR 意大利“百得”燃燒器 BOSIC “柏誠”自控 BROAD 遠大

Burnham美國“博恩漢”鍋爐 CALPEDA意大利“科沛達”水泵 CARLY 法國“嘉利”制冷配件 Carrier 開利 Chigo 志高

Cipriani 意大利斯普萊力

CLIMAVENETA意大利“克萊門特” Copeland“谷輪”壓縮機 CYRUS意大利”賽諾思”自控 DAIKIN 大金空調(diào)

丹佛斯自控 Dorin “多菱”壓縮機

DUNHAM-BUSH 頓漢布什空調(diào)制冷 DuPont美國“杜邦”制冷劑 Dwyer 美國德威爾 EBM “依必安”風機

ELIWELL意大利“伊力威”自控 Enfinilan 英國“英菲尼蘭“閥門 EVAPCO美國“益美高”冷卻設備 EVERY CONTROL意大利“美控” Erie 怡日

FRASCOLD 意大利“富士豪”壓縮機 FRICO瑞典“弗瑞克”空氣幕 FUJI “富士”變頻器

FULTON 美國“富爾頓”鍋爐 GENUIN “正野”風機 GREE 格力

GREENCOOL格林柯爾 GRUNDFOS “格蘭富”水泵 Haier 海爾 Hisense 海信 HITACHI 日立

霍尼韋爾自控 Johnson 江森自控 Kelon 科龍

KRUGER瑞士“科祿格”風機 KU BA德國“庫寶”冷風機 Liang Chi 良機冷卻塔 LIEBERT 力博特空調(diào) MARLEY “馬利”冷卻塔 Maneurop法國“美優(yōu)樂”壓縮機 McQuary 麥克維爾 Midea 美的 MITSUBISHI三菱

Munters 瑞典“蒙特”除濕機 Panasonic 松下 RANCO “宏高”自控

REFCOMP意大利“萊富康”壓縮機 RIDGID 美國“里奇”工具 RUUD美國“路德”空調(diào) RYODEN “菱電”冷卻塔 SanKen “三墾”變頻器 Samsung 三星 SANYO 三洋

ASWELL英國森威爾自控 Schneider 施耐德電氣 SenseAir 瑞典“森爾”傳感器 SIEMENS 西門子

SINKO ",28商機網(wǎng);新晃“空調(diào) SINRO “新菱”冷卻塔 STAND “思探得”加濕器 SWEP 舒瑞普換熱器 TECKA “臺佳”空調(diào) Tecumseh“泰康”壓縮機 TRANE 特靈

TROX德國“妥思”風閥 VASALA芬蘭“維薩拉”傳感器 WILO德國“威樂”水泵 WITTLER 德國”威特”閥門 YORK 約克

ZENNER德國“真蘭”計量

第五篇：中英文對照

醫(yī)院中英文對照

發(fā)熱門診Have Fever主治醫(yī)師Doctor-in-charge 供應室Supply Room謝絕入內(nèi)No entering 紅燈亮時謝絕入內(nèi)No entering when red light

彩超、心電圖Colorful Cardiogram/ECG住院樓Inpatient Building 透析血磁EndoscopeDept.護士Nueser康復理療科RehabilitationPhysiotherapyDept.中藥計價China medical price account肛腸科Ano-proctology

皮膚、肛腸、男性科、泌尿科候診Dermatology、Ano-proctology、male Urology Clinic 皮膚科、肛腸科、男性科、泌尿科Dermatology、Ano-proctology、male Urology Dept 中醫(yī)科Traditional Chinese Medicine五官科ENT Dept.男性科、泌尿科 Male urology Dept.安全出口Exit

預防保健科Medical center for health preventionand care

后勤科、藥庫Logistic Room、Seore入院登記In-patient Admisson 高壓氧治療Hyperbaric Oxygehation Therapy碎石中心ESWL Center 急救中心Emergency Center掛號收費Registration

中心藥房Cenreral Pharmacy內(nèi)科門診Internal Medicine Clinic會議室Meeting Room手外科Hand Surgery 產(chǎn)科Obstentrics Dept.骨外科Orthopedics Dept.神經(jīng)、燒傷外科Neurosurgery.Plaseric surgey Dept.麻醉科Anaesthesiology手術室Operation Room 泌尿、腫瘤外科Urologic.Gumorsurgery Dept.婦科Gynecology Dept.內(nèi)二科Internal Medicine.Ward 2產(chǎn)房及愛嬰中心Delivery Room內(nèi)一科Internal Medicine.Ward 1洗手間Toilet

普外、胸外科Surgey、Thoracic Surgey Dept.皮膚科Dermatology Dept.中醫(yī)骨傷科Traditional Mediaine or Thopaedics餐廳Dining Room 配餐室Pantry Room后勤科Logistics Dept.電工室Electrician Room接待室Dermatology Room 內(nèi)、兒科候診 Internal medicine.Pediatrics功能檢查候診Function Exam 中醫(yī)科候診TCM Clinic放射科候診Radiology Clinic 婦科門診Gynecology Dept.產(chǎn)科候診Obstentrics Clinic 肛腸科候診Ano-proctology婦科候診Gynecology Clinic 產(chǎn)科門診Obstentrics Dept.五官科候診ENT.Clinic 外科候診Surgery Clinic輸液中心Transfusion Center 皮膚、泌尿科候診 Dermatology.Male Urology Clinic檢驗候診Clinical Laborotories 家屬休息Relation Rest Room口腔科門診Stomatology Clinic 內(nèi)兒科Internal Medicine.Pediaarics鏡檢科Endoscope Dept.外科Surgrey Dept.檢驗中心Laboratory Center 功能檢查Function Exam Dept.登記處Registration 預防保健門診Hygine ＆ Public Health Dept.收費處Cashier 美容科、鏡檢科門診 Cosmetology Dept.Endoscope Clinic

收費健康發(fā)證Gharge lssue Bill of Health試敏觀察室Scratch Espial Room