第一篇：The Design 藝術設計翻譯 中英文

The Designers

Stage designing should be addressed to the eye of the mind.ROBERT EDMIOND JONES(1887-1954)

According to an old theatrical legend, a small, second-rate theatrical company once toured Ireland with a production of Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus.The script involves a medieval scholar who sells his soul to Satan for twenty-four years of power and earthly delights.In the last scene time has run out for Faustus, and the jaws of Hell gape open before him.In a small town one evening, the play limped to its conclusion as the actor playing Faustus thundered through his last speech:

Ah, Faustus,Now hast thou but one bare hour to live.And then must be damned perpetually!

and so on to the closing lines:

My God, my God,look not so fierce on me!

Adders and serpents, let me breathe awhile!

Ugly hell,gape not!Come not,Lucifer!

I’ll burn my books!Ah, Mephistophilis!

During the last four lines,Faustus started to sink below the stage soot, by means of an elevator-like trap,into red lights suggesting Hell.Unfortunately the trap stuck about three feet down,leaving Faustus's upper torso above stage level with no place to hide.The audience greeted this development with stunned silence,Then a beery voice from the top balcony roared out,”Hallelujah,boys,Hell’s full!”

Anyone working in the theatre will amass a storehouse of such anecdotes about stage doors not opening,mustaches dropping off costumes splitting, scenery collapsing,curtains refusing to open or close, lighting or sound effects coming at the wrong time, properties missing, and the like.These moments may offer great hilarity in retrospect, but they seldom amuse those involved.The cast sees hundreds of hours of work destroyed, and audiences feel uncomfortable as the company loses control of its production.Everyone anticipates a certain number of accidents during rehearsals, when the people responsible can remedy them, but the live theatre allows for no out-takes.Such accidents suggest the importance of designers and technicians in modern productions.Designers and technicians can contribute richly to the success of a production.In modern theatre the design and execution

of scenery, lighting, costumes, properties,makeup, and sound effects have grown into fully developed professions and specialties.Examination of each can expand the theatregoer's understanding and appreciation of the various designers' contributions.The Design Process

Stage designers work for years creating a process that yields the best results during performance.Although the design process may differ from artist to artist and production to production, most designers agree there are several distinct phases to their creative process.As design theorist J.Michael Gillette has noted, these steps may include:

1.Engagement.The designer is appruachW with thepossibility of handling the project.A host of issue play out in the final decision, but the main influences tend to be both

financial and artistic.if the designer decidesto accept

the Challenge of the position, he or she must commit all energies to the project.2.Analysis.The designer scours the script for information on the world of the play.Production style,concept,and thematic concerns emerge as the designer evaluates what will be useful to the decisions that must be made.3.Research.Historical research is important in order to create a complex and living stage production.This step in the process involves much reading and many trips to libraries,archives,and museums.Even modern periods must be researched to discover the multiplicity of choices available in the design.4.Incubation.After the designer has worked intensely on collecting materials,a cool-down period may be needed to allow the designer to gain some distance on the design and see its shortcomings and its strengths.5.Selection.The designer must decide what is appropriate for the production and what must be dumped.The director will often enter this process with the designer to help solidify the production's conceptual framework.6.Implementation.Models, plots, sketches, and all other types of paperwork are finished during this step,and the design is built

Constant adjustments are made during this process as unforeseen problems and insights arise

7.Evaluation.Although evaluation is a major component in each previous step, a final period of evaluation is beneficial to the designer.What seemed appropriate at the time may look awkward once the designer has gained even further emotional and intellectual distance from the project.As Gillette observes, back pattingis not the main goal of the final evaluation.The designershould critically evaluate the methods and materials used during the process.These seven steps(scenery,lighting,costume,makeup,sound, and properties).this design process is not completely linear;the designer continually looks back at the previous step to check progress and maintain the integrity of the overall production concept.設計師們

舞臺設計應該像心靈的眼睛

ROBERT EDMIOND JONES(1887-1954)

根據一個古老的戲劇傳奇，一個小型，二流的劇團曾參觀了愛爾蘭造成克里斯托弗·馬洛的浮士德博士的悲劇性的歷史。他劇本涉及一個中世紀學者為了二十四年的權力和世俗快樂把他的靈魂賣給了撒旦。在最后一幕中浮士德耗盡了時間，地獄之門在他面前打開。在一個小鎮的一天晚上，演員扮演的浮士德雷鳴般駛過他演講當作這蹩腳戲劇的總結： 噢，浮士德

現在你只剩下一個小時的活頭了

然后要被永遠的詛咒

然后接下來寫到：

我的神，我的神，看來對我不是那么苛刻！

毒蛇啊，請讓我再呼吸一小會！

丑陋的地獄！不要張大嘴！不要過來！撒旦！

我會燒毀我的書！啊！梅菲利斯！

在最后的四句中，浮士德開始沉入道舞臺下，面通過電梯，像陷阱，通過紅燈來代表地獄，不幸的是，陷阱卡在了3英尺處，浮士德的上半身階段以上無處可藏。觀眾對這一發展致以震驚的沉默。然后一個啤酒的聲音從陽臺咆哮：哈利路亞,男孩們,地獄的全部!

在劇院工作的人會遇到一個倉庫對階段門不開這樣的軼事，胡子從演出服上脫落下來，舞臺布景崩潰，幕簾不能打開或關閉。燈光和音樂出現在錯誤的時間，道具丟失，諸如此類的事情。回想起來這些時刻可能提供巨大的歡喜，但是他們很少有娛樂參與其中。演員們看到數百小時的工作毀于一旦，觀眾們就像公司失去了生產控制一樣的不舒服。每個人都會預想在彩排中的大量失誤。雖然人們可以彌補他們責任，但現實的劇場不予許NG。

這些事故表明了在現代生產中設計人員和技術人員的重要性，設計師和技術人員能夠對成功的生產做出很多貢獻。在現代劇場中的場景，燈光，服裝，道具，化妝和聲效的執行和

設計已經成為了全面發展的職業和技術，審視每一個細節能擴展到戲迷的理解和不同設計師作出的貢獻中去。

設計過程

舞臺設計師多年工作創造一個過程，產生最好的表現是在出結果的時候。雖然設計過程可能不同于藝術家對藝術家和產品對生產，大多數設計師同意在他們的創作過程有幾個不同的階段

正如設計理論家J.Michael Gillette 指出的，這些步驟可能包括：約定 設計師和處理方案的可行性。一系列問題發揮了最終的決定，但是主要的影響往往是金融和藝術，如果設計師決定接受這個職位的挑戰，他或者她必須把全部精力投入到這個項目中去。分析 設計師們在世界的戲劇中搜索腳本的信息。生產方式、概念和主題問題出現。設計師必須做出決定評估什么將是有用的。研究 為了創建一個復雜的生產和生活階段，歷史研究是很重要的。這一步的過程包括非常多的閱讀和多去圖書館,檔案館,博物館。甚至現代時期必須研究發現設計中選擇的多樣性醞釀 當設計師已經非常緊張地收集材料后，冷卻時間可能需要允許設計師設計獲得一些距離,看看它的缺點和優點選擇 設計師必須決定什么是適合生產和什么必須拋棄。導演往往會和設計師一起進入這個過程來幫助鞏固生產的概念框架。實現 模型，圖，素描，和所有其他類型的文件都在這一步中完成，并且設計建立了進行調整，在此過程中出現無法預料的問題和見解。評估 雖然評價是每一步的一個重要組成部分，最后一段評價有利于設計師。在當時看似合適一旦設計師進一步獲得了情感和智力的距離項目就會看起來尷尬。正如Gillette觀察到的，重新拍不是最終的評價的主要目標。設計師應該批判性地評估過程中使用的方法和材料。

這七步（場景，燈光，服裝，道具，化妝和聲效），這個設計過程是不完全的線性，設計師不斷地回頭看前面的步驟來檢查進度和保持整個生產的完整概念。

第二篇：中英文翻譯

Fundamentals This chapter describes the fundamentals of today’s wireless communications.First a detailed description of the radio channel and its modeling are presented, followed by the introduction of the principle of OFDM multi-carrier transmission.In addition, a general overview of the spread spectrum technique, especially DS-CDMA, is given and examples of potential applications for OFDM and DS-CDMA are analyzed.This introduction is essential for a better understanding of the idea behind the combination of OFDM with the spread spectrum technique, which is briefly introduced in the last part of this chapter.1.1 Radio Channel Characteristics Understanding the characteristics of the communications medium is crucial for the appropriate selection of transmission system architecture, dimensioning of its components, and optimizing system parameters, especially since mobile radio channels are considered to be the most difficult channels, since they suffer from many imperfections like multipath fading, interference, Doppler shift, and shadowing.The choice of system components is totally different if, for instance, multipath propagation with long echoes dominates the radio propagation.Therefore, an accurate channel model describing the behavior of radio wave propagation in different environments such as mobile/fixed and indoor/outdoor is needed.This may allow one, through simulations, to estimate and validate the performance of a given transmission scheme in its several design phases.1.1.1 Understanding Radio Channels In mobile radio channels(see Figure 1-1), the transmitted signal suffers from different effects, which are characterized as follows: Multipath propagation occurs as a consequence of reflections, scattering, and diffraction of the transmitted electromagnetic wave at natural and man-made objects.Thus, at the receiver antenna, a multitude of waves arrives from many different directions with different delays, attenuations, and phases.The superposition of these waves results in amplitude and phase variations of the composite received signal.Doppler spread is caused by moving objects in the mobile radio channel.Changes in the phases and amplitudes of the arriving waves occur which lead to time-variant multipath propagation.Even small movements on the order of the wavelength may result in a totally different wave superposition.The varying signal strength due to time-variant multipath propagation is referred to as fast fading.Shadowing is caused by obstruction of the transmitted waves by, e.g., hills, buildings, walls, and trees, which results in more or less strong attenuation of the signal strength.Compared to fast fading, longer distances have to be covered to significantly change the shadowing constellation.The varying signal strength due to shadowing is called slow fading and can be described by a log-normal distribution [36].Path loss indicates how the mean signal power decays with distance between transmitter and receiver.In free space, the mean signal power decreases with the square of the distance between base station(BS)and terminal station(TS).In a mobile radio channel, where often no line of sight(LOS)path exists, signal power decreases with a power higher than two and is typically in the order of three to five.Variations of the received power due to shadowing and path loss can be efficiently counteracted by power control.In the following, the mobile radio channel is described with respect to its fast fading characteristic.1.1.2 Channel Modeling The mobile radio channel can be characterized by the time-variant channel impulse response h(τ , t)or by the time-variant channel transfer function H(f, t), which is the Fourier transform of h(τ , t).The channel impulse response represents the response of the channel at time t due to an impulse applied at time t ? τ.The mobile radio channel is assumed to be a wide-sense stationary random process, i.e., the channel has a fading statistic that remains constant over short periods of time or small spatial distances.In environments with multipath propagation, the channel impulse response is composed of a large number of scattered impulses received over Np different paths，Where

and ap, fD,p, ?p, and τp are the amplitude, the Doppler frequency, the phase, and the propagation delay, respectively, associated with path p, p = 0,..., Np ? 1.The assigned channel transfer function is

The delays are measured relative to the first detectable path at the receiver.The Doppler Frequency

depends on the velocity v of the terminal station, the speed of light c, the carrier frequency fc, and the angle of incidence αp of a wave assigned to path p.A channel impulse response with corresponding channel transfer function is illustrated in Figure 1-2.The delay power density spectrum ρ(τ)that characterizes the frequency selectivity of the mobile radio channel gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the delay τ.The mean delay τ , the root mean square(RMS)delay spread τRMS and the maximum delay τmax are characteristic parameters of the delay power density spectrum.The mean delay is

Where

Figure 1-2 Time-variant channel impulse response and channel transfer function with frequency-selective fading is the power of path p.The RMS delay spread is defined as Similarly, the Doppler power density spectrum S(fD)can be defined that characterizes the time variance of the mobile radio channel and gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the Doppler frequency fD.The frequency dispersive properties of multipath channels are most commonly quantified by the maximum occurring Doppler frequency fDmax and the Doppler spread fDspread.The Doppler spread is the bandwidth of the Doppler power density spectrum and can take on values up to two times |fDmax|, i.e.，1.1.3Channel Fade Statistics The statistics of the fading process characterize the channel and are of importance for channel model parameter specifications.A simple and often used approach is obtained from the assumption that there is a large number of scatterers in the channel that contribute to the signal at the receiver side.The application of the central limit theorem leads to a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response.In the absence of line of sight(LOS)or a dominant component, the process is zero-mean.The magnitude of the corresponding channel transfer function

is a random variable, for brevity denoted by a, with a Rayleigh distribution given by

Where

is the average power.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].In the case that the multipath channel contains a LOS or dominant component in addition to the randomly moving scatterers, the channel impulse response can no longer be modeled as zero-mean.Under the assumption of a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response, the magnitude a of the channel transfer function has a Rice distribution given by

The Rice factor KRice is determined by the ratio of the power of the dominant path to thepower of the scattered paths.I0 is the zero-order modified Bessel function of first kind.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].1.1.4Inter-Symbol(ISI)and Inter-Channel Interference(ICI)The delay spread can cause inter-symbol interference(ISI)when adjacent data symbols overlap and interfere with each other due to different delays on different propagation paths.The number of interfering symbols in a single-carrier modulated system is given by

For high data rate applications with very short symbol duration Td < τmax, the effect of ISI and, with that, the receiver complexity can increase significantly.The effect of ISI can be counteracted by different measures such as time or frequency domain equalization.In spread spectrum systems, rake receivers with several arms are used to reduce the effect of ISI by exploiting the multipath diversity such that individual arms are adapted to different propagation paths.If the duration of the transmitted symbol is significantly larger than the maximum delay Td τmax, the channel produces a negligible amount of ISI.This effect is exploited with multi-carrier transmission where the duration per transmitted symbol increases with the number of sub-carriers Nc and, hence, the amount of ISI decreases.The number of interfering symbols in a multi-carrier modulated system is given by

Residual ISI can be eliminated by the use of a guard interval(see Section 1.2).The maximum Doppler spread in mobile radio applications using single-carrier modulation is typically much less than the distance between adjacent channels, such that the effect of interference on adjacent channels due to Doppler spread is not a problem for single-carrier modulated systems.For multi-carrier modulated systems, the sub-channel spacing Fs can become quite small, such that Doppler effects can cause significant ICI.As long as all sub-carriers are affected by a common Doppler shift fD, this Doppler shift can be compensated for in the receiver and ICI can be avoided.However, if Doppler spread in the order of several percent of the sub-carrier spacing occurs, ICI may degrade the system performance significantly.To avoid performance degradations due to ICI or more complex receivers with ICI equalization, the sub-carrier spacing Fs should be chosen as

such that the effects due to Doppler spread can be neglected(see Chapter 4).This approach corresponds with the philosophy of OFDM described in Section 1.2 and is followed in current OFDM-based wireless standards.Nevertheless, if a multi-carrier system design is chosen such that the Doppler spread is in the order of the sub-carrier spacing or higher, a rake receiver in the frequency domain can be used [22].With the frequency domain rake receiver each branch of the rake resolves a different Doppler frequency.1.1.5Examples of Discrete Multipath Channel Models Various discrete multipath channel models for indoor and outdoor cellular systems with different cell sizes have been specified.These channel models define the statistics of the 5 discrete propagation paths.An overview of widely used discrete multipath channel models is given in the following.COST 207 [8]: The COST 207 channel models specify four outdoor macro cell propagation scenarios by continuous, exponentially decreasing delay power density spectra.Implementations of these power density spectra by discrete taps are given by using up to 12 taps.Examples for settings with 6 taps are listed in Table 1-1.In this table for several propagation environments the corresponding path delay and power profiles are given.Hilly terrain causes the longest echoes.The classical Doppler spectrum with uniformly distributed angles of arrival of the paths can be used for all taps for simplicity.Optionally, different Doppler spectra are defined for the individual taps in [8].The COST 207 channel models are based on channel measurements with a bandwidth of 8–10 MHz in the 900-MHz band used for 2G systems such as GSM.COST 231 [9] and COST 259 [10]: These COST actions which are the continuation of COST 207 extend the channel characterization to DCS 1800, DECT, HIPERLAN and UMTS channels, taking into account macro, micro, and pico cell scenarios.Channel models with spatial resolution have been defined in COST 259.The spatial component is introduced by the definition of several clusters with local scatterers, which are located in a circle around the base station.Three types of channel models are defined.The macro cell type has cell sizes from 500 m up to 5000 m and a carrier frequency of 900 MHz or 1.8 GHz.The micro cell type is defined for cell sizes of about 300 m and a carrier frequency of 1.2 GHz or 5 GHz.The pico cell type represents an indoor channel model with cell sizes smaller than 100 m in industrial buildings and in the order of 10 m in an office.The carrier frequency is 2.5 GHz or 24 GHz.COST 273: The COST 273 action additionally takes multi-antenna channel models into account, which are not covered by the previous COST actions.CODIT [7]: These channel models define typical outdoor and indoor propagation scenarios for macro, micro, and pico cells.The fading characteristics of the various propagation environments are specified by the parameters of the Nakagami-m distribution.Every environment is defined in terms of a number of scatterers which can take on values up to 20.Some channel models consider also the angular distribution of the scatterers.They have been developed for the investigation of 3G system proposals.Macro cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies around 900 MHz with 7 MHz bandwidth.The micro and pico cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies between 1.8 GHz and 2 GHz.The bandwidths of the measurements are in the range of 10–100 MHz for macro cells and around 100 MHz for pico cells.JTC [28]: The JTC channel models define indoor and outdoor scenarios by specifying 3 to 10 discrete taps per scenario.The channel models are designed to be applicable for wideband digital mobile radio systems anticipated as candidates for the PCS(Personal Communications Systems)common air interface at carrier frequencies of about 2 GHz.UMTS/UTRA [18][44]: Test propagation scenarios have been defined for UMTS and UTRA system proposals which are developed for frequencies around 2 GHz.The modeling of the multipath propagation corresponds to that used by the COST 207 channel models.HIPERLAN/2 [33]: Five typical indoor propagation scenarios for wireless LANs in the 5 GHz frequency band have been defined.Each scenario is described by 18discrete taps of the delay power density spectrum.The time variance of the channel(Doppler spread)is modeled by a classical Jake’s spectrum with a maximum terminal speed of 3 m/h.Further channel models exist which are, for instance, given in [16].1.1.6Multi-Carrier Channel Modeling Multi-carrier systems can either be simulated in the time domain or, more computationally efficient, in the frequency domain.Preconditions for the frequency domain implementation are the absence of ISI and ICI, the frequency nonselective fading per sub-carrier, and the time-invariance during one OFDM symbol.A proper system design approximately fulfills these preconditions.The discrete channel transfer function adapted to multi-carrier signals results in

where the continuous channel transfer function H(f, t)is sampled in time at OFDM symbol rate s and in frequency at sub-carrier spacing Fs.The duration

s is the total OFDM symbol duration including the guard interval.Finally, a symbol transmitted onsub-channel n of the OFDM symbol i is multiplied by the resulting fading amplitude an,i and rotated by a random phase ?n,i.The advantage of the frequency domain channel model is that the IFFT and FFT operation for OFDM and inverse OFDM can be avoided and the fading operation results in one complex-valued multiplication per sub-carrier.The discrete multipath channel models introduced in Section 1.1.5 can directly be applied to(1.16).A further simplification of the channel modeling for multi-carrier systems is given by using the so-called uncorrelated fading channel models.1.1.6.1Uncorrelated Fading Channel Models for Multi-Carrier Systems These channel models are based on the assumption that the fading on adjacent data symbols after inverse OFDM and de-interleaving can be considered as uncorrelated [29].This assumption holds when, e.g., a frequency and time interleaver with sufficient interleaving depth is applied.The fading amplitude an,i is chosen from a distribution p(a)according to the considered cell type and the random phase ?n,I is uniformly distributed in the interval [0,2π].The resulting complex-valued channel fading coefficient is thus generated independently for each sub-carrier and OFDM symbol.For a propagation scenario in a macro cell without LOS, the fading amplitude an,i is generated by a Rayleigh distribution and the channel model is referred to as an uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel.For smaller cells where often a dominant propagation component occurs, the fading amplitude is chosen from a Rice distribution.The advantages of the uncorrelated fading channel models for multi-carrier systems are their simple implementation in the frequency domain and the simple reproducibility of the simulation results.1.1.7Diversity The coherence bandwidth of a mobile radio channel is the bandwidth over which the signal propagation characteristics are correlated and it can be approximated by

The channel is frequency-selective if the signal bandwidth B is larger than the coherence bandwidth.On the other hand, if B is smaller than , the channel is frequency nonselective or flat.The coherence bandwidth of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of spreading and frequency interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent frequency diversity Df of the mobile radio channel.In the case of multi-carrier transmission, frequency diversity is exploited if the separation of sub-carriers transmitting the same information exceeds the coherence bandwidth.The maximum achievable frequency diversity Df is given by the ratio between the signal bandwidth B and the coherence bandwidth，The coherence time of the channel is the duration over which the channel characteristics can be considered as time-invariant and can be approximated by

If the duration of the transmitted symbol is larger than the coherence time, the channel is time-selective.On the other hand, if the symbol duration is smaller than , the channel is time nonselective during one symbol duration.The coherence time of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of coding and interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent time diversity DO of the mobile radio channel.Time diversity can be exploited if the separation between time slots carrying the same information exceeds the coherence time.A number of Ns successive time slots create a time frame of duration Tfr.The maximum time diversity Dt achievable in one time frame is given by the ratio between the duration of a time frame and the coherence time, A system exploiting frequency and time diversity can achieve the overall diversity

The system design should allow one to optimally exploit the available diversity DO.For instance, in systems with multi-carrier transmission the same information should be transmitted on different sub-carriers and in different time slots, achieving uncorrelated faded replicas of the information in both dimensions.Uncoded multi-carrier systems with flat fading per sub-channel and time-invariance during one symbol cannot exploit diversity and have a poor performance in time and frequency selective fading channels.Additional methods have to be applied to exploit diversity.One approach is the use of data spreading where each data symbol is spread by a spreading code of length L.This, in combination with interleaving, can achieve performance results which are given for

by the closed-form solution for the BER for diversity reception in Rayleigh fading channels according to [40]

Whererepresents the combinatory function，and σ2 is the variance of the noise.As soon as the interleaving is not perfect or the diversity offered by the channel is smaller than the spreading code length L, or MCCDMA with multiple access interference is applied,(1.22)is a lower bound.For L = 1, the performance of an OFDM system without forward error correction(FEC)is obtained, 9

which cannot exploit any diversity.The BER according to(1.22)of an OFDM(OFDMA, MC-TDMA)system and a multi-carrier spread spectrum(MC-SS)system with different spreading code lengths L is shown in Figure 1-3.No other diversity techniques are applied.QPSK modulation is used for symbol mapping.The mobile radio channel is modeled as uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel(see Section 1.1.6).As these curves show, for large values of L, the performance of MC-SS systems approaches that of an AWGN channel.Another form of achieving diversity in OFDM systems is channel coding by FEC, where the information of each data bit is spread over several code bits.Additional to the diversity gain in fading channels, a coding gain can be obtained due to the selection of appropriate coding and decoding algorithms.中文翻譯 1基本原理

這章描述今日的基本面的無線通信。第一一個的詳細說明無線電頻道，它的模型被介紹，跟隨附近的的介紹的原則的參考正交頻分復用多載波傳輸。此外，一個一般概觀的擴頻技術，尤其ds-cdma，被給，潛力的例子申請參考正交頻分復用，DS對1。分配的通道傳輸功能是

有關的延誤測量相對于第一個在接收器檢測到的路徑。多普勒頻率

取決于終端站，光速c，載波頻率fc的速度和發病路徑分配給速度v波αp角度頁具有相應通道傳輸信道沖激響應函數圖1-2所示。

延遲功率密度譜ρ（τ）為特征的頻率選擇性移動無線電頻道給出了作為通道的輸出功能延遲τ平均功率。平均延遲τ，均方根（RMS）的時延擴展τRMS和最大延遲τmax都是延遲功率密度譜特征參數。平均時延特性參數為

有

圖1-2時變信道沖激響應和通道傳遞函數頻率選擇性衰落是權力頁的路徑均方根時延擴展的定義為 同樣，多普勒頻譜的功率密度（FD）的特點可以定義

在移動時變無線信道，并給出了作為一種金融衍生工具功能的多普勒頻率通道輸出的平均功率。多徑信道頻率分散性能是最常見的量化發生的多普勒頻率和多普勒fDmax蔓延fDspread最大。多普勒擴散是功率密度的多普勒頻譜帶寬，可價值觀需要兩年時間| fDmax|，即

1.1.3頻道淡出統計

在衰落過程中的統計特征和重要的渠道是信道模型參數規格。一個簡單而經常使用的方法是從假設有一個通道中的散射，有助于在大量接收端的信號。該中心極限定理的應用導致了復雜的值的高斯信道沖激響應過程。在對視線（LOS）或線的主要組成部分的情況下，這個過程是零的意思。相應的通道傳遞函數幅度

是一個隨機變量，通過給定一個簡短表示由瑞利分布，有

是的平均功率。相均勻分布在區間[0，2π]。

在案件的多通道包含洛杉磯的或主要組件除了隨機移動散射，通道脈沖響應可以不再被建模為均值為零。根據信道脈沖響應的假設一個復雜的值高斯過程，其大小通道的傳遞函數A的水稻分布給出

賴斯因素KRice是由占主導地位的路徑權力的威力比分散的路徑。I0是零階貝塞爾函數的第一階段是一致kind.The在區間[0，2π]分發。

1.1.4符號間（ISI）和通道間干擾（ICI）

延遲的蔓延引起的符號間干擾（ISI）當相鄰的數據符號上的重疊與互相不同的傳播路徑，由于不同的延遲干涉。符號的干擾在單載波調制系統的號碼是給予

對于高數據符號持續時間很短運輸署<蟿MAX時，ISI的影響，這樣一來，速率應用，接收機的復雜性大大增加。對干擾影響，可以抵消，如時間或頻域均衡不同的措施。在擴頻系統，與幾個臂Rake接收機用于減少通過利用多徑分集等，個別武器適應不同的傳播路徑的干擾影響。

如果發送符號的持續時間明顯高于大的最大延遲運輸署蟿最大，渠道產生ISI的微不足道。這種效果是利用多載波傳輸的地方，每發送符號的增加與子載波數控數目，因此，ISI的金額減少的持續時間。符號的干擾多載波調制系統的號碼是給予

可以消除符號間干擾由一個保護間隔（見1.2節）的使用。

最大多普勒在移動無線應用傳播使用單載波調制通常比相鄰通道，這樣，干擾對由于多普勒傳播相鄰通道的作用不是一個單載波調制系統的問題距離。對于多載波調制系統，子通道間距FS可以變得非常小，這樣可以造成嚴重的多普勒效應ICI的。只要所有子載波只要是一個共同的多普勒頻移金融衍生工具的影響，這可以補償多普勒頻移在接收器和ICI是可以避免的。但是，如果在對多普勒子載波間隔為幾個百分點的蔓延情況，卜內門可能會降低系統的性能顯著。為了避免性能降級或因與ICI卜內門更復雜的接收機均衡，子載波間隔財政司司長應定為

這樣說，由于多普勒效應可以忽略不擴散（見第4章）。這種方法對應于OFDM的1.2節中所述，是目前基于OFDM的無線標準遵循的理念。

不過，如果多載波系統的設計選擇了這樣的多普勒展寬在子載波間隔或更高，秩序是在頻率RAKE接收機域名可以使用[22]。隨著頻域RAKE接收機每個支部耙解決了不同的多普勒頻率。

1.1.5多徑信道模型的離散的例子

各類離散多與不同的細胞大小的室內和室外蜂窩系統的信道模型已經被指定。這些通道模型定義的離散傳播路徑的統計信息。一種廣泛使用的離散多徑信道模型概述于下。造價207[8]：成本207信道模型指定連續四個室外宏蜂窩傳播方案，指數下降延遲功率密度譜。這些頻道功率密度的離散譜的實現都是通過使用多達12個頻道。與6頻道設置的示例列于表1-1。在這種傳播環境的幾個表中的相應路徑延遲和電源配置給出。丘陵地形導致最長相呼應。

經典的多普勒頻譜與均勻分布的到達角路徑可以用于簡化所有的頻道。或者，不同的多普勒譜定義在[8]個人頻道。207信道的成本模型是基于一個8-10兆赫的2G，如GSM系統中使用的900兆赫頻段信道帶寬的測量。造價231[9]和造價259[10]：這些費用是行動的延續成本207擴展通道特性到DCS1800的DECT，HIPERLAN和UMTS的渠道，同時考慮到宏觀，微觀和微微小區的情況為例。空間分辨率與已定義的通道模型在造價259。空間部分是介紹了與當地散射，這是在基站周圍設幾組圓的定義。三種類型的通道模型定義。宏細胞類型具有高達500?5000米，載波頻率為900兆赫或1.8 GHz的單元尺寸。微細胞類型被定義為細胞體積約300米，1.2 GHz或5 GHz載波頻率。細胞類型代表的Pico與細胞體積小于100工業建筑物和辦公室中的10 m階米室內信道模型。載波頻率為2.5 GHz或24千兆赫。造價273：成本273行動另外考慮到多天線信道模型，這是不是由先前的費用的行為包括在內。

CODIT [7]：這些通道模型定義的宏，微，微微蜂窩和室外和室內傳播的典型案例。各種傳播環境的衰落特性是指定的在NakagamiSS）的不同擴頻碼L是長度，如圖1-3所示的系統。沒有其他的分集技術被應用。QPSK調制用于符號映射。移動無線信道建模為不相關瑞利衰落信道（見1.1.6）。由于這些曲線顯示，辦法，AWGN信道的一對L時，對MC-SS系統性能有很大價值。

另一種實現形式的OFDM系統的多樣性是由前向糾錯信道編碼，在這里，每個數據位的信息分散在幾個代碼位。附加在衰落信道分集增益，編碼增益一個可因適當的編碼和解碼算法的選擇。

第三篇：中英文翻譯

蓄電池 battery 充電 converter 轉換器 charger

開關電器 Switch electric 按鈕開關 Button to switch 電源電器 Power electric 插頭插座 Plug sockets

第四篇：中英文翻譯

特種加工工藝

介紹

傳統加工如車削、銑削和磨削等，是利用機械能將金屬從工件上剪切掉，以加工成孔或去除余料。特種加工是指這樣一組加工工藝，它們通過各種涉及機械能、熱能、電能、化學能或及其組合形式的技術，而不使用傳統加工所必需的尖銳刀具來去除工件表面的多余材料。

傳統加工如車削、鉆削、刨削、銑削和磨削，都難以加工特別硬的或脆性材料。采用傳統方法加工這類材料就意味著對時間和能量要求有所增加，從而導致成本增加。在某些情況下，傳統加工可能行不通。由于在加工過程中會產生殘余應力，傳統加工方法還會造成刀具磨損，損壞產品質量。基于以下各種特殊理由，特種加工工藝或稱為先進制造工藝，可以應用于采用傳統加工方法不可行，不令人滿意或者不經濟的場合：

1.對于傳統加工難以夾緊的非常硬的脆性材料； 2.當工件柔性很大或很薄時； 3.當零件的形狀過于復雜時；

4.要求加工出的零件沒有毛刺或殘余應力。

傳統加工可以定義為利用機械（運動）能的加工方法，而特種加工利用其他形式的能量，主要有如下三種形式： 1.熱能； 2.化學能； 3.電能。

為了滿足額外的加工條件的要求，已經開發出了幾類特種加工工藝。恰當地使用這些加工工藝可以獲得很多優于傳統加工工藝的好處。常見的特種加工工藝描述如下。

電火花加工

電火花加工是使用最為廣泛的特種加工工藝之一。相比于利用不同刀具進行金屬切削和磨削的常規加工，電火花加工更為吸引人之處在于它利用工件和電極間的一系列重復產生的（脈沖）離散電火花所產生的熱電作用，從工件表面通過電腐蝕去除掉多余的材料。

傳統加工工藝依靠硬質刀具或磨料去除較軟的材料，而特種加工工藝如電火花加工，則是利用電火花或熱能來電蝕除余料，以獲得所需的零件形狀。因此，材料的硬度不再是電火花加工中的關鍵因素。

電火花加工是利用存儲在電容器組中的電能（一般為50V/10A量級）在工具電極（陰極）和工件電極（陽極）之間的微小間隙間進行放電來去除材料的。如圖6.1所示，在EDM操作初始，在工具電極和工件電極間施以高電壓。這個高電壓可以在工具電極和工件電極窄縫間的絕緣電介質中產生電場。這就會使懸浮在電介質中的導電粒子聚集在電場最強處。當工具電極和工件電極之間的勢能差足夠大時，電介質被擊穿，從而在電介質流體中會產生瞬時電火花，將少量材料從工件表面蝕除掉。每次電火花所蝕除掉的材料量通常在10-5～10-6mm3范圍內。電極之間的間隙只有千分之幾英寸，通過伺服機構驅動和控制工具電極的進給使該值保持常量。化學加工

化學加工是眾所周知的特種加工工藝之一，它將工件浸入化學溶液通過腐蝕溶解作用將多余材料從工件上去除掉。該工藝是最古老的特種加工工藝，主要用于凹腔和輪廓加工，以及從具有高的比剛度的零件表面去除余料。化學加工廣泛用于為多種工業應用（如微機電系統和半導體行業）制造微型零件。

化學加工將工件浸入到化學試劑或蝕刻劑中，位于工件選區的材料通過發生在金屬溶蝕或化學溶解過程中的電化學微電池作用被去除掉。而被稱為保護層的特殊涂層所保護下的區域中的材料則不會被去除。不過，這種受控的化學溶解過程同時也會蝕除掉所以暴露在表面的材料，盡管去除的滲透率只有0.0025～0.1 mm/min。該工藝采用如下幾種形式：凹坑加工、輪廓加工和整體金屬去除的化學銑，在薄板上進行蝕刻的化學造型，在微電子領域中利用光敏抗蝕劑完成蝕刻的光化學加工(PCM)，采用弱化學試劑進行拋光或去毛刺的電化學拋光，以及利用單一化學活性噴射的化學噴射加工等。如圖6.2a所示的化學加工示意圖，由于蝕刻劑沿垂直和水平方向開始蝕除材料，鉆蝕（又稱為淘蝕）量進一步加大，如圖6.2b所示的保護體邊緣下面的區域。在化學造型中最典型的公差范圍可保持在材料厚度的±10%左右。為了提高生產率，在化學加工前，毛坯件材料應采用其他工藝方法（如機械加工）進行預成形加工。濕度和溫度也會導致工件尺寸發生改變。通過改變蝕刻劑和控制工件加工環境，這種尺寸改變可以減小到最小。

電化學加工

電化學金屬去除方法是一種最有用的特種加工方法。盡管利用電解作用作為金屬加工手段是近代的事，但其基本原理是法拉第定律。利用陽極溶解，電化學加工可以去除具有導電性質工件的材料，而無須機械能和熱能。這個加工過程一般用于在高強度材料上加工復雜形腔和形狀，特別是在航空工業中如渦輪機葉片、噴氣發動機零件和噴嘴，以及在汽車業（發動機鑄件和齒輪）和醫療衛生業中。最近，還將電化學加工應用于電子工業的微加工中。

圖6.3所示的是一個去除金屬的電化學加工過程，其基本原理與電鍍原理正好相反。在電化學加工過程中，從陽極（工件）上蝕除下的粒子移向陰極（加工工具）。金屬的去除由一個合適形狀的工具電極來完成，最終加工出來的零件具有給定的形狀、尺寸和表面光潔度。在電化學加工過程中，工具電極的形狀逐漸被轉移或復制到工件上。型腔的形狀正好是與工具相匹配的陰模的形狀。為了獲得電化學過程形狀復制的高精度和高的材料去除率，需要采用高的電流密度（范圍為10～100 A/cm2)和低電壓（范圍為8～30V）。通過將工具電極向去除工件表面材料的方向進給，加工間隙要維持在0.1 mm范圍內，而進給率一般為0.1～20 mm/min左右。泵壓后的電解液以高達5～50 m/s的速度通過間隙，將溶解后的材料、氣體和熱量帶走。因此，當被蝕除的材料還沒來得及附著到工具電極上時，就被電解液帶走了。

作為一種非機械式金屬去除加工方法，ECM可以以高切削量加工任何導電材料，而無須考慮材料的機械性能。特別是在電化學加工中，材料去除率與被加工件的硬度、韌性及其他特性無關。對于利用機械方法難于加工的材料，電化學加工可以保證將該材料加工出復雜形狀的零件，這就不需要制造出硬度高于工件的刀具，而且也不會造成刀具磨損。由于工具和工件間沒有接觸，電化學加工是加工薄壁、易變形零件及表面容易破裂的脆性材料的首選。激光束加工

LASER是英文Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation 各單詞頭一個字母所組成的縮寫詞。雖然激光在某些場合可用來作為放大器，但它的主要用途是光激射振蕩器，或者是作為將電能轉換為具有高度準直性光束的換能器。由激光發射出的光能具有不同于其他光源的特點：光譜純度好、方向性好及具有高的聚焦功率密度。

激光加工就是利用激光和和靶材間的相互作用去除材料。簡而言之，這些加工工藝包括激光打孔、激光切割、激光焊接、激光刻槽和激光刻劃等。

激光加工（圖6.4）可以實現局部的非接觸加工，而且對加工件幾乎沒有作用力。這種加工工藝去除材料的量很小，可以說是“逐個原子”地去除材料。由于這個原因，激光切削所產生的切口非常窄。激光打孔深度可以控制到每個激光脈沖不超過一微米，且可以根據加工要求很靈活地留下非常淺的永久性標記。采用這種方法可以節省材料，這對于貴重材料或微加工中的精密結構而言非常重要。可以精確控制材料去除率使得激光加工成為微制造和微電子技術中非常重要的加工方法。厚度小于20 mm的板材的激光切割加工速度快、柔性好、質量高。另外，通過套孔加工還可有效實現大孔及復雜輪廓的加工。

激光加工中的熱影響區相對較窄，其重鑄層只有幾微米。基于此，激光加工的變形可以不予考慮。激光加工適用于任何可以很好地吸收激光輻射的材料，而傳統加工工藝必須針對不同硬度和耐磨性的材料選擇合適的刀具。采用傳統加工方法，非常難以加工硬脆材料如陶瓷等，而激光加工是解決此類問題的最好選擇。

激光切割的邊緣光滑且潔凈，無須進一步處理。激光打孔可以加工用其他方法難以加工的高深徑比的孔。激光加工可以加工出高質量的小盲孔、槽、表面微造型和表面印痕。激光技術正處于高速發展期，激光加工也如此。激光加工不會掛渣，沒有毛邊，可以精確控制幾何精度。隨著激光技術的快速發展，激光加工的質量正在穩步提高。

超聲加工

超聲加工為日益增長的對脆性材料如單晶體、玻璃、多晶陶瓷材料的加工需求及不斷提高的工件復雜形狀和輪廓加工提供了解決手段。這種加工過程不產生熱量、無化學反應，加工出的零件在微結構、化學和物理特性方面都不發生變化，可以獲得無應力加工表面。因此，超聲加工被廣泛應用于傳統加工難以切削的硬脆材料。在超聲加工中，實際切削由液體中的懸浮磨粒或者旋轉的電鍍金剛石工具來完成。超聲加工的變型有靜止（傳統）超聲加工和旋轉超聲加工。

傳統的超聲加工是利用作為小振幅振動的工具與工件之間不斷循環的含有磨粒的漿料的磨蝕作用去除材料的。成形工具本身并不磨蝕工件，是受激振動的工具通過激勵漿料液流中的磨料不斷緩和而均勻地磨損工件，從而在工件表面留下與工具相對應的精確形狀。音極工具振動的均勻性使超聲加工只能完成小型零件的加工，特別是直徑小于100 mm 的零件。

超聲加工系統包括音極組件、超聲發生器、磨料供給系統及操作人員的控制。音極是暴露在超聲波振動中的一小塊金屬或工具，它將振動能傳給某個元件，從而激勵漿料中的磨粒。超聲加工系統的示意圖如圖6.5所示。音極/工具組件由換能器、變幅桿和音極組成。換能器將電脈沖轉換成垂直沖程，垂直沖程再傳給變幅桿進行放大或壓抑。調節后的沖程再傳給音極/工具組件。此時，工具表面的振動幅值為20～50μm。工具的振幅通常與所使用的磨粒直徑大致相等。

磨料供給系統將由水和磨粒組成的漿料送至切削區，磨粒通常為碳化硅或碳化硼。另外，除了提供磨粒進行切削外，漿料還可對音極進行冷卻，并將切削區的磨粒和切屑帶走。

Nontraditional Machining Processes Introduction

Traditional or conventional machining, such as turning, milling, and grinding etc., uses mechanical energy to shear metal against another substance to create holes or remove material.Nontraditional machining processes are defined as a group of processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tool as it is used in traditional manufacturing processes.Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to be machined by traditional machining processes.Using traditional methods to machine such materials means increased demand for time and energy and therefore increases in costs;in some cases traditional machining may not be feasible.Traditional machining also results in tool wear and loss of quality in the product owing to induced residual stresses during machining.Nontraditional machining processes, also called unconventional machining process or advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below: 1.Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining;2.When the workpiece is too flexible or slender;3.When the shape of the part is too complex;4.Parts without producing burrs or inducing residual stresses.Traditional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical(motion)energy.Non-traditional machining utilizes other forms of energy;the three main forms of energy used in non-traditional machining processes are as follows: 1.Thermal energy;2.Chemical energy;3.Electrical energy.Several types of nontraditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra required machining conditions.When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages over traditional machining processes.The common nontraditional machining processes are described in the following section.Electrical Discharge Machining(EDM)

Electrical discharge machining(EDM)sometimes is colloquially referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion.It is one of the most widely used non-traditional machining processes.The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring discrete electrical sparks between workpiece and electrode.The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove softer material whereas nontraditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shapes.So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process.EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool(cathode)and the workpiece(anode)typically in the order of 50 volts/10amps.As shown in Fig.6.1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece.This high voltage induces an electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece.This causes conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest electrical field.When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10-5 to 10-6 mm3.The gap is only a few thousandths of an inch, which is maintained at a constant value by the servomechanism that actuates and controls the tool feed.Chemical Machining(CM)

Chemical machining(CM)is a well known non-traditional machining process in which metal is removed from a workpiece by immersing it into a chemical solution.The process is the oldest of the nontraditional processes and has been used to produce pockets and contours and to remove materials from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.Moreover, the chemical machining method is widely used to produce micro-components for various industrial applications such as microelectromechanical systems(MEMS)and semiconductor industries.In CM material is removed from selected areas of workpiece by immersing it in a chemical reagents or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action which occurs in corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal.Special coatings called maskants protect areas from which the metal is not to be removed.This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the material removed may be only 0.0025-0.1mm/min.The basic process takes many forms: chemical milling of pockets, contours, overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets;photochemical machining(pcm)for etching by using of photosensitive resists in microelectronics;chemical or electrochemical polishing where weak chemical reagents are used(sometimes with remote electric assist)for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single chemically active jet is used.A schematic of chemical machining process is shown in Fig.6.2a.Because the etchant attacks the material in both vertical and horizontal directions, undercuts may develop(as shown by the areas under the edges of the maskant in Fig.6.2b).Typically, tolerances of ±10% of the material thickness can be maintained in chemical blanking.In order to improve the production rate, the bulk of the workpiece should be shaped by other processes(such as by machining)prior to chemical machining.Dimensional variations can occur because of size changes in workpiece due to humidity and temperature.This variation can be minimized by properly selecting etchants and controlling the environment in the part generation and the production area in the plant.Electrochemical Machining(ECM)

Electrochemical metal removal is one of the more useful nontraditional machining processes.Although the application of electrolytic machining as a metal-working tool is relatively new, the basic principles are based on Faraday laws.Thus, electrochemical machining can be used to remove electrically conductive workpiece material through anodic dissolution.No mechanical or thermal energy is involved.This process is generally used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high-strength materials, particularly in the aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts, and nozzles, as well as in the automotive(engines castings and gears)and medical industries.More recent applications of ECM include micromachining for the electronics industry.Electrochemical machining(ECM), shown in Fig.6.3, is a metal-removal process based on the principle of reverse electroplating.In this process, particles travel from the anodic material(workpiece)toward the cathodic material(machining tool).Metal removal is effected by a suitably shaped tool electrode, and the parts thus produced have the specified shape, dimensions, and surface finish.ECM forming is carried out so that the shape of the tool electrode is transferred onto, or duplicated in, the workpiece.The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool shape.For high accuracy in shape duplication and high rates of metal removal, the process is operated at very high current densities of the order 10-100 A/cm2,at relative low voltage usually from 8 to 30 V, while maintaining a very narrow machining gap(of the order of 0.1 mm)by feeding the tool electrode with a feed rate from 0.1 to 20 mm/min.Dissolved material, gas, and heat are removed from the narrow machining gap by the flow of electrolyte pumped through the gap at a high velocity(5-50 m/s), so the current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool.Being a non-mechanical metal removal process, ECM is capable of machining any electrically conductive material with high stock removal rates regardless of their mechanical properties.In particular, removal rate in ECM is independent of the hardness, toughness and other properties of the material being machined.The use of ECM is most warranted in the manufacturing of complex-shaped parts from materials that lend themselves poorly to machining by other, above all mechanical methods.There is no need to use a tool made of a harder material than the workpiece, and there is practically no tool wear.Since there is no contact between the tool and the work, ECM is the machining method of choice in the case of thin-walled, easily deformable components and also brittle materials likely to develop cracks in the surface layer.Laser Beam Machining(LBM)

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.Although the laser is used as a light amplifier in some applications, its principal use is as an optical oscillator or transducer for converting electrical energy into a highly collimated beam of optical radiation.The light energy emitted by the laser has several characteristics which distinguish it from other light sources: spectral purity, directivity and high focused power density.Laser machining is the material removal process accomplished through laser and target material interactions.Generally speaking, these processes include laser drilling, laser cutting, laser welding, and laser grooving, marking or scribing.Laser machining(Fig.6.4)is localized, non-contact machining and is almost reacting-force free.This process can remove material in very small amount and is said to remove material “atom by atom”.For this reason, the kerf in laser cutting is usually very narrow , the depth of laser drilling can be controlled to less than one micron per laser pulse and shallow permanent marks can be made with great flexibility.In this way material can be saved, which may be important for precious materials or for delicate structures in micro-fabrications.The ability of accurate control of material removal makes laser machining an important process in micro-fabrication and micro-electronics.Also laser cutting of sheet material with thickness less than 20mm can be fast, flexible and of high quality, and large holes or any complex contours can be efficiently made through trepanning.Heat Affected Zone(HAZ)in laser machining is relatively narrow and the re-solidified layer is of micron dimensions.For this reason, the distortion in laser machining is negligible.LBM can be applied to any material that can properly absorb the laser irradiation.It is difficult to machine hard materials or brittle materials such as ceramics using traditional methods, laser is a good choice for solving such difficulties.Laser cutting edges can be made smooth and clean, no further treatment is necessary.High aspect ratio holes with diameters impossible for other methods can be drilled using lasers.Small blind holes, grooves, surface texturing and marking can be achieved with high quality using LBM.Laser technology is in rapid progressing, so do laser machining processes.Dross adhesion and edge burr can be avoided, geometry precision can be accurately controlled.The machining quality is in constant progress with the rapid progress in laser technology.Ultrasonic Machining(USM)

Ultrasonic machining offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and for increasing complex operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles.This machining process is non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no change in the microstructure, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress-free machined surfaces.It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to cut by other traditional methods.The actual cutting is performed either by abrasive particles suspended in a fluid, or by a rotating diamond-plate tool.These variants are known respectively as stationary(conventional)ultrasonic machining and rotary ultrasonic machining(RUM).Conventional ultrasonic machining(USM)accomplishes the removal of material by the abrading action of a grit-loaded slurry, circulating between the workpiece and a tool that is vibrated with small amplitude.The form tool itself does not abrade the workpiece;the vibrating tool excites the abrasive grains in the flushing fluid, causing them to gently and uniformly wear away the material, leaving a precise reverse from of the tool shape.The uniformity of the sonotrode-tool vibration limits the process to forming small shapes typically under 100 mm in diameter.The USM system includes the Sonotrode-tool assembly, the generator, the grit system and the operator controls.The sonotrode is a piece of metal or tool that is exposed to ultrasonic vibration, and then gives this vibratory energy in an element to excite the abrasive grains in the slurry.A schematic representation of the USM set-up is shown in Fig.6.5.The sonotrode-tool assembly consists of a transducer, a booster and a sonotrode.The transducer converts the electrical pulses into vertical stroke.This vertical stroke is transferred to the booster, which may amplify or suppress the stroke amount.The modified stroke is then relayed to the sonotrode-tool assembly.The amplitude along the face of the tool typically falls in a 20 to 50 μm range.The vibration amplitude is usually equal to the diameter of the abrasive grit used.The grit system supplies a slurry of water and abrasive grit, usually silicon or boron carbide, to the cutting area.In addition to providing abrasive particles to the cut, the slurry also cools the sonotrode and removes particles and debris from the cutting area.

第五篇：中英文翻譯機器人

中英文翻譯機器人

機器人 工業機器人是在生產環境中用以提高生產效率的工具，它能做常規的裝配線工作，或能做那些對于工人來說是危險的工作，例如，第一代工業機器人是用來在核電站中更換核燃料棒，如果人去做這項工作，將會遭受有害放射線的輻射。工業機器人亦能工作在裝配線上將小元件裝配到一起，如將電子元件安裝在電路印刷板，這樣，工人就能從這項乏味的常規工作中解放出來。機器人也能按程序要求用來拆除炸彈，輔助殘疾人，在社會的很多應用場合履行職能。機器人可以認為是將手臂末端的工具、傳感器和（或）手爪移到程序指定位置的一種機器。當機器人到達位置后，他將執行某種任務。這些任務可以是焊接、密封、機器裝料、拆卸以及裝配工作。除了編程以及系統的開停之外，這些工作可以在無人干預下完成。如下敘述的是機器人系統基本術語： 機器人是一個可編程、多功能的機器手，通過給要完成的不同任務編制各種動作，它可以移動零件、材料、工具以及特殊裝置。這個基本定義引導出后續段落的其他定義，從而描繪出一個完整的機器人系統。預編程位置點是機器人為完成工作而必須跟蹤的軌跡。在某些位置點上機器人將停下來做某寫操作，如裝配零件、噴涂油漆或焊接。這些預編程點貯存在機器人的貯存器中，并為后續的連續操作所調用，而且這些預編程點像其他程序數據一樣，可在日后隨工作需要而變化。因而，正是這種可編程的特征，一個工業機器人很像一臺計算機，數據可在這里儲存、后續調用與編輯。機械手上機器人的手臂，它使機器人能彎曲、延伸、和旋轉，提供這些運動的是機器手的軸，亦是所謂的機器人的自由度。一個機器人能有 3—16 軸，自由度一詞總是與機器人軸數相關。工具和手爪不是機器人自身組成部分，但它們安裝在機器人手臂末端的附件。這些連在機器人手臂末端的附件可使機器人抬起工件、點焊、刷漆、電弧焊、鉆孔、打毛刺以及根據機器人的要求去做各種各樣的工作。機器人系統還可以控制機器人的工作單元，工作單元是機器人執行任務所處的整體環境，包括控制器、機械手、工作平臺、安全保護裝置或者傳輸裝置。所有這些為保證機器人完成自己任務而必需的裝置都包括在這一工作單元中。另外，來自外設的信號與機器人通訊，通知機器人何時裝配工件、取工件或放工件到傳輸裝置上。機器人系統有三個基本部件：機械手、控制器和動力源。A.機械手 機械手做機器人系統中粗重工作，它包括兩個部分：機構和附件，機械手也有聯接附件基座，圖 1 表示了一機器人基座與附件之間的聯接情況。圖 1 機械手基座通常在工作區域的地基上，有時基座也可以移動，在這種情況下基座安裝在導軌或軌道上，允許機械手從一個位置移動到另外一個位置。正如前面所提到的那樣，附件從機器人基座上延伸出來，附件就是機器人的手臂，它可以是直接型，也可以是軸節型手臂，軸節型手臂也是大家所知的關節型手臂。機械臂使機械手產生各軸的運動。這些軸連在一個安裝基座上，然后再連到托架上，托架確保機械手停留在某一位置。在手臂的末端上，連接著手腕（圖 1），手腕由輔助軸和手腕凸緣組成，手腕是讓機器人用戶在手腕凸緣上安裝不同工具來做不同種工作。機械手的軸使機械手在某一區域內執行任務，我們將這個區域為機器人的工作單元，該區域的大小與機器手的尺寸相對應，（圖 2）列舉了一個典型裝配機器人的工作單元。隨著機器人機械結構尺寸的增加。工作單元的范圍也必須相應增加。圖 2 機械手的運動由執行元件或驅動系統來控制。執行元件或驅動系統允許個軸在工作單元內運動。驅動系統可用電氣、液壓和氣壓動力，驅動系統所產生的動力經機構轉變為機械能，驅動系統與機械傳動鏈相匹配。有鏈、齒輪和滾珠絲杠組成的機械傳動鏈驅動著機器人的各軸。B.控制器 機器人控制器是工作單元的核心。控制器儲存著預編程序供調用、控制外設，及與廠內計算進行通訊以滿足產品經常更新的需要。控制器用于控制機器手運動和在工作單元內控制機器人外設。用戶可通過手持的示教盒將機械手運動的程序編入控制器。這些信息儲存在控制器的存儲器中以備后續調用，控制器儲存了機器人系統的所有編程數據，它能儲存幾個不同的程序，并且所有這些程序均能編輯。控制器要求能夠在工作單元內外設進行通信。例如控制器有一個輸入端，它能標識某個機加工操作何時完成。當該加工循環完成后，輸入端接通，告訴控制器定位機械手以便能抓取已加工工件，隨后，機械手抓取一未加工件，將其放置在機床上。接著，控制器給機床發出開始加工的信號。控制器可以由根據事件順序而步進的機械式輪鼓組成，這種類型的控制器可用在非常簡單的機械系統中。用于大多數人系統中的控制器代表現代電子學的水平，是更復雜的裝置，即它們是由微處理器操縱的。這些微處理器可以是 8 位，16 位或 32 位處理器。它們可以使得控制器在操縱工程中顯非常柔性。控制器能通過通信線發送信號，使它能與機械手各軸交流信息，在機器人的機械手和控制器之間的雙向交流信息可以保持操作和位置經常更新，控制器亦能控制安裝在機器人手腕上的任何工具。控制器也有與廠內各計算機進行通信的任務，這種通信聯系使機器人成為計算機輔助制造（CAM）系統的一個組成部分。存儲器。基于微處理器的系統運行時要與固態的存儲裝置相連，這些存儲裝置可以是磁泡，隨機存儲器、軟盤、磁帶等。每種記憶存儲裝置均能貯存、編輯信息以備后續調用和編輯。C.動力源 動力源是給機器人和機器手提供動力的單元。傳給機器人系統的動力源有兩種，一種是用于控制器的交流電，另一種是用于驅動機械手各軸的動力源，例如，如果機器人的機械手是有液壓和氣動驅動的，控制信號便傳送到這些裝置中，驅動機器人運動。對于每一個機器人系統，動力是用來操縱機械手的。這些動力可來源與液壓動力源、氣壓動力源或電源，這些能源是機器人工作單元整體的一部分。

robot The industr ial robot is a tool t hat is used in t he manufact ur ing environment to increase product ivit y.It can be used to do rout ine and tedious assembly line jobs, or it can per form jobs t hat might be hazardous to t he human worker.For example ,one of t he first indust r ial robot was used to replace t he nuclear fuel rods in nuclear power plant s.A human doing t his job might be exposed to har mful amount s of radiat ion.The indust r ial robot can also operat e on t he assembly line, putt ing toget her small component s, such as placing electronic component s on a pr int ed circuit board.Thus, t he human worker can be relieved of t he rout ine operat ion of t his t edious t ask.Robot s can also be programmed to defuse bombs, to serve t he handicapped, and to per for m funct ions in numerous applicat ions in our societ y.The robot can be t hought of as a machine t hat will move an endoperat ed.t hese microprocessors are eit her 8-bit , 16-bit ,or 32-bit processors.t his power allows t he controller to be ver y flexible in it s operat ion.The cont roller can send elect ric signals over communicat ion lines t hat allow it to t alk wit h t he var ious axes of t he manipulator.This t wo-way communicat ion bet ween t he robot manipulator and t he cont roller maint ains a const ant updat e of t he end t he operat ion of t he syst em.The cont roller also controls any tooling placed on t he end of t he robot ’s wr ist.The cont roller also has t he job of communicat ing wit h t he different plant comput ers.The communicat ion link est ablishes t he robot as part a comput er-assist ed manufact ur ing(CAM)syst em.As t he basic definit ion st at ed, t he robot is a reprogrammable, mult ifunct ional manipulator.Therefore, t he controller must contain some of memor y stot age.The microprocessor-based syst ems operates in conjunct ion wit h solid-st at e divices.These memor y devices may be magnet ic bubbles, random-access memony, floppy disks,or magnet ic tape.Each memor y storage device stores program infor mat ion fir or for edit ing.C.power suppy The power supply is t he unit t hat supplies power to t he controller and t he manipulator.The t ype of power are delivered to t he robot ic syst em.One t ype of power is t he AC power for operat ion of t he cont roller.The ot her t ype of power is used for dr iving t he var ious axes of t he manipulator.For example, if t he robot manipulator is cont rolled by hydraulic or pneumat ic drives, cont rol singals are sent to t hese devices causing mot ion of t he robot.For each robot ic syst em, power is required to operat e t he manipulator.This power can be developed from eit her a hydraulic power source, a pneumat ic power source,or an elect ric power source.There power sources are part of t he total component s of t he robot ic work cell.