第一篇：大學語法

Lecture three

Outline:

Topic one: function of determiners

Topic two: have a V and take a V:

Topic three: usage of ‘such’

Topic four: usage of ‘another’

Topic five: special usage of numbers

Topic one: function of determiners

Topic two: have a V and take a V:

Have a V:

When Joe got home, he had a lie down in his bed;and then he began to prepare his supper.Mary had a walk in the park yesterday evening.Yesterday afternoon, Chris took a walk round the small garden.Bill and Linda had an embrace at the airport.have a wash, have a lick, have a play, have a read, have a cuddle, have a chat, have a listen, have a feel, have a chew, have a suck, have a think, have a look for, have a cough, have a try, etc.Take a V:

Chris took a ride on the horse quickly.Yesterday afternoon, Chris took a walk round the small garden.Usually I took a nap before the afternoon’s classes began.Let me have a try!

*Let me take a try!

He took a look at her photo.*He took a listen to the radio.Take a nap.Have a nap.Topic three: usage of ‘such’

一、形容詞的用法

1.such做形容詞，是最常見、也是最簡單的用法，起到一種強調作用。

She's got such talent.她很有天賦。

We're having such a wonderful time.我們過得很愉快。

I've had such a shock.我大吃一驚。

Why are you in such a hurry? 為什么你這么匆忙？

2.當句子末尾加上that引導從句，形成such...that結構時，表示因為前面提到的原因，引起了某種結果。

He speaks to me in such a way that I always feel he is insulting me.他總是用那種方式跟我說話，總是使得我覺得受到了侮辱。

The knot was fastened in such a way that it was impossible to undo.這個結打得很牢固，根本解不開。

It was such a boring speech(that)I fell asleep.這是個乏味的演說，使得我睡著了。

二、限定詞的用法

所謂“限定詞”，指的是對名詞的涵義加以限制的詞。又分為后對應限定和前對應限定兩種。

1.前對應限定的such，指的是前面提到過的某一種類。

He noticed her necklace.Such jewels must have cost thousands, he thought.他注意到了她的項鏈。這一定值幾千元，他想。

This isn't the only story of cruelty to children.Many such cases are reported every day.這并非虐待兒童的唯一事件。每天都有許多類似案例被報道。

2.后對應限定的such，指的是后面將要提到的某一種類。通常使用such...as的結構。Such a disaster as this had never happened to her before.以前她從未遇到過這樣的災難。

Such advice as he was given proved almost worthless.他得到的那些建議，被證明毫無價值。He's not such a fool as he looks.他并非看上去那樣蠢。

三、代詞的用法

1.Cricket was boring.Such was her opinion before meeting Ian.板球很乏味。遇到Ian之前，她一直這么認為。

She's a competent manager and has always been regarded as such by her colleagues.她是一個能干的經(jīng)理。同事們一直這樣看待她。

2.后指代的意思是，指代后面提到的某個人或某件事。這時通常采用such as to do sth或such that的結構。

Such is the influence of TV that it can make a person famous overnight.這就是電視的影響，它可以使人一夜成名。

The pain in her foot wasn't such as to stop her walking.她腳上的痛，還沒有到妨礙走路的地步。

The damage was such that it would cost too much to repair.損害很嚴重，要用很多錢才能修好。

四、詞組 such as 和 as such

1.such as可以連在一起，作為詞組使用，意思是“比如、就像”，同like類似。

Wild flowers such as orchids and primroses are becoming rare.像蘭花和櫻草花那樣的野花，越來越少見了。

Large and important projects such as this one often take years to develop.類似這一個的大型重要項目，需要好多年才能發(fā)展起來。

2.詞組as such通常用在詞尾，其實只是代詞用法的一個引申，或者表示“像看上去那樣”。If this is not genuine champagne, it should not be labelled as such.既然這不是真的香檳酒，就不應該這樣標識。

The new job is not promotion as such but it has good prospects.新工作并非真的升職，不過前景不錯。

五、莎士比亞著作中的such例句

Good night, good night!Parting is such sweet sorrow,Romeo and Juliet: II, ii

良宵，良宵！此時分別真是甜蜜又悲傷。

We are such stuff as dreams are made on, and our little life is rounded with a sleep.The Tempest: IV, iv

構成我們的料子也就是那夢幻的料子，我們短暫的一生，前后都環(huán)繞在酣睡之中。Alas, our frailty is the cause, not we: For such as we are made of, such we be.The Twelfth Night

唉，原因在于我們的弱點，而非我們：因為我們由什么材料制成，就會成為什么樣子。I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, than such a Roman.Julius Caesar: IV, iii

我寧愿做一只向月亮狂吠的狗，也不愿做這樣一個羅馬人。

Teach not thy lip such scorn, for it was made for kissing, lady, not for such contempt.KING RICHARD III: I, ii

何必如此出言譏諷，夫人，天生你可親吻的香唇，不是給你做侮蔑之用的。

We were, fair queen, two lads that thought there was no more behind.But such a day to-morrow as to-day.And to be boy eternal.The Winter's Tale: I, ii

我們那時是兩個不知道有將來的孩子，以為明天就跟今天一樣，永遠是個孩子。

Topic four: usage of ‘another’

Topic five: special usage of numbers

1)I will come back in two twos.2)Ten to one they’ve fulfilled their production plan ahead of time.3)The weather changes seventy-two times a day here.4)He is running like sixty.5)She always talks nineteen to the dozen at the meeting.6)He is secretary and manager in one.7)It’s the three handkerchief.8)The naughty boy told the three little words to the girl.1)There is a regular shindy in the house, and everything is at sixes and sevens.2)John must have had one over the eight.3)His son is known to be no better than himself in inclination.In the old phrase it is six of one and half a dozen of the other.4)The representatives present at the meeting began to leave the auditorium by ones and twos/ in ones and twos/ by twos and threes/ in twos and threes.1.Nearby the department store stand a hundred and one buildings.2.I have a hundred things to do.3.He made a thousand and one excuses.4.At night time, when I go to bed, a million stars shine overhead.But when I wake up in the day, there’s just one sun to light my play.1.One tree does not make a forest;one flower does not make a spring.2.Two of a trade never agrees.3.Two heads are better than one.4.Two’s company, three’s none.5.A fence is fixed(or supported)by three stakes;a capable man is aided by three mates.6.Four eyes see more than two.7.He that will thrive must rise at five.8.Six feet of earth make all men equal.9.Nature draws more than ten oxen.10.Like the eight immortals crossing the sea, each one showing his or her special feats.11.A stitch in time saves nine.

第二篇：大學俄語語法

大學俄語語法詳解

大學俄語語法主要是考察形動詞，次要考察副動詞。形動詞形動詞：通過行為來說明人或事物的特征。

形動詞(причастие)是動詞的一種形式。顧名思義，形動詞既有形動詞的特征又有動詞的特征。它通過行為來說明人或事物的特征。形動詞的形容詞特征：形動詞和形容詞一樣，有性，數(shù)，格的變化，在句中說明名詞，并同它在性，數(shù)，格保持一致。形動詞在句中通常用作定語，回答的問題какой的問題

стоящий стутент 站立著的大學生

учащаяся в институте сестра 在學院學習的姐姐 моющее средство 洗滌用品

подойти к спящему сыну走進睡覺的兒子身邊 друдья живущие в Пекине住在北京的朋友

形動詞的動詞特征：形動詞和動詞一樣，表示事物的行為，狀態(tài)，有時和體等意義并具有與原動詞相同的支配能力。ученики，уважающие учителей尊重老師的學生們 дети，играющие вмяч 玩球的孩子們

形動詞的分類：俄語中形動詞按動詞意義分為兩大類——主動形動詞（действительное причастие）

和被動形動詞（страдательное

причастие）。主動形動詞和被動形動詞又各分為現(xiàn)在時和過去時兩種。主動形動詞（действительное причастие）

1.構成 1）現(xiàn)在時主動形動詞由未完成體動詞（несов）現(xiàn)在時復數(shù)第三人稱形式，去掉詞尾-ут（ют）/ат（ят），加上后綴-ущ及詞尾ий（ющий）1

大學俄語語法詳解

第一變位法動詞或-ащий（ящий）第二變位法動詞構成。знать ——знают—— знающий писать ——пишут—— пишущий танцевать ——танцуют—— танцущий лежать ——лежат—— лежащий говорить ——говорят ——говорящий

2）過去時主動形動詞由未完成體（несов）或完成體（сов）動詞過去時形式構成，過去時陽性以-л結尾時，去掉-л加后綴-вший，以其他輔音結尾的直接加后綴-ший，如 читать ——читал—— чиавший сделать—— сделал ——сделавший расти ——рос—— росший лечь ——л?г—— л?гший нести—— нес ——н?сший увечь—— увл?к—— увл?кший умереть—— умер—— умерший

帶-ся動詞構成形動詞時，在詞尾-ий后加-ся，詞尾發(fā)生變化時，-ся永遠不變化。如：

Учитья-учатся-учащийся-учащаяся-учащееся-уччащиеся учавшийся

находиться-находился-находившийся находившаяся-находившиеся

大學俄語語法詳解

вести與идти及派生動詞的過去時主動形動詞為： вести——ведший

идти——шедший

привести——приведший

пройти——прошедший 2.意義和用法

主動形動詞主要用于書面語中，它通過正在進行（現(xiàn)在時主動形動詞）或已經(jīng)進行過（過去時主動形動詞）的行為來說明事物的特征。主動形動詞表示的行為是由被說明事物本身發(fā)出的，其意義相當于“做??的”，如：

1）мы вошли в зал и увидели танцующие

пары。2）Яоказал товарищу позвонившему мне，что вечером буту дома。

形動詞在句中可以單獨使用，也可以帶有補語或狀語。形動詞帶有說明語時，和說明語一起組成型動詞短語（причастый оборот）。形動詞短語可以位于說明語之前，也可位于其后。位于被說明語之后時，要用逗號隔開。如：

3）Работающие в Шанхае друдья часто пишут мне。4）На дворе шумят дети，играющие в мяч。3.形動詞短語與限定從屬句互換

主動形動詞短語在意義上有時相當于帶(第一格)的限定從屬句，因此一般可以用“который（第一格）+現(xiàn)在時或過去時的動詞謂語”的結構替換。替換時需要將形動詞改成與其時，體相同的動詞變位形式，并在前面加上與被說明名次在性，數(shù)上一致的который的第一格形式，如： Все знают артистку，поющую певшую в этой опере。

大學俄語語法詳解

Все знают артистку，которая по?т пела в этой опере。

把連接的限定從屬句轉換成形動詞短語時，需要去掉который（如主句中有指示詞也應去掉），將從屬句中的謂語動詞改成與其時，體相同的形動詞，并使形動詞在性，數(shù)，格上和被說明的名次一致，如： Анна Петровна поучила письмо от студентов，который уважают е?。Анна Петровна поучила письмо от студентов，уважающих е?。要注意的是：由于形動詞沒有將來時形式，因此帶有將來時動詞的限定從屬句就不能用形動詞來替換。例如：

Я хорошо знаком со специалистом которыйзавтра будет читать нам лекцию

這樣的句子不能使用形動詞。被動形動詞（страдательное причастие）

由及物動詞構成，它通過某一事物（所承受的行為來說明事物的特征，意思是“被??的”，被說明事物是行為的直接客體。如： изучаемый язык

所學的語言 купленный костюм

買來的衣服 被動形動詞有長尾和短尾兩種形式。1.長尾被動形動詞有現(xiàn)在時和過去時之分。構成

現(xiàn)在時長尾被動形動詞由未完成體及物動詞現(xiàn)在時復數(shù)第一人稱加形容詞詞尾-ый（–ая-ое-ые）構成，重音位置大多同不定式。如： читать-читаем-читаемый любить –любим-люимый

大學俄語語法詳解

видеть –видим-идимый провдить-проводим-поводимй

организовать –организуем-организуемый（組織的）

以авать 結尾的動詞構成現(xiàn)在時被動形動詞時，由動詞不定式去掉-ть后加后綴-ем和詞尾-ый（-ая-ое-ые），如： Давать-даваемый Узнать-узнаваемый

有些及物動詞沒有現(xiàn)在時被動形動詞形式，如： пишать-литьмыть –петь-брать-шить-ждать

2．過去時被動形動詞由完成體及物動詞（сов）不定式詞干加后綴-нный-енный-?нный –тый構成。

1）以-ать-ять-еть結尾的動詞，去掉-ть后加后綴-нный，以-ать-ять結尾的動詞，構成被動形動詞時，其重音向前移一個音節(jié)。прочитать-прочитанный напишать – напишанный

2）以-ить，-ти 結尾的動詞，去掉-ить-ти加后綴詞尾-енный，-?нный，如：

получить-полученный принести-принес?нный выполнить-выполненный выучить-выученный

動詞構成第一人稱單數(shù)形式時，發(fā)生語音交替構成被動形動詞時仍保留。

大學俄語語法詳解

купить –куплю-купленный опустить-опущу-опущенный встретить-встречу-встреченный поставить-поставлю-поставленный пройти –пройду-пройденный найти-найту-найденный

某些動詞（主要是單音節(jié)動詞和以-нять-нуть-крыть結尾的動詞）在構成過去時被動形動詞時，去掉-ть 后加-тый。其重音與該動詞過去時陽性單數(shù)重音相同。如：

открыть-открытый забыть-забытый начать-начатый взять-взятый одеть-одетый сшить –сшитый 2.用法

長尾被動形動詞在句中主要用作定語，其性，數(shù)，格，應與被說明的名詞一致。

長尾被動形動詞可以單獨使用，也可以帶有補語或狀語。長尾被動形動詞不帶補語或狀語時，一般位于被說明的名詞之前。被動形動詞帶有說明語時，與說明語一起組成形動詞短語。形動詞短語可位于被說明的名詞之前或之后，位于被說明的名詞之前時，不用逗號；位于被說明的名6

大學俄語語法詳解

詞之后時，要用逗號與句中其他成分隔開。被動形動詞的行為主體用第五格表示，如：

（1）Ей понравился роман “Открытая книга”。

(2)Газеты，издаваемые в Москве，можно купить во всех городах России。

(3)На окне стоит ваза，сделанная этим заводом из стекла。3.被動形動詞短語有時可用帶который的限定從屬句互換

被動形動詞短語，在意義上有時相當于不帶前置詞第四格的帶который的限定從屬句，用限定從屬句替換被動形動詞短語時，被動形動詞短語主體由第五格變?yōu)榈谝桓瘢洚攺膶倬渲械闹髡Z。如果原句中沒有表示主體的第五格補語，從屬句應根據(jù)意義上加上主語或用不定人稱句，如：（1）Повторяйте пройденные уроки。

Повторяйте уроки，которые вы прошли。

（2）Веикая Китйская стена，построенная нашим народом，известна всему миру。

Веикая Китйская стена，которую построил наш народ，известна всему миру。

（3）В нашей виблиотеке много газет и журналов，получаемых из разоых стран。

В нашей виблиотеке много газет и журналов，которые мы получаем（или： получают）из разоых стран。

由個別不及物動詞構成的被動形動詞，在轉換為限定從屬句時，который7

大學俄語語法詳解 的格要根據(jù)動詞的要求來確定，如：

（1）Наш цех，руководимый опытным инженером，перевыполнил план

（2）Наш цех，который руководит опытный инженер，перевыполнил план

反之，由不帶前置詞的第四格который連接的限定從屬句，改換成型動詞短語時，應去掉который，將從屬句中的謂語動詞換成被動形動詞（其時，體應與謂語動詞相同，性，數(shù)，格要和被說明的名詞一致），從屬句中的主語則應該成第五格補語，如：

（1）Вопрос，который мы обсуждаем на сегодяшнем собраии，очень важен

Вопрос，обсуждаемый нами на сегодяшнем собраии，очень важен（2）Исправьте ошибки，которые вы сделали в работе

Исправьте ошибки，сделанные вами в работе

副動詞（деепричастие）是動詞的一種不變化形式，它兼有動詞和副詞的雙重特征。副動詞通過本身所表示的行為或狀態(tài)來說明動詞謂語，在句中常做狀語，如：

1）Читая статью，он подч?ркивает

интересные места。2）Волнуясь，он

отвечал наэкзамене

хуже，чем мог。1.副動詞構成

副動詞有體的區(qū)別，分未完成體副動詞和完成體副動詞兩種。（быть的副動詞為 будучи。特殊）

大學俄語語法詳解

未完成體副動詞構成（несов）

（1）由未完成體動詞（несов）現(xiàn)在時復數(shù)第三人稱去掉人稱詞尾，加上后綴-а（-я）構成，后綴-а 加在-ж-ч-ш-щ之后，而后綴-я加在其他輔音和元音之后，如：

лежать –лежат-л?жа читать –читают-читая учиться –учатся-учась говорить-говорят-говоря спешить –спешат-спеша танцевать-танцуют-танцуя искать –ищут-ища сидеть-сидят-сидя

（2）以-авать結尾的未完成體動詞（несов），去掉不定式中的-ть，加后綴-я構成副動詞。

Вставать-вставая давать-давая

（3）帶-ся動詞構成副動詞時，-ся改為 –сь。

Волноваться-волнуясь заниматься-занимаясь

（4）有些未完成體（несов）不構成副動詞，如： пить шить петь ждать есть писать мочь等。

（5）未完成體副動詞的重音大致有兩種情況：變位時重音移動的動詞，9

大學俄語語法詳解

構成副動詞時，其重音大多加在后綴上；變位時重音不移動的動詞，其副動詞重音大多與現(xiàn)在時復數(shù)第三人稱形式相同。3.完成體副動詞構成

1）完成體（сов）過去時陽性為-л結尾的，去掉-л后加后-в（-вши）構成。后綴-в和вши通用，但現(xiàn)在俄語中常-в。

如：просмотреть-просмотрел-просмотрев Написать-написал-написав кончить-кончил-кончив

2）如果動詞過去時陽性以其它輔音結尾，直接加后綴-ши，但這些副動詞比較少用。如：

помочъ-помог-помогши принести –прин?с-прин?сши лечь-л?г-л?гши

3）帶-ся的完成體（-сов）構成副動詞時，只用-вши或-ши，-ся改為-сь。

Встретиться-встретившись увлечься-увл?кшись

4）有些動詞有兩種副動詞形式，如: услышать –услыша-услышав увидеть –увидя-увидев принести-принеся-прин?сши привести-привеся-приведши прийти-придя-пришедши

大學俄語語法詳解

достигнуть-достигнув-достигши

5)完成體副動詞的重音大致有三種情況。如：以-а-я結尾的副動詞同復數(shù)第三人稱形式；以-в-вши-ши結尾的同不定式或過去時；必須用后綴-я構成的副動詞，重音在-я，如： прочесть-прочтут-прочтя найти –найдут-найдя принести-прин?с-прин?сши 3.副動詞的意義和用法

1）副動詞和副動詞短語在句中經(jīng)常表示主要行為發(fā)生的時間，回答的問題。此外，還可以表示行為進行的方式，原因，目的和條件等狀語意義，回答等問題，例如：

（1）Тануяона，двигалась очень легко。

（2）Вставая рано，она всегда успевала приготовить завтрак。（3）Вера рассказывает，улыбаясь。

（4）Много занимаясь，ты будешь говорить по-русски лучше。（5）Недавно вернувшись в институт，я опять начал скучать по родителям。

2)副動詞本身沒有獨立的時間意義。未完成體副動詞主要表示和句中謂語動詞的行為同時發(fā)生（不論發(fā)生在現(xiàn)在，過去或將來）的動作，而未完成體副動詞主要表示在句中謂語動詞的行為致歉發(fā)生或完成的動作。例如：

（1）Сидя на берегу，мы вспоминаем детские годы。

大學俄語語法詳解

Сидя на берегу，мы вспоминали детские годы。Сидя на берегу，мы будем вспоминать детские годы。（2）Вернувшись домой，Зоя готовит ужин。

Вернувшись домой，Зоя готовила ужин。Вернувшись домой，Зоя будет готовить ужин。

3）副動詞和做謂語用的動詞所表示的行為必須是同一主體發(fā)出的，例如： Девушки гуряют в саду，и весео рзговаривают по-русски。Девушки гуряют в саду，весео рзговаривая по-русски。

（注意）帶有-нужно，-нельзя等謂語副詞的無人稱句中也可用副動詞。如：Нужно учиться，не боясь тудностей。

Нельзя идти，не выполнив работы。

4）副動詞在句中可以單獨使用，也可以帶有狀語或補語，組成副動詞短語деепричастй оборот。副動詞和副動詞短語可以位于句首，句中或句末，它們一般都要用逗號與句中其它成分分開，如：（1）Гуряя по парку，друдья о ч?м-то спорили。（2）Таня вышла из комнаты，не простившись。（3）Ал?ша，л?жа на кровати，о ч?м-то думает。主語+謂語

主動形動詞 謂語+主語

被動形動詞

副動詞

表示主要動作之后的次要動作

第三篇：2018年大學英語四級語法精要

大學英語四級語法精要

Ⅰ動詞(時態(tài),語態(tài),用法,省略,一致性等)1.時態(tài)

1)現(xiàn)在完成進行時態(tài)(have/has been +-ing 分詞構成): 動作或狀態(tài)從過去某時開始,繼續(xù)到現(xiàn)在,可能繼續(xù)下去,也可能剛剛結束.I’ve been writing letters for an hour.I’ve been sitting in the garden.2)過去完成進行時(由had been + ing分詞構成): 過去某個時刻以前一直在進行的動作

I’d been working for some time when he called.We had been waiting for her for two hours by the time she came.3)將來完成進行時: 將來某個時刻以前一直在進行的動作.By next summer, he will have been working here for twenty years.In another month’s time she’ll have been studying here for three years.4)將來完成時(由shall/will have + 過去分詞構成): 將來某時會業(yè)已發(fā)生的事.I shall have finished this one before lunch.They’ll have hit the year’s target by the end of October.2.語態(tài)

1)可以有兩種被動結構的類型,例如: He was said to be jealous of her success.It was said that he was jealous of her success.能同時適用于上述兩個句型的主動詞通常都是表示“估計”,“相信”等意義的動

詞,常

見的有assume,believe,expect,fear,feel,know,presume,report,say,suppose,understand等.It is supposed that the ship has been sunk.The ship is supposed to have been sunk.擔當be supposed to 與不定式的一般形式搭配時往往表示不同的意義.例如: Why are you driving so fast in this area? You are supposed to know the speed to know the speed limit.(你應該曉得速度限制)

2)雙賓語及賓補結構的被動語態(tài)

a)雙賓語結構的被動語態(tài): 雙賓語結構變?yōu)楸粍诱Z態(tài)時,可以把主動結構中的一個賓語變?yōu)橹髡Z,另一個賓語仍然保留在謂語后面,但多數(shù)是把間接賓語變?yōu)橹髡Z.He was asked a number of questions at the press conference.Two days were allowed them for making the necessary preparations.b)賓補結構的被動語態(tài):

She was called Big Sister by everybody.Then he was made a squad leader.He was considered quite qualified for the job.The room was always kept clean and tidy.3.短語動詞 1)Vi + adv The plane took off two hours late.2)Vi + prep They looked round the Cathedral.3)Vi + prep(有被動語態(tài))She’s looking after her sister’s children.The children were always well looked after.4)Vi + adv + prep I began to look forward to their visits.5)Vt + O + adv Some women choose to stay at home and bring up their children.The children were brought up by their mother.They took him on.6)Vt + adv + O(無被動語態(tài))I am trying to give up smoking.7)Vt + O + prep We talked Donald into agreement.4.省略

1)在以as, than, when, if, unless等引導的從句中的省略: 在有些狀語從句中,如果謂語包含有動詞be,主語又和主句的主語一致a),或者主語是it b),就常常可以把從句中的主語和謂語的一部分(特別是動詞be)省略掉.a)Look out for cars when crossing the street.When taken according to the directions, the drug has no side effects.While there he joined in voluntary labour on a project.Although not yet six months old, she was able to walk without support.If not well managed, irrigation can be harmful.Though reduced in numbers, they gained in fighting capacity.This viewpoint, however understandable, is wrong.Enemies, once discovered, were tightly encircled and completely wiped out.She hurriedly left the room as though/if angry.She worked extremely hard though still rather poor in health.Fill in the application as instructed.Whenever known, such facts should be reported.The documents will be returned as soon as signed.He said that no acrobat could ever perform those daring feats unless trained very young.Once having made a promise, you should keep it.b)If necessary I’ll have the letter duplicated.Fill in the blanks with articles where(ver)necessary.If possible, I should like to have two copies of it.As scheduled, they met on January 20 at the Chinese Embassy.2）在以than a)或 as b)引起的從句中,常會有一些成分省略.a)He told me not to use more material than(it is)necessary.We should think more of the collective than of ourselves.b)They worked with as much enthusiasm as young people(did).He is now a vice-manager, but still often works in the kitchen as before.Their training is free, as is all education.We will, as always, stand on your side.3）錯誤的省略

His life is as fully committed to books as anyone I know.While standing there in her nightgown, two bullets struck the wall beside her.5.一致

1)如果主語是單數(shù),盡管后面跟有with, together with, as well as, as much as, no less than, more than等引導的短語,謂語動詞仍舊用單數(shù)形式.Terry, along with her friend, goes skating every Saturday.An expert, together with some assistants, was sent to help in this work.The captain, as well as the coaches, was disappointed in the team.2)代詞作主語時的一致

a)each, either, neither和由some, any, no, every構成的復合代詞,都作單數(shù)看待.Each of us has something to say.Is everybody ready? Somebody is using the phone.Neither of us has gone through regular training.Has either of them told you? b)some, few, both, many 等作復數(shù)

c)some 可后接復數(shù),也可接單數(shù),表示某一.none作復數(shù)看待時較多,但也有時作單數(shù)看待,主要看說話人腦中聯(lián)系想到的是復數(shù)還是單數(shù)概念, 但none 在代表不可數(shù)的東西時總是看作單數(shù): None of the books are easy enough for us None of us seem to have thought of it.None(= not a single one)of us has got a camera.None(= nobody)has felt it more keenly than she did.None of this worries me.all 和most 可后接復數(shù),也可接不可數(shù)名詞(all of the?, most of the ?), 動詞用單數(shù).3)由and 或 both? and 連接名詞詞組時, 后用復數(shù);由not only?but(also), either?or, neither?nor或 or 連接的并列主語, 謂語通常和最鄰近的主語一致.Not only the switches but also the old writing has been changed.My sister or my brother is likely to be at home.Either you or Mr Yang is to do the work.Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.如果一個句子是由there 或here引導, 而主語又不止一個, 謂語通常也和最鄰近的那個主語一致.There was carved in the board a dragon and a phoenix.Here is a pen, a few envelopes and some paper for you.4)people, police, cattle, poultry(家禽), militia(民兵)等通常都用作復數(shù).Cattle are grazing on the pasture.The police are looking for him.有些集體名詞有時作單數(shù)看待, 有時作復數(shù)看待, 主要根據(jù)意思來決定.His family isn’t very large.His family are all music lovers.The committee meets twice a month.The committee are divided in opinion.The audience was enormous.The audience were greatly moved at the words.有些名詞單復數(shù)同形, 可根據(jù)意思決定謂語動詞的數(shù): This new series is beginning next month.These new series are beginning next month.This species is now extinct.These species are now extinct.5)表示時間, 重量, 長度, 價值等的名詞, 盡管仍是復數(shù)形式, 如果作整體看待, 動詞也可用單數(shù)形式(當然用復數(shù)動詞也是可以的): Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations.One hundred li was covered in a single night.6)其他問題

a)書名, 國家名用單數(shù): Tales from Shakespeare is a book by Charles Lamb.b)學科名, 如mathematics, economics用單數(shù).c)many a 或more than one 所修飾的詞作主語時, 謂語動詞多用單數(shù)形式: Many a person has had that kind of experience.More than one person has involved in the case.a number of 后接復數(shù), the number of后接單數(shù): A number of books have been published on the subject.The number of books published on the subject is simply amazing.d)one of those 后用單數(shù).在“one of + 復數(shù)名詞 +關系分句”結構中，關系分句中謂語動詞的單復數(shù)形式在一般情況下有兩形式，一是根據(jù)先行詞采用復數(shù)形式：

Joan is one of those people who go out of their way to be helpful.當one 之前友the only 等限定詞和修飾語時，關系分句謂語動詞根據(jù)one 而定，即采用單數(shù)形式：

He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.Ⅱ 非謂語動詞

1.不定式

1)形式 主動形式 被動形式

to do to be done to have done to have been done to be doing

一般式 完成式 進行式

完成進行式 to have been doing

a)完成式: 不定式的一般形式所表示的動作, 通常與主要謂語表示的動作(狀態(tài))同時(或幾乎同時)發(fā)生, 或是在它之后發(fā)生.假如不定式所表示的動作, 在謂語所表示的動作(狀態(tài))之前發(fā)生, 就要用不定式的完成式.I am glad to have seen your mother(= I am glad I have seen your mother).(比較: I am glad to see you.)He is said to have written a new book about workers.He pretended not to have seen me.b)進行式: 如果主要謂語表示的動作(狀態(tài))發(fā)生時, 不定式表示的動作正在進行, 這時要用不定式的進行式.You are not supposed to be working.You haven’t quite recovered yet.We didn’t expect you to be waiting for us here.He pretended to be listening attentively.c)完成進行式: 在謂語所表示的時間之前一直進行的動作, 就要用不定式的完成進行式.The struggle was known to have been going for twenty years.We are happy to have been working with you.d)被動式: 當不定式的邏輯上的主語是不定式所表示的動作的承受者時, 不定式一般要用被動形式.It is an honour for me to be asked to speak here.She hated to be flattered.He wanted the letter to be typed at once.This is bound to be found out.There are a lot of things to be done.She was too young to be assigned such work.2)功用: 不定式可以作主語(a), 賓語(b), 表語(c), 定語(d)或是狀語(e).a.To scold her would not be just.b.We are planning to build a reservoir here.c.One of our main tasks now is to mechanize agriculture.d.Do you have anything to declare? e.We have come to learn from you.3)不帶to 的不定式:

a)在“動詞+ 賓語+不定式”結構中, 如果動詞是表示感覺意義的see, hear, watch, smell, feel, notice等, 或是表示“致使”意義的 have, make, let等, 其后的不定式結構不帶to.John made her tell him everything.這類結構轉換為被動語態(tài)時, 后面的不帶to 的不定式一般還原為帶to 的不定式.She was made to tell him everything.b)在 had better, had best, would rather, would sooner, would just as soon, might(just)as well, cannot but 等搭配之后, 動詞不定式也不帶to.I’d rather not have eggs and bacon for breakfast.They cannot but accept his term.c)在make do, make believe, let drop, let fall, let fly, let slip, let drive, let go of, let there be, hear say, hear tell, leave go of等固定搭配中, 用不帶to的動詞不定式.John let fly a torrent of abuse at me.I’ve heard tell of him.d)在動詞help(或help +賓語)之后可用不帶to的不定式, 也可用帶to的不定式.Can I help(to)lift this heavy box?

e)在介詞except, but 之后, 如果其前有動詞do的某種形式, 不定式一般不帶to, 反之帶to.There is nothing to do except wait till it stops raining.Smith will do anything but work on a farm.There’s no choice but to wait till it stops raining.f)連詞 rather than, sooner than 置于句首時, 其后的不定式不帶to.Rather than push the book back as he wanted to do, he forced himself to pick it up.出現(xiàn)在句中其他位置時, 其后的不定式有時帶to, 有時不帶to.He decided to write rather than telephone.The manager believes it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to increase wages.g)用作補語的動詞不定式, 如果主語是由“all + 關系分句”，“thing +關系分句”，“what分句”或“thing +不定式結構”等構成，并帶有do的某種形式，這時，作為主語補語的不定式可以省to，也可以不省.What he will do is(to)spoil the whole thing.All you do now is complete the form The only thing I can do now is go on by myself.The thing to do now is clear up this mess.The least I can do is drive everybody else closer to the issue.4)不定式的其他用法

a)too?to 結構通常表示否定意義: She was too young to understand all that.enough?to結構則表示肯定意義: She was not old enough to understand all that.not too, but too, all too, only too等和不定式連用時,不定式一般不表示否定意義: He’s only too pleased to help her.so?as(to)這種結構也可用不定式作狀語: Be so kind as to drop in some time when you are free.b)如果要說明不定是表示的動作是誰做的, 可以在不定式前加一個for引起的短語: It is not hard for one to do a bit of good.It is a great honour for us to be present at this rally.在以某些形容詞(如 kind, good, nice, wise, unwise, clever, silly, wrong, right, foolish, stupid, careless, considerate, rude, naughty, impolite等)作表語時, 不定式前可加一個of引起的短語, 來說明不定式指的是誰的情況: It’s kind of you to think so much of us.(It is)Awfully good of you to come and meet us.It’s very nice of you to be so considerate.It’s unwise of them to turn down the proposal.2.V+ing形式(現(xiàn)在分詞及動名詞)1)形式

a)完成式: 如果要表示動名詞代表的動作在謂語所表示的動作之前發(fā)生, 通常用動名詞的完成形式.He didn’t mention having met me.I regret not having taken her advice.在某些動詞后(或成語中), 常用(或可以用)動名詞的一般形式, 盡管動作是在謂語所表示的動作之前發(fā)生的.Excuse me for coming late.I don’t remember ever seeing him anywhere.現(xiàn)在分詞的完成式主要用在狀語中, 表示這動作在謂語所表示的動作之前發(fā)生.Having been there many times, he offered to be our guide.Having found the cause, they were able to propose a remedy.另外, 獨立結構也可用現(xiàn)在分詞的完成形式.The guests having left, they resumed their discussion.The children, having eating their fill, were allowed to leave the table.b)被動式: 當一個動名詞邏輯上的主語所表示的是這動作的對象時, 動名詞一般要用被動形式.His being neglected by the host added to his uneasiness.He couldn’t bear being made fun of like that.但要注意, 在want, need, deserve, require 等動詞后, 盡管表示的是被動的意思, 卻用動名詞的主動形式.My pen needs filling.The point deserves mentioning.This problem requires studying with great care.在worth這個形容詞后情形也是這樣.Her method is worth trying.現(xiàn)在分詞的被動式可以用來作定語, 賓語補足語, 狀語及用于獨立結構中.This is one of the experiments being carried on in our laboratory.You’ll find the topic being discussed everywhere.Being asked to give a performance, she couldn’t very well refuse.These are sold at reduced prices, the defects always being pointed out to the customers.c)完成被動式: 如果表示的動作在謂語表示的動作之前發(fā)生, 有時需要用動名詞的完成被動式.I don’t remember having ever been given a chance to try this method.但在多數(shù)情況下都避免使用這一形式, 而用一般被動形式代替, 以免句子顯得累贅.現(xiàn)在分詞的完成被動式一般用來作狀語或用于獨立結構中.Having been given such a good chance, how could she let it slip away? The decision having been made, the next problem was how to make a good plan.All the compositions having been written and collected, the teacher sent the students home.2)句法功用

a)作主語: Walking is good exercise.It’s nice talking to you.There is no denying the fact that the new method has greatly raised labour productivity.b)作賓語: Your shoes need polishing.You mustn’t delay sending the tractors over.He avoided giving us a definite answer.c)作介詞賓語: 動名詞作介詞賓語用的時候最多.它常可以用在某些成語后面, 常見的有: insist on, persist in, think of, dream of, object to, suspect?of, accuse?of, charge?with, hear of, approve of, prevent?from, keep?from, stop?from, refrain from, be engaged in, look forward to, opposed to, depend on, thank…for, feel like, excuse…for, aim at, devote…to, set about, spend…in, get(be)used to, be fond of, be capable of, be afraid of, be tired of, be sick of, succeed in, be interested in, feel(be)ashamed of, be proud of, be keen on, be responsible for.d)作表語: The real problem is getting to know the needs of the people.動名詞和不定式都可以作主語或表語.一般說來, 在表示抽象的一般的行為時多用動名詞;在表示具體某詞動作, 特別是將來的動作時, 多用不定式.e)作賓語補足語: 分詞可以在see, hear, notice, watch, feel, find, keep, get, have等動詞后作賓語補足語.The words immediately set us all laughing.Once we caught him dozing off in class.His remark left me wondering what he was driving at.在see, hear, feel, watch, notice等動詞后, 及可用現(xiàn)在分詞, 也可用不定式構成賓語補足語.用現(xiàn)在分詞時, 表示動作正在發(fā)生, 用不定式時表示動作發(fā)生了.Do you hear someone knocking at the door? Yes, I did.I heard him knock three times.f)作狀語: 現(xiàn)在分詞作狀語時, 通常都表示主語正在進行的另一動作, 來對謂語表示的主要動作加以修飾或作為陪襯.I ran out of the house shouting.I got home, feeling very tired.Driving to Chicago that night, I was struck by a sudden thought.現(xiàn)在分詞短語有時可以用作狀語表示原因, 相當于一個表示原因的狀語從句.Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her.Seeing nobody at home, she decided to leave them a note.Having already seen the film twice, she didn’t want to go to the cinema.現(xiàn)在分詞短語有時可用作時間狀語, 相當于when引起的從句: Seeing those pictures, he couldn’t help thinking of those memorable days they spent together.如果兩個動作是完全同時發(fā)生的, 多用when 或while加分詞這種結構.Be careful when crossing the street.When leaving the airport, they waved again and again to us.She got to know them while attending a conference in Beijing.3)前面帶有代詞或名詞的動名詞結構: 一個動名詞前面可以加一個物主代詞(或名詞的所有格結構), 來表示這個動名詞邏輯上的主語.Their coming to help was a great encouragement to us.Our sole worry is your relying too much on yourself.Do you mind my reading your paper? They insisted on my staying there for supper.如果不是在句子開頭, 這個結構常常可以用名詞的普通格(或人稱代詞賓格), 這比用所有格更自然一些.I don’t mind him going.She hates people losing their temper.4)只能用動名詞作賓語的動詞: suggest, finish, avoid, stop, can’t help, mind, admit, enjoy, leave off, require, postpone, put off, delay, practise, fancy, excuse, pardon, advise, consider, deny, endure, escape, miss

5)既可用動名詞, 也可用不定式作賓語的動詞: love, like, hate, dislike, begin, start, continue, intend, attempt, can’t bear, propose, want, need, remember, forget, regret, neglect, try, deserve, can’t afford等.有時兩種結構之間意義差別不大, 有時卻有不同的意思.在remember, regret, want, try等詞后差別是比較明顯的.I remember seeing her once somewhere.I must remember to take my notebooks with me.I regret not having accepted your advice.I regret to say I haven’t given you enough help.She doesn’t want(need)to come.The house wants(needs)cleaning.We must try to get everything done in time.Let’s try doing the work some other way.6)懸垂修飾: 分詞作狀語時, 表示的必須是主語的一個動作或狀態(tài).Walking through the park, we saw a lot of flowers.(walking是we的動作, 正確)Walking through the park, the flowers looked very beautiful.(錯誤)Standing on the tower, we could see the whole city.(正確)Standing on the tower, the whole village could be seen.(錯誤)3.分詞

1)意義: 過去分詞通常來自及物動詞, 帶有被動意義和完成意義;而現(xiàn)在分詞有的來自及物動詞, 有的來自不及物動詞, 通常帶有主動意義和未完成意義.frozen food

a freezing wind a boring journey a losing battle a bored traveller a lost cause

a conquered army a conquering army a finished article the spoken word a closed shop a recorded talk

來自不及物動詞的過去分詞很少能單獨用作前置修飾語, 能作這樣用的僅限于下面幾個詞, 僅表示完成意義, 不表示被動意義.the risen sun, fallen leaves, faded/withered flowers, returned students，the last finishing touch a speaking bird the closing hour a recording machine retired workers, departed friends, escaped prisoners, the vanished jewels, newly-arrived visitors 用作后置修飾語的過去分詞一般都帶有修飾語或其他成分, 在意義上相當于關系分句.Most of the people invited to the reception were old friends.2)句法作用

a)作定語: distinguished guest 貴賓, unknown heroes 無名英雄, armed forces武裝部隊, canned food罐頭食品, boiled water開水, steamed bread饅頭, stricken area災區(qū)

分詞還可構成合成詞作定語: simply-furnished room陳設簡單的房間, clear-cut answer明確的答復, highly-developed industry高度發(fā)展的工業(yè), heartfelt thanks衷心的感謝, hand-made goods手工制品, man-made satellite人造衛(wèi)星

b)作補足語: 可以帶過去分詞作賓語補足語的動詞有: see, hear, feel, find, think等表示感覺和心理狀態(tài)的動詞.I saw the students assembled in the hall.We found her greatly changed.make, get, have, keep等表示”致使”意義的動詞: I have my hair cut every ten days.She got her bad tooth pulled out.Please keep us informed of the latest developments.like, want, wish, order等表示希望, 要求, 命令等意義的動詞: I don’t want any of you(to be)involved in the scandal.He won’t like such questions(to be)discussed at the meeting.c)過去分詞短語常用作狀語, 修飾謂語, 很多都說明動作發(fā)生的背景或情況.Guided by these principles, they went on with the work, Delighted with her work, they made her the general manager.過去分詞短語也可作狀語表示原因, 相當于一個表示原因的狀語從句.Influenced by his example, they performed countless good deeds.有時也可說明動作發(fā)生的時間, 相當于一個表示時間的狀語從句.This method, tried in areas near Shanghai, resulted in a marked rise in total production.間或也可表示一個假設的情況, 相當于一個條件從句.Given closer analysis, we can see this is totally wrong.偶爾也可用來代替一個“讓步”狀語從句.Picked 20 years a year, it grows tired only after 40 or 50 years.d)獨立結構: 在用分詞短語作狀語時, 它邏輯上的主語一般必須與句子的主語一.致.但有時它也可以有自己獨立的邏輯上的主語, 這種結構稱為獨立結構, 一般表示一種伴隨的動作或情況.He rushed into the room, his face covered with sweat.有時可以表示時間: Late that autumn, his work finished, he prepared to return to his institute.表示原因: Her eyes dimmed with tears, she did not see him enter.條件: All things considered, her paper is of greater value than yours.Ⅲ 虛擬語氣

1.that從居中:

1)wish, would rather(sooner), had better: I wish I were as strong as you.I wish I had paid more attention to our pronunciation.I wish I remembered the address.I would rather they came tomorrow(you had gone there too).I had rather(that)you told him than I did.2)suggest, order, demand, propose, command, request, desire, insist 等動詞后的賓語從句: The commander ordered that all civilians(should)be evacuated.He asked that he be given an opportunity to try.She urged that he write and accept the post.3)it is desired, it is suggested, it is requested, it was ordered, it was proposed, it is necessary, it is important, it has been decided 等結構后的主語從句中.It was arranged that they leave the following week It will be better that we meet some other time.4)suggestion, motion, proposal, order, recommendations, plan, idea等后面的表語從句和同位語從句: His sole requirement is(was)that thy system be adjusted.2.在某些句型中

1)it is time that It is time that we went(或should go)to bed.It is high time we(should)put an end to this controversy.2)as if(though)引起的從句: They talked(are talking)as if they had been friends for years.It seems as if it was(were)spring today.He acts(acted)as if(though)he were(was)an expert.3)以lest, for fear that 和 in case 引起的從句(這時謂語多用 should +動詞原形): He took his raincoat with him lest it should rain.He put his coat over the child for fear that(或lest)he should catch cold.I’ll keep a seat for you in case you should need it.4)以whatever, whoever, no matter what這類代詞或詞組引起的從句(這時, 謂語多用may加動詞原形構成): Whatever defects he may have, he is an honest man.Come what may, we will go ahead.干下去.I accept that he is old and frail;be that as it may, he’s still a good politician.我承認他年老體衰, 然而盡管如此, 它仍是優(yōu)秀的政治家.3.條件句

1)虛擬條件句主要有下面兩類:

a)表示現(xiàn)在及將來情況(表示純然假設或實現(xiàn)的可能性不大的情況): 謂語主要形式如下(be多用were這個形式): 從句 主句 過去式 would + 動詞原形

不管發(fā)生什么情況, 我們都要If I were you, I wouldn’t lose heart.How nice it would be if you could stay a bit longer.b)表示過去情況的虛擬條件句(與事實完全相反的假設情況), 謂語主要形式如下:

從句 主句 had + 過去分詞 would have + 過去分詞

She would have come if we had invited her.If I hadn’t taken your advice, I would have made a bad mistake, You wouldn’t have caught cold if you had put on more clothes.2)有時候, 條件從句表示的動作和主句表示的動作, 發(fā)生的時間是不一致的(如一個是過去發(fā)生的, 一個是現(xiàn)在發(fā)生的).這時, 動詞的形式要根據(jù)表示的時間來調整.這種句子可以稱為錯綜時間條件句.If he had received six more votes, he would be our chairman now.If we hadn’t got everything ready by now, we should be having a terrible time tomorrow.3)有時假設的情況并不以條件從句表示, 而是通過一個介詞短語來表示.Without music, the world would be a dull place.We could have done better under more favorable conditions.That would have been considered miraculous in the past.But for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.4)如果條件句從句中包含有 were, had, should 或could, 有時可把if省略掉, 并把were, had, should或could放在主語前面.Had we made adequate preparation, we might have succeeded.Should there be a flood, what should we do? Were it not for their assistance, we would be in serious difficulty.Ⅳ 介詞

1.合成介詞和復雜介詞

1)合成介詞: inside, into, onto, out of, outside, throughout, upon within, without

2)復雜介詞: according to, along with, apart from, as for, as to, because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of, instead of, in accordance with, on account of, on behalf of, owing to, due to, together with, up to, with regard to, prior to等

2.介詞在句末:

This is what he is interested in.Does everyone has a seat to sit on?

3.名詞加介詞(n + prep)1)某些名詞之后要求用某些介詞: solution to, faith in, glance at, need for 2)某些名詞之前要求用某些介詞: on one’s guard, at one’s request, in all probability, to my delight

4.動詞加介詞

1)Vi + prep: prevail on, appeal to, fall into, apply for, touch upon 2)Vt + O + prep: lay emphasis on, take advantage of等 3)Vi + adv + prep:

I don’t wish to break in on your thoughts.The family came up against fresh problems.You’re not telling me the whole story.You’re holding out on me.She got off with him soon after she began to work at the institution.4)Vt + O + adv +prep:

You shouldn’t take your resentment out on me.We shouldn’t put the shortage down to bad planning.5.形容詞加介詞

about---anxious, careful, careless, certain, considerate, enthusiastic, guilty, happy, mad, particular, sad, sure, timid, unhappy, etc at---awkward, bad, clever, disappointed, disgusted, good, marvellous, quick, skilful, skilled, useless, weak, etc for---convenient, eligible, grateful, homesick, hungry, necessary, noted, perfect, responsible, etc from---evident, exempt, inseparable, safe, tired, etc in---deficient, expert, liberal, quick, rich, successful, weak, etc of---apprehensive, characteristic, critical, destructive, envious, hard, inconsiderate, impatient, dependent, jealous, positive, scared, sensible, short, sick, suspicious, typical, worthy, etc on---dependent, keen, intent, etc to---acceptable, accessible, agreeable, alive, attentive, blind, comparable, courteous, deaf, destructive, essential, favourable, hostile, indifferent, married, obedient, parallel, preferable, related, responsible, sensitive, suitable, unjust, etc with---awkward, bored, careful, disappointed, generous, identical, ill, impatient, popular, sick, wrong, etc Ⅴ 連詞 1.并列連詞

1)表示意義的引申: and, both?and, not only?but(also), as well as, and ?as well, neither?nor 2)表示選擇: or, either?or 3)表示轉折: but, while, whereas, yet, however/nevertheless(也可認為是副詞)4)表示因果: for, so, therefore, hence 2.從屬連詞

1)表示時間: when, while, as, after, before, since, until(till), as soon as, once 2)表示原因: because, as, since, now that, seeing that 3)表示條件: if, unless, in case, provided(that), suppose, as long as, on condition(that)，4)表示其他關系:(al)though, than, as/so?as, lest, in order that, so?that

Ⅵ 定語從句

1.限制和非限制性定語從句: 限制性定語從句是名詞詞組不可缺少的一個組成部分, 去掉了會造成病句或意義不明確;非限制性定語從句屬于補充說明性質, 去掉了不會影響主要意義, 通常用逗號與它的先行詞分開.The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.The boys, who wanted to play football, were disappointed when it rained.如果定語從句的先行詞是專有名詞, 或是帶有形容詞性物主代詞(my, his, etc)或形容詞性指示代詞(this, that, etc)作限定詞, 其后的定語從句通常都是非限制性的: Mary Smith, who is in the corner, wants to meet you.Her mother, who had long suffered form arthritis, died last night.All these books, which have been donated by visiting professors, are to be used by the postgraduates.在非限制性定語從句中只能用who/whom指人, 用which指物,通常不用that替代.My father, who had been on a visit to America, returned yesterday.All the books, which had pictures in them, were sent to the little girl.2.定語從句的引導詞

1)that, who, whom: 非限制性定語從句, 如果修飾人, 一般用who, 有時用that(作主語時用who較多).如果關系代詞在從句中作賓語, 就應當用賓格 whom 或that, 但在大多數(shù)情況下都可以省略掉, 在口語中可用who代替whom.Here is the man(whom)you’ve been looking for.He is a man(that)you can safely depend on.The people(who/that)you were talking to were Swedes.There are some people here who I want you to meet.但在介詞后只能用whom: This is the man to whom I referred.但在口語中一般都把介詞放到句子后面去, 這時可用that, 但省略時更多一些.Have you met the person about whom he was speaking? Have you met the person(that)he was speaking about

The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin.The girl(who/that)I spoke to is my cousin.2)限制性定語從句如果修飾“物”, 用關系代詞that的時候較多, 也有時用which..當這個代詞在從句中是用作賓語時, 在絕大多數(shù)情況下都是省略的, 特別是口語中(尤其是當被修飾的詞是all, everything等詞時): Have you everything you need?(Is there)anything I can do for you? All you have to do is to press the button.在介詞后只能用which, 在口語中一般都把介詞放到從句后部去, 這時可以用that, 但省略的時候更多一些: The tool with which he is working is called a wrench.The tool(that)he is working with is called a wrench.This is the question about which we’ve had so much discussion.This is the question(that)we’ve had so much discussion about.定語從句一般是修飾名詞或代詞的, 但間或也可以修飾整個句子a), 或是句子的一部分 b), 引導詞用which: a)They have invited me to visit their country, which is very kind of them.The activity was postponed, which was exactly what we wanted

b)When deeply absorbed in work, which he often was, he would forget all about eating and sleeping.She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was.3)whose: 在表示“．．．的”這個概念時, 可用所有格 whose;whose 用于指物, 有時可與of which交替使用, 通常的詞序是 名詞詞組 + of which:

Is there anyone in your class whose family is in the northeast? We had a meeting whose purpose was completely unclear.(…the purpose of which was…)He’s written a book the name of which I’ve completely forgotten.(…whose name I’ve…)

of which前的名詞詞組也可以由some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many, most, few以及基數(shù)詞擔任;這些詞也能用在 of whom之前.The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd.It’s a family of eight children, all of whom are studying music.4)關系副詞 when, where, why: 它們的含義相當于 at which, in which, for which, 因此它們之間有交替使用的可能.The day when he was born…

The office where he works…

有時可用that替代關系副詞, 在口語中that 可省略.Every time(that)the telephone rings, he gets nervous.at which he works… which he works at…

on which he was born…

which he was born on… This was the first time I had serious trouble with my boss.Do you know anywhere(that)I can get a drink? This is the place(where)we met yesterday.That is the reason(why)he did it.在the way 后也可用that 替代in which, 在口語中that也可省略.This is the way(that/in which)he did it.That’s the way I look at it.3.如果定語從句中謂語為 there is, 作主語的關系代詞也常可省掉: I must make full use of the time there is left to me and do as much as I can for the people.This is the fastest train(that)there is to Nanjing.4.定語從句的簡化: 定語從句與不定式結構,-ing分詞結構,-ed分詞結構以及無動詞分句等有著轉換關系.He was the only one to realize the danger(= who realized the danger).The woman driving the car(= who was driving the car)indicated that she was going to turn left.The man injured by the bullet(= who was injured by the bullet)was taken to hospital.All the women present(= who were present)looked up in alarm.Ⅶ 倒裝

1.全部倒裝和部分倒裝: 如果謂語在主語前面, 就是倒裝語序.倒裝語序又分為全部倒裝和部分倒裝.在全部倒裝的句子中, 整個謂語都放在主語的前面:

Here are some registered letters for you.In came a man with a white beard.在部分倒裝的句子中只是謂語中的一部分(如助動詞, 情態(tài)動詞, 或系動詞be等)放在主語前面, 其余部分仍在主語后面: Under no circumstances must a soldier leave his post.I couldn’t answer the question.Nor could anyone else in our class.Only in this way is it possible to accomplish the above-mentioned glorious task.2.以neither, nor, so等開始的句子: 由so引起的表示前面所說情況也適用于另一人(或東西)的句子(肯定句), 由neither, nor引起的表示前面所說情況也適用于另一人(或東西)的句子(否定句), 助動詞或be置于主語前.“We must start for the work-site now”.“ So must we.” I am quite willing to help and so are the others.He didn’t drop any hint.Nor(Neither)did his secretary.“I won’t do such a thing.” “Nor(Neither)will I.”

如果一個句子只是重復前面一句話的意思, 盡管是用so開頭, 語序也不要顛倒.“It was cold yesterday.” “So it was.” “Tomorrow will be Monday.” “So it will.”

3.當句首狀語為 never, little, not only, not until, hardly, scarcely等否定詞或有否定意義的詞語時, 一般引起部分倒裝.No longer are they staying with us.No sooner had he arrived there than he fell ill.Under no circumstances could I agree to such a principle.4.表示位置或方向的副詞提前, 謂語動詞為 go, come等表示位置轉移的動作動詞而主語又較長時, 通常用全部倒裝: There was a sudden gust of wind and away went his hat.The door burst open and I rushed the crowd.There comes the bus!Now comes your turn.如果主語是代詞, 仍用正常語序: There comes your turn.有here引起, 謂語為be的句子, 也要倒裝: Here is China’s largest tropical forest.Here are some picture-books.如果主語是代詞, 仍用正常語序: Here we are.This is the new railway station.“Give me some paper.” “Here you are.”

5.表語和系動詞提前:

a)介詞短語: On the other side was northern Xinjiang.Near the southern end of the village was a large pear orchard.b)形容詞: Very important in the farmer’s life is the radio weather report.Worst of all were the humiliations he suffered.c)副詞: Below is a restaurant.Southwest of the reservoir were 2,000 acres of sandy wasteland.d)分詞: Housed in the Cultural Palace are a library, an auditorium and recreation rooms.Hidden underground is a wealth of gold, silver, copper, lead and zink.6)句首狀語若由 only + 副詞，only + 介詞詞組, only + 狀語

Lying on the floor was a boy aged about 17.Standing beside the table was an interpreter.從句構成, 引起局部倒裝:

Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.Only through sheer luck did he manage to get some tickets.Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.有not only開頭的句子或分句, 往往引起局部倒裝: Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.Not only did the garage overcharge me, but they hadn’t done a very good repair job either.Ⅷ 比較級和最高級

1.無比較級和最高級的形容詞及副詞: complete, perfect, utter, etc

2.比較從句

1)as…as, almost/just/nearly as…as, not so/as …as: We’ll give you as much help as we can.I haven’t made as much progress as I should.We’ve produced twice as much cotton this year as we did ten years ago.My command of English is not half so(as)good as yours.2)than, so much/a lot more than, no more… than, not more…than, less than more?than, less?than可表示“與其說?不如說?”: He is more good than bad.He was less hurt than frightened.The present crisis in capitalist countries is much more a political than an economic crisis.“no + 形容詞或副詞比較級 + than”所表示的可以是該形容詞或副詞的相反的含義: no rich than = as poor as no bigger than = as small as no later than = as early as John is no better than Tom.I have taken no more than six courses this semester.3)the more? the more(越是?就越?)Actually, the busier he is, the happier he feels.The more they talked, the more encouraged they felt.4)more of a, as much of a, less of a, etc: 當as much of a?as, more/less of a ?than等結構與單數(shù)可數(shù)名詞搭配時, 名詞只能置于比較結構中間.He is more of a sportsman than his brother.Ⅸ 名詞性從句: 名詞性從句包括主語從句, 賓語從句, 表語從句, 同位語從句.1.主語從句有三類: a)由what等代詞引導的主語從句: what表示“?所?的(東西)”, 在結構上等于一個名詞加一個定語從句;whatever表示“所?的一切”;whoever表示“一切?的人”.What you need is more practice What is hard is to do good all one’s life and never do anything bad.Whatever was said here must be kept secret.Whatever I have is at your service.Whoever comes will be welcome.Whoever fails to see this will make a big blunder.b)由連詞that引起的主語從句: 這類主語從句在大多數(shù)情況下都放到句子后部去, 而用代詞it做形式上的主語: That we need more equipment is quite obvious.It is impossible that I may not able to come.It doesn’t seem likely that she will be here.在口語中連詞that有時可以省略掉: It’s good you’re so considerate.It’s a pity you missed such a fine talk.c)由連接代詞或連接副詞(或whether)引起的主語從句: 這類主語從句, 也可以放到句子后部去, 前面用it做形式上的主語.When we shall have our sports meet is still a question.It is still a question when we shall have our sports meet.Whether he will join us won’t make too much difference.It won’t make too much difference whether he will join us.2賓語從句: 和主語從句及表語從句一樣, 賓語從句也有以上三類.a)連接代詞或副詞引導的從句只是在某些動詞后能用作賓語.Tell me what you want.I just can’t imagine how he could have done such a thing.Have you decided whom you are to nominate as your candidate.能跟這類賓語從句的常見動詞有: see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt, wonder, show, discover, discuss, understand, inform, advise等.這種動詞后也常用whether或if引導的從與作賓語:

這種從句有時前面可以有另一個賓語: Has she informed you when they are to hold the meeting? I don’t know whether these figure are accurate.I’m wondering if the letter is overweight.Please advise me which book I should read first.有時這種從句也可用作及詞的賓語: Whether that is a good solution depends on how you look at it.He was not conscious of what an important discovery he had made.I was curious as to what he would say next.b)用that引導的從句作賓語的情形最為普遍, 在很多動詞如boast, say, think, insist, wish, hope, suppose, see, believe, agree, acknowledge, admit, deny, expect, explain, confess, order, command, suspect, dream, suggest, propose, know, mean, notice, prefer, request, require, report, urge, 以及doubt的否定和疑問式后面都可以用它.Ⅹ 情態(tài)動詞:

1.may/might表示允許和可能:

a)允許: 詢問或說明一件事可不可以做.May I trouble you with a question? You may take this seat if you like.He asked if he might glance through my album.You might as well speak your mind.(比may?顯得婉轉一些)

b)可能: 表示一件事或許發(fā)生(或是某種情況可能會存在).You may walk ten miles without seeing a house.She was afraid they might not like the idea.A bad thing might be turned to good account.c)might 表示請求: Might I ask for a photograph of your baby?(比May I ?更客氣一些)

2.can’t, couldn’t表示否定的推測: She can’t be serious.A more suitable book can’t be found.(It is not possible to find a more suitable book.)He couldn’t(can’t)be over fifty.3.should, ought to: 表示應該做的事, ought to比should口氣稍重一些.You should(ought to)do as he says.You shouldn’t(oughtn’t to)talk like that.但這兩者間也有一些差別, 在表示責任, 義務等該做的事情時, 常用ought to, 在表示某件事宜于做時, 多用should, 在下面的句子中這兩

第四篇：語法

初、高中英語知識的有效銜接

河北鹽山中學

田寶葵

高中是初高中階段承前啟后的一年，初高中英語的有效銜接關系到學生整個高中階段英語學習成績的好壞和教師教學任務是否能夠順利完成。然而許多高一新生由于不適應高中英語教學，經(jīng)過一段時間的學習，英語學習成績愈來愈差，以至于失去學習信心，造成學習上的困難，而英語教師由于對學生初中英語學習的知識點和起始能力了解不足，缺乏足夠的調研分析，結果學生英語學習越來越困難，興趣也越來越低落。究其原因，一是：學生存在知識和能力的缺陷，以至于初高中的英語知識銜接上產生了一定的困難；二是：有些學生沒搞清楚初高中英語不同階段的學習特點及其知識差異，缺少高中階段有效的英語學習策略。為幫助學生搞好初高中英語知識的有效銜接，使學生能對英語產生持久濃厚的興趣，使老師的銜接教學更有針對性，我們進行了研究。

一、辨析初高中英語詞匯的異同，形成有效的單詞記憶策略。

1.激發(fā)興趣，提高對詞匯教學的認識。在長期的初中英語詞匯教學中，“教師領讀，學生跟讀”已成模式。在這種模式中，口拼與書寫脫離，單詞與上下文脫離，重語言的語法解釋，輕單詞本身的記憶。許多學生常常死記硬背，不注意將詞匯的音、形、義有機地聯(lián)系起來記憶，因而往往記了忘，忘了記，記了又忘，收效甚微，磨滅了學生學英語的興趣。所以，高中教師應采用靈活多樣的詞匯教學方法開展教學。同時，對學生闡明初高中詞匯存在的差異，進行詞匯學習重要性的教育，使他們做好充分的心理準備。新課程標準中對情感態(tài)度也作出明確的描述，引導學生將興趣轉化為穩(wěn)定的學習動機，以使他們樹立較強的自信心，形成克服困難的意志，努力讓盡可能多的學生參與到詞匯教學中來，引導學生逐步由“要我學”到“我要學”。2． 改善單一的詞匯教學方法

第一，詞匯的意義由語境決定，極少孤立存在。一個詞通常會有幾種意義，若要學習它，切忌把所有的詞匯意義死記硬背，必須要在不同的語境中理解以后，其學習和記憶的效果才更好。

第二，幫助學生在語境中運用詞匯。新課程倡導學生用語言做事的能力，要培養(yǎng)這種能力，教師就要創(chuàng)設有意義的教學情景，讓學生置身于真正的交際情景中體會詞匯的意義、搭配和用法。教師應打破“教師領讀，學生跟讀”的詞匯教學模式，徹底改變詞匯教學與語境相脫節(jié)的局面。

第三，根據(jù)發(fā)音記憶詞形，根據(jù)語境學習詞義，根據(jù)構詞法巧記詞性詞義，運用中理解鞏固短語及單詞的用法。強調高中英語詞匯與初中詞匯相比，具有的兩個典型的特征。一是高中詞匯的一詞多義，如單詞run在初中英語中學生只知道跑得意思，而在高中英語中它常用的意思就有跑、管理，經(jīng)營，褪色，融化等意思。二是利用構詞法來拓寬詞匯，辨析詞性，如單詞devote在初中它的意思是獻身，而在高中的devotion就可以由名詞后綴tion 判斷出它的詞性為名詞，詞義是名詞獻身。并要有效利用字典，對單詞進行音、形、義相結合的有效詞匯記憶。

第四，強化語音教學，為詞匯教學打好基礎。詞匯教學一般采取由音到形再到義的順序，語音是學生接觸一個詞的最初印象，如果讀不出音就不易記住形，無音無形就談不上什么義。學好語音不但有利于正確地以聲音形式表達思想，而且對詞匯學習和記憶大有幫助。因此，要牢記一個單詞首先應把音念準。重視語境教學，幫助學生在語境中理解和運用詞匯。

二、區(qū)別初高中聽力、閱讀、寫作的異同，培養(yǎng)學生應用能力的提高

第一，初中和高中英語完形填空的區(qū)別在初中英語中,鑒于學生的詞匯量不大、知識面較窄和邏輯推理能力不夠健全等因素,選作完形填空的文章往往都是一些故事性的短文或是學生非常熟悉的話題，且對學生的文章的整體理解、上下文的段落銜接、情節(jié)分析及推理判斷能力的考查雖然有所體現(xiàn),但要求不算太高。學生進入高中以后,除了在單詞掌握的數(shù)量上要有明顯的提升外,還要有語言交際、文化背景和社會風俗習慣等知識的拓展與積累。高中英語完形填空題更突出考查語篇的完整性,強調段與段、句與句之間的邏輯性。高中英語完形填空的文章偏重于理性的分析和情感的交融,出現(xiàn)的科普、文化及議論性的文章偏多,往往還夾敘夾議,在議論中升華。這就要求學生既要有較好的運用詞匯、語法和理解語篇的能力,還要擅于讓自己進入文章的角色,感悟人物的內心世界,領會人物的心理活動,把握文章。

第二.初中英語閱讀教學重視對學生基礎語言知識和基本語言技能的培養(yǎng)，重視對閱讀內容的理解，關注學生獲取有效信息的能力；而高中英語閱讀教學除了以上要求，更強調對學生進行閱讀方法的指導和閱讀技能的訓練，更關注他們處理閱讀材料不同信息的過程和整合相關信息的能力，同時著力培養(yǎng)學生情感與態(tài)度等，從而逐步提高學生對英語語言的理解力和掌控力。因此要使高中英語閱讀教學順暢銜接，教師就很有必要了解初高中英語閱讀課的特點及教學要求，有效地利用教材提供的各種語言材料和各項活動任務，重視學生的詞匯積累、培養(yǎng)學生的閱讀習慣、強化閱讀技能，從而提高學生的整體英語水平，讓學生“掌握方法、養(yǎng)成習慣、形成能力”，順利實現(xiàn)初高中的銜接。也為學生將來進一步學好英語奠定堅實的基礎。

第三.初高中寫作要求特點及訓練的差異及應對的策略，初中英語作文重在簡單的情景運用或喜好評論，且因為分值和鄉(xiāng)村中學英語基礎薄弱，大多數(shù)學生忽視英語寫作。高中英語重在實際應用和觀點評論，且因為分值和以后學習生活中的實際應用，應重點誘發(fā)學生英語寫作能力的提高。對比初高中英語寫作要求的差異，并鑒于中考作文中出現(xiàn)的一些問題，高中英語寫作應強化書寫的規(guī)范性和整潔度，狠抓學生的書寫規(guī)范，主要包括書寫字跡的工整，標點符號的正確使用，大小寫，寫完后要檢查的習慣等。強化句子的訓練，句子是構建短文重要的單位，因此高中教師必須在高一階段進行連詞成句的強化訓練，為短文寫作打下良好的基礎。教師可以利用每單元中的重點句型結構，充分利用新教的單詞或詞組讓學生做連詞成句練習，并要求學生注意時態(tài)、語態(tài)、名詞單復數(shù)、冠詞等。強化閱讀和背誦，教師從高一開始就要有意識地將課文原文或是經(jīng)過改寫后的文章讓學生讀背，重視經(jīng)典句子的收集和模仿并以默寫的形式予以鞏固，這樣既幫助學生打下扎實的語言基礎，同時也為學生積累了寫作的素材。

三、、分析初高中語法學習框架，降低高中語法的難度

初中生和高一學生對復雜句的概念很模糊，而這就給學生從句的學習帶來了很大的困難。定語從句是高一上學期的重點語法項目，也是整個高中語法的難點，且影響以后名詞性從句的學習。雖然學生在初三學過定語從句，但卻是一知半解，不少學生無法判斷先行詞、關系代詞、關系副詞。為了讓學生學習定語從句不至于那么困難，教師應做好大量的銜接工作。教師可先從學生熟悉的簡單句入手，每天2-3個句子讓學生劃分句子成分，判斷基本句型。在學生分清句子成分，牢固掌握了簡單句的五種基本句型后慢慢滲透并列句和主從復合句的概念，從而過渡到定語從句的學習。也可結合初中英語中定語從句的講解，先重點引出which, that和who, whom的定語從句用法，再引出高中語法中where, when , why和whose等從句的用法，學生既易于理解，也降低了高中語法的難度。這對于普通中學的學生來講是必不可少的，所謂“磨刀不誤砍柴工”就是這個道理。

總之，只要教師能正確引導，幫助學生調整好心態(tài)，逐步掌握高中英語的特點，形成適合自己的學習策略和學習方法，就一定能順利地做好初高中的銜接，出色地完成高中英語學習。

第五篇：語法

一提到語法，許多英語學習者都會緊皺眉頭，深深地嘆氣，同時也會馬上聯(lián)想到高中厚厚的語法書，還有一堆做不完搞不明白的語法題，那么對于雅思寫作，語法的重要性在哪里呢？其實如果對雅思作文有所了解的同學會發(fā)現(xiàn)，雅思對語法的要求和高中語法完全不一樣，其主要講求實用性以及基本的語法要點，不會從細節(jié)上考察語法。本文中，朗將對雅思寫作中的常見的語法錯誤進行分析，幫助考生們在今后的寫作中避免這些錯誤。

一、名詞的單復數(shù)

在雅思寫作中，考生常常分不清可數(shù)名詞和不可數(shù)名詞，從而導致一系列的語法錯誤： The number of fruit in summer is larger than in winter.“fruit”是一個不可數(shù)名詞，往往考生們受母語的影響，誤認為其為可數(shù)名詞。與漢語不同，英語中名詞要區(qū)分可數(shù)與不可數(shù)。

籠統(tǒng)地講，物質名詞，如：water（水）, iron（鐵）, wood（木頭）等和抽象名詞，如：democracy（民主）, freedom（自由）, happiness（幸福）等為不可數(shù)。以下名詞為不可數(shù)名詞：

news（消息）information（信息）furniture（家具）equipment（設備）advice（勸告）weather（天氣）work（工作）clothing（衣服）baggage（行李）

work作“工作”解釋時為不可數(shù)名詞，“找工作”不能說to find a work, 應為to find a job;work作“著作”、“作品”解時是可數(shù)名詞，如：Deng Xiaopin's works（鄧小平著作）/a work about Deng Xiaopin（一件關于鄧小平的作品）；作“工廠”解釋時，單復數(shù)同形：a steel works（一個鋼鐵廠）/two chemical works（兩家化工廠）以下名詞單復數(shù)同形：

means（手段）headquarters（司令部）works（工廠）species（物種）aircraft（飛機）Chinese（中國人）sheep（羊）fish（魚）

中國的計量單位：li（里）, yuan（元）, mu（畝）等 實例：Every means has been tried out, but without satisfactory results.（每個方法都試過了，但結果不令人滿意。）

形式上是復數(shù)的學科名稱，如physics, statistics, dynamics作單數(shù)看待；時間、距離、鈔票、重量等復數(shù)，可以看作一個整體作單數(shù)處理，如：Two days is not enough for me to finish the task.（要我完成此項任務兩天是不夠的。）

二、主謂一致

主謂一致也是雅思考生經(jīng)常犯的語法錯誤之一，在許多同學的作文中，主謂一致的錯誤比比皆是，大量的主謂一致錯誤一定會導致比較低的語法分數(shù)，所以想要取得高分的同學一定不能忽略這個問題。

主謂一致指“人稱”和“數(shù)”方面的一致關系，如：He is going abroad.They are playing football.可分為：語法一致，內容一致，就近一致。

語法一致原則：即主語為單數(shù)，謂語用單數(shù)，主語為復數(shù)，謂語也用復數(shù)。以下為注意事項： 1.單數(shù)主語即使后面帶有with, along with, together with, like（像），but（除了），except, besides, as well as, no less than, rather than（而不是），including, in addition to引導的短語，謂語動詞仍用單數(shù)。

如：Air as well as water is matter.空氣和水都是物質。

No one except two servants was late for the dinner.除了兩個仆人外，沒有一個人遲來用餐。

2.用and連接的并列主語，如果主語是同一個人、同一事、同一概念，謂語動詞用單數(shù)，否則用復數(shù)。如：

The poet and writer has come.那位詩人兼作家來了。（一個人）

A hammer and a saw are useful tools.錘子和鋸都是有用的工具。（兩件物品）3.用and連接的成對名詞習慣上被看成是一個整體，如：bread and butter（黃油抹面包），knife and fork（刀叉）等作主語時，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。

4.不定式（短語），動名詞（短語），或從句作主語時，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。如： Serving the people is my great happiness.為人民服務是我最大的幸福。

When we’ll go out for an outing has been decided.我們什么時候出去郊游已決定了。

5.當連接的并列主語被each, every或no修飾時，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。Every boy and every girl likes to go swimming.每個男孩和每個女孩都喜歡去游泳。No teacher and no student was absent from the meeting.沒有老師也沒有學生開會缺席。

Each man and(each)woman is asked to help.每個男人和每個女人都被請去幫忙。each of + 復數(shù)代詞，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。復數(shù)代詞+each, 謂語動詞用單數(shù)，如： Each of us has something to say.我們每個人都有話要說。

6.若主語中有more than one或many a/an, 盡管從意義上看是復數(shù)，但它的謂語動詞仍用單數(shù)。但more+復數(shù)名詞+than one做主語時，謂語動詞仍用復數(shù)，如： Many a boy likes playing basketball.許多男生都喜歡打籃球。More than one student was late.不只一個學生遲到了。

More persons than one come to help us.不止一個人來幫助我們。

7.none做主語時，謂語動詞可用單數(shù)，也可用復數(shù)；但在代表不可數(shù)的東西時總是看作單數(shù)，因而謂語動詞要用單數(shù)。如： None of us are(is)perfect.人無完人。None of this worries me.這事一點不使我著急。

8.名詞如：trousers, scissors, clothes, goods, glasses等作主語時，謂語動詞必須用復數(shù)，如：

His clothes are good.但這些名詞前若出現(xiàn)a pair of , 謂語一般用單數(shù)，如： A pair of glasses is on the desk.桌上有一副眼鏡。

9.形復意單名詞如：news;以ics結尾的學科名稱如：physics, mathematics, economics;國名如：the United States;報紙名如：the New Times;書名如：Arabian Night <天方夜談>；以及The United Nations<聯(lián)合國>等作主語時，謂語動詞用單數(shù)。10.“a+名詞+and a half”, “one and a half+名詞”，“the number of+名詞”等作主語時，謂語動詞要用單數(shù)，如：

Only one and a half apples is left on the table.注意：one or two+復數(shù)名詞作主語，謂語動詞用復數(shù)形式，如： One or two places have been visited.參觀了一兩個地點。內容一致原則： 1.主語中有all, half, most, the rest等，以及“分數(shù)或百分數(shù)+名詞”做主語時，謂語動詞單復數(shù)取決于連用的名詞，如：

The rest of the bikes are on sale today.剩下的自行車今天出售。

60% of the apple was eaten by little boy.這個蘋果的60%都被這個小男孩吃了。Most of the apples were rotten.大部分的蘋果都是爛的。

Most of the apple was eaten by a rat.這個蘋果的大部分被老鼠吃了。

2.不定數(shù)量的詞組，如：part of, a lot of, lots of, one of, a number of, plenty of等作主語時，謂語動詞的單復數(shù)取決于量詞后面名詞的數(shù)，如： A part of the textbooks have arrived.一小部分教科書已運到。

A part of the apple has been eaten up by the pig.這個蘋果的一部分被豬吃光了。3.加減乘除用單數(shù)，如：

Fifteen minus five is ten.15減去5等于10。

4.表示時間，金錢，距離，度量等的名詞做主語時，盡管是復數(shù)形式，它們做為一個單一的概念時，其謂語動詞用單數(shù)，如：

Ten miles is a good distance.十英里是一個相當?shù)木嚯x。

5.(1)通常作復數(shù)的集體名詞：包括police, people, cattle等，這些集體名詞通常用作復數(shù)，如：

The British police have only very limited powers.(2)通常作不可數(shù)名詞的集體名詞：包括equipment, furniture, clothing, luggage等。(3)可作單數(shù)也可作復數(shù)的集體名詞：包括audience, committee, government, family, enemy, group, party, team, public等，如：

The committee has/have decided to dismiss him.委員會決定解雇他。6.“the+形容詞/過去分詞形式”表示一類人或事物，作主語時，謂語動詞用復數(shù)，如： The injured were saved after the fire.就近原則：

1.由here, there, where等引導的倒裝句中（有時主語不止一個時），謂語動詞與靠近它的主語在數(shù)上一致，如：

Here comes the bus.公共汽車來了。Here is a pen and some pieces of paper for you.給你一支鋼筆和幾張紙。Where is your wife and children to stay while you are away? 你不在這兒的時候，你愛人和孩子呆在哪兒呢？

2.用連詞or, either....or, neither….nor, not only….but also等連接的并列主語，謂語動詞與靠近它的主語在數(shù)上一致，如：

Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about it.學生和老師都不知道這事。

He or you have taken my pen.他或你拿了我的鋼筆。

注意：one of+復數(shù)名詞+who/that/which引導的定語從句中，定語從句的動詞為復數(shù)，如：

Mary is one of those people who keep pets.瑪麗是飼養(yǎng)寵物者之一。

The only one of+復數(shù)名詞+who/that/which引導的定語從句中，定語從句的動詞應為單數(shù)。

Mary is the only one of those people who keeps pets.瑪麗是唯一一個飼養(yǎng)寵物的人。

三、時態(tài)

時態(tài)是雅思作文中至關重要的一部分，如果時態(tài)出現(xiàn)錯誤會導致整篇文章的錯誤。主要需要掌握的時態(tài)為一般現(xiàn)在時，過去時和將來時，掌握好這三種時態(tài)對于雅思寫作來說已經(jīng)足夠。提醒考生注意，Task One的第一段肯定是一般現(xiàn)在時態(tài)，中間段落的時態(tài)要由圖表中的時間來決定，但是基本上不會出現(xiàn)進行時態(tài)，而對于流程圖，只能使用一般現(xiàn)在時態(tài)。Task Two基本上以一般現(xiàn)在時態(tài)為主，根據(jù)所寫內容決定是否應該使用其他時態(tài)。一般現(xiàn)在時態(tài)主要就是注意主謂一致的問題，一般過去時態(tài)需要特別注意動詞過去式的拼寫，特別是不規(guī)則動詞過去式的變化，而將來時態(tài)需要注意的是在小作文中只能使用will+do的形式而不能使用be going to。