第一篇：蔣悟生《生物專業英語》教學案

蔣悟生《生物專業英語》教/學案

Lesson One（4學時）Inside the Living Cell: Structure andFunction of Internal Cell Parts

Lesson One（4學時）

Inside the Living Cell: Structure andFunction of Internal Cell Parts

教學目的：使學生掌握細胞的組成結構（各種細胞器以及它們在細胞中的位置），以及結構與功能之間的關系。各細胞器及功能相關英語詞匯以及主要用法。

教學重點：各細胞器的概念和功能，及相關英語詞匯的掌握 教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：3月22日；3月29日 教學內容：

Cytoplasm: The Dynamic, Mobile Factory 細胞質：動力工廠

Most of the properties we associate with life are properties of the cytoplasm.Much of the mass of a cell consists of this semifluid substance, which is bounded on the outside by the plasma membrane.Organelles are suspended within it, supported by the filamentous network of the cytoskeleton.Dissolved in the cytoplasmic fluid are nutrients, ions, soluble proteins, and other materials needed for cell functioning.生命的大部分特征表現在細胞質的特征上。細胞質大部分由半流體物質組成，并由細胞膜（原生質膜）包被。細胞器懸浮在其中，并由絲狀的細胞骨架支撐。細胞質中溶解了大量的營養物質，離子，可溶蛋白以及維持細胞生理需求的其它物質。

The Nucleus: Information Central（細胞核：信息中心）

The eukaryotic cell nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the genetic material(DNA)on chromosomes.(In prokaryotes the hereditary material is found in the nucleoid.)The nucleus also contains one or two organelles-the nucleoli-that play a role in cell division.A pore-perforated sac called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm.Small molecules can pass through the nuclear envelope, but larger molecules such as mRNA and ribosomes must enter and exit via the pores.真核細胞的細胞核是最大的細胞器，細胞核對染色體組有保護作用（原核細胞的遺傳物質存在于擬核中）。細胞核含有一或二個核仁，核仁促進細胞分裂。核膜貫穿許多小孔，小分子可以自由通過核膜，而象mRNA和核糖體等大分子必須通過核孔運輸。

Organelles: Specialized Work Units（細胞器：特殊的功能單位）

All eukaryotic cells contain most of the various kinds of organelles, and each organelle performs a specialized function in the cell.Organelles described in this section include ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, vacuoles, lysosomes, mitochondria, and the plastids of plant cells.所有的真核細胞都含有多種細胞器，每個細胞器都有其特定功能。本節主要介紹核糖體，內質網，高爾基體系，液泡，溶酶體，線粒體和植物細胞中的質體。The number of ribosomes within a cell may range from a few hundred to many thousands.This quantity reflects the fact that, ribosomes are the sites at which amino acids are assembled into proteins for export or for use in cell processes.A complete ribosome is composed of one larger and one smaller subunit.During protein synthesis the two subunits move along a strand of mRNA, “reading” the genetic sequence coded in it and translating that sequence into protein.Several ribosomes may become attached to a single mRNA strand;such a combination is called a polysome.Most cellular proteins are manufactured on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.Exportable proteins and membrane proteins are usually made in association with the endoplasmic reticulum.核糖體的數量變化從幾百到幾千，核糖體是氨基酸組裝成蛋白質的重要場所。完整的核糖體由大亞基和小亞基組成。核糖體沿著mRNA移動并閱讀遺傳密碼，翻譯成蛋白質。一條mRNA上可能有多個核糖體，稱多聚核糖體。大多數細胞蛋白是由細胞質中核糖體生產。輸出蛋白和膜蛋白通常與內質網有關。

The endoplasmic reticulum, a lacy array of membranous sacs, tubules, and vesicles, may be either rough(RER)or smooth(SER).Both types play roles in the synthesis and transport of proteins.The RER, which is studded with polysomes, also seems to be the source of the nuclear envelope after a cell divides.內質網，帶有花邊的生物囊，有管狀，泡狀之分，以及光滑和粗糙面區別。兩種都與蛋白質的合成和運輸有關。粗糙內質網上分布許多核糖體，也可能提供細胞分裂后所需的細胞膜。

SER lacks polysomes;it is active in the synthesis of fats and steroids and in the oxidation of toxic substances in the cell.Both types of endoplasmic reticulum serve as compartments within the cell where specific products can be isolated and subsequently shunted to particular areas in or outside the cell.光滑內質網上無核糖體，主要作用是脂肪和類固醇的合成以及細胞內有毒物質的氧化。兩種內質網合成的產物在其中進行分流或運輸到細胞外。

Transport vesicles may carry exportable molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum to another membranous organelle, the Golgi complex.Within the Golgi complex molecules are modified and packaged for export out of the cell or for delivery else where in the cytoplasm.運輸小泡能夠將可運輸分子從內質網運輸到高爾基復合體上。在高爾基復合體中修飾，包裝后輸出細胞或傳遞到細胞質中的其他場所。

Vacuoles in cells appear to be hollow sacs but are actually filled with fluid and soluble molecules.The most prominent vacuoles appear in plant cells and serve as water reservoirs and storage sites for sugars and other molecules.Vacuoles in animal cells carry out phagocytosis(the intake of particulate matter)and pinocytosis(vacuolar drinking).細胞中的液泡好象是中空的，但實際上充滿了液體和可溶分子。最典型的液泡存在于植物細胞中，儲備水，糖以及其它分子。動物中的液泡起吞噬和胞飲作用。

A subset of vacuoles are the organelles known as lysosomes, which contain digestive enzymes(packaged in lysosomes in the Golgi complex)that can break down most biological macromolecules.They act to digest food particles and to degrade damaged cell parts.溶酶體是液泡亞單位，含有消化酶，降解大部分生物大分子。消化食物微粒和降解損傷的細胞殘片。Mitochondria are the sites of energy-yielding chemical reactions in all cells.In addition, plant cells contain plastids that utilize light energy to manufacture carbohydrates in the process of photosynthesis.It is on the large surface area provided by the inner cristae of mitochondria that ATP-generating enzymes are located.Mitochondria are self-replicating, and probably they are the evolutionary descendants of what were once free-living prokaryotes.線粒體是細胞中化學產能的場所。另外，植物細胞中的質體在光合作用中利用光能產生碳水化合物，線粒體內嵴上提供了很大的表面積并分布著產ATP酶。線粒體自我復制，并且可能是自由生活的原核生物在進化中形成的后代。There are two types of plastids: leucoplasts, which lack pigments and serve as storage sites for starch, proteins, and oils;and chromoplasts, which contain pigments.The most important chromoplasts are chloroplasts-organelles that contain the chlorophyll used in photosynthesis.The internal structure of chloroplasts includes stacks of membranes called grana, which are embedded in a matrix called the stroma.質體有兩種類型：白色體，缺乏色素，是淀粉，蛋白質和油的儲備場所；色質體，含有色素。葉綠體是最重要的色質體，含有與光合作用有關的葉綠素。葉綠體的內部結構是由多層膜形成的葉綠體基粒，其中包埋在基質中的基粒稱子座。The Cytoskeleton（細胞骨架）

All eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton, which is a convoluted latticework of filaments and tubules that appears to fill all available space in the cell and provides support for various other organelles.A large portion of the cytoskeleton consists of threadlike microfilaments composed mainly of the contractile protein actin.They are involved in many types of intracellular movements in plant and animal cells.A second protein, myosin, is involve in the contraction of muscle cells.Another main structural component of the cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, which are composed of the globular protein tubulin and together act as scaffolding that provides a stable cell shape.Cytoskeletal intermediate filaments appear to impart tensile strength to the cell cytoplasm.Mechanoenzymes such as myosin, dynein, and kinesin interact with the cytoskeletal filaments and tubules to generate forces that cause movements.所有的細胞都有細胞骨架，網絡結構的纖絲充滿了它所能觸及的全部空間并且對細胞器提供支持作用。細胞骨架大部分由微絲組成，微絲主要由可收縮的肌動蛋白組成。動植物細胞的許多種類型細胞內運動與肌動蛋白有關。第二類蛋白是肌球蛋白，它與肌肉細胞的收縮有關。細胞骨架的另一個主要結構成分是微管，由球狀的微管蛋白組成，象腳手架一般維持細胞的穩定形態。細胞骨架的中間絲提供了細胞質伸縮動力。機械酶，例如，肌球蛋白，動力蛋白，驅動蛋白與微絲，微管相互作用產生動力而引起細胞運動。Cellular Movements（細胞運動）

Although the cytoskeleton provides some stability to cells, its microtubules and filaments and their associated proteins enable cells to move by creeping or gliding.Such movements require a solid substrate to which the cell can adhere and can be guided by the geometry of the surface.Some cells also exhibit chemotaxis, the ability to move toward or away from the source of a diffusing chemical.盡管細胞骨架提供了細胞的某些穩定性，微絲，微管及相關蛋白能使細胞爬行或滑動。這種運動需要固體基質依托并通過表面幾何形狀的改變而運動。某些細胞具備趨藥性，即趨向或逃離擴散開的化學源。Certain eukaryotic cells can swim freely in liquid environments, propelled by whiplike cilia or flagella.Both cilia and flagella have the same internal structure: nine doublets(pairs of microtubules)are arranged in a ring and extend the length of the cilium or flagellum, and two more microtubules run down the center of the ring.Every cilium or flagellum grows only from the cell surface where a basal body is located.Movement is based on the activities of tiny dynein side arms that extend from one of the microtubules of each doublet.某些真核細胞能在液體液體中自由運動，由纖毛或鞭毛推動。纖毛和鞭毛具有同樣的內部結構：九個雙微管環形排列，縱向延伸，環中心是兩個或以上微管組成。纖毛或鞭毛從細胞表面的基體出生長，雙微管的動力蛋白臂從一側延伸到另一側而引起運動。

Nutrients, proteins, and other materials within most plant cells are moved about via cytoplasmic streaming.The process occurs as myosin proteins attached to organelles push against microfilaments arrayed throughout the cell.Microfilaments and microtubules are responsible for almost all major cytoplasmic movements.During cell division, microtubules of the spindle assembled from tubutin subunits near organelles called centrioles move the chromosomes.大部分植物細胞的營養，蛋白質和其它物質由細胞質流運輸。這個過程是由于依附在細胞器上的肌球蛋白反推排列在細胞周圍的微絲形成的。絕大部分細胞質運動由微絲和微管完成。在細胞分裂期間，中心粒周圍的由微管蛋白亞基裝配形成的紡錘體微管移向染色體。課后作業：第一第二篇閱讀材料

答案：1B,2C,3B,4B,5D,6c;1A,2B,3D,4A

Glossary

cytoplasm（細）胞質

The living contents of a cell bounded externally by the plasmalemma, including an aqueous ground substance(hyaloplasm, cell sap, or cell matrix)containing organelles and various inclusions but excluding the nucleus and visible vacuoles.cytoskeleton

細胞骨架

Of eukaryotic cells, an internal “skeleton”.Its microtubules and other components structurally support the cell, organize and move its inteftial components.The cytoskeleton also helps free-living cells move through their environment.nucleus

細胞核，核(復數 nuclei)The organelle of the eukaryote cell that contains

the

chromosomes and hence ultimately controls cellular activity and inheritance through the activity of the genetic material, DNA chromosome 染色體

A DNA-histone thread residing in the nucleus of a cell.Each chromosome possesses two telomeres and a centromere, and some contain a nucleolus organizer.RNA proteins are invariably associated with the chromosome.nucleoid

擬核，類核，核質體

The DNA-containing area of a prokaryote cell, analogous to the eukaryote nucleus but not membrane bounded.nucleoli

核仁(單數nucleolus)

Nuclear structures composed of completed or partially completed ribosomes and the specific parts of chromosomes that contain the infon-nation for their construction.nuclear envelope

核膜，核被膜

A double membrane(two lipid bilayers and associated proteins)that is the outermost portion of a cell nucleus.ribosome

核糖體

Small structures composed of two protein and ribonucleic acid subunits involved in the assembly of proteins from amino acids.polysome多核糖體

Of protein synthesis, several ribosomes all translating the same messenger RNA molecule,one after the other.endoplasmic reticulum

內質網

Folded membranes and tubes throughout the eukaryotic cell that provide a large surface upon which chemical activities take place.Golgi complex

高爾基復合體

A stack of flattened, smooth, membranous sacs;the site of synthesis and packaging of certain molecules in eukaryotic cells.vacuole

液泡

Storage container within the cytoplasm of a cell having a surrounding membrane.phagocytosis

吞噬作用 The process by which the cell wraps around a particle and engulfs it.pinocytosis

胞飲作用

The process by which a cell engulfs some molecules dissolved in water lysosome

溶酶體

A specialized organelle that holds a mixture of hydrolytic enzymes.mitochondrion

線粒體(復數 mitochondria)A membranous organelle resembling a small bag with a larger bag resembling a small bag with a larger bag inside that is folded back on itself;serves as the site of aerobic cellular respiration.plastid

質體

An organelle present in all plants except bacteria, blue-green algae, and fungi;it is enclosed by two membranes(the envelope)and has various functions chloroplast

葉綠體

A plastid in which photosynthesis is carried out.Chloroplasts occur in all photosynthetic organisms except photosynthetic bacteria blue-green algae.stroma基質，子座（復數stromata）

Region within a chloroplast that has no chlorophyll.microfilament

微絲，纖絲

Long, fiberlike structures made of protein and found in cells, often in close association with the microtubules;provide structural support and enable movement.actin 肌動蛋白

A globular contractile protein.In muscle cells, actin interacts with another protein, myosin, to bring about contraction.myosin ['maiesin]

肌球蛋白

A protein that, with actin, constitutes the principal element of the contractile apparatus of muscle.microtubute微管

Small, hollow tubes of protein that function throughout the cytoplasm to provide structural support and enable movement.tubulin

微管蛋白

A protein that is the major constituent of microtubules.dynein

動力蛋白，動素

A group of at least four distinct proteins found in the flagella and microtubules of eukaryotic cells and possessing ATPase activity.chemotaxis趨化性

A locomotory movement of an organism or cell in response to, and directed by, an directional stimulus.cilia

纖毛

Numerous short, hairlike structures projecting from the cell surface that enable locomotion.flagella

鞭毛(單數flagellum)

Long, hairlike structures projecting from the cell surface that enable locomotion.basal body 基體

A body identical in structure to a centriole, found always at the base of a cilium or eukaryote flagellum.centriole 中心粒

An organelle located close to the nucleus in most animal and lower plant cells but absent from prokaryotes and higher plants.Lesson Two（2學時）

Photosynthesis

教學目的：使學生掌握細胞的光合作用機理，光合系統Ⅰ與光合系統Ⅱ結構與功能之間的關系。相關英語詞匯以及主要用法。

教學重點：光合作用中相關的概念和功能，及相關英語詞匯的掌握 教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：4月5日 教學內容：

Photosynthesis occurs only in the chlorophyll-containing cells of green plants, algae, and certain protists and bacteria.Overall, it is a process that converts light energy into chemical energy that is stored in the molecular bonds.From the point of view of chemistry and energetics, it is the opposite of cellular respiration.Whereas cellular respiration is highly exergonic and releases energy, photosynthesis requires energy and is highly endergonic.光合作用只發生在含有葉綠素的綠色植物細胞，海藻，某些原生動物和細菌之中。總體來說，這是一個將光能轉化成化學能，并將能量貯存在分子鍵中，從化學和動能學角度來看，它是細胞呼吸作用的對立面。細胞呼吸作用是高度放能的，光合作用是需要能量并高吸能的過程。

Photosynthesis starts with CO2 and H2O as raw materials and proceeds through two sets of partial reactions.In the first set, called the light-dependent reactions, water molecules are split(oxidized), 02 is released, and ATP and NADPH are formed.These reactions must take place in the presence of light energy.In the second set, called light-independent reactions, CO2 is reduced(via the addition of H atoms)to carbohydrate.These chemical events rely on the electron carrier NADPH and ATP generated by the first set of reactions.光合作用以二氧化碳和水為原材料并經歷兩步化學反應。第一步，稱光反應，水分子分解，氧分子釋放，ATP和NADPH形成。此反應需要光能的存在。第二步，稱暗反應，二氧化碳被還原成碳水化合物，這步反應依賴電子載體NADPH以及第一步反應產生的ATP。

Both sets of reactions take place in chloroplasts.Most of the enzymes and pigments for the lightdependent reactions are embedded in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.The dark reactions take place in the stroma.兩步反應都發生在葉綠體中。光反應需要的大部分酶和色素包埋在葉綠體的類囊體膜上。暗反應發生在基質中。

How Light Energy Reaches Photosynthetic Cells（光合細胞如何吸收光能的）

The energy in light photons in the visible part of the spectrum can be captured by biological molecules to do constructive work.The pigment chlorophyll in plant cells absorbs photons within a particular absorption spectrums statement of the amount of light absorbed by chlorophyll at different wavelengths.When light is absorbed it alters the arrangement of electrons in the absorbing molecule.The added energy of the photon boosts the energy condition of the molecule from a stable state to a less-stable excited state.During the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, as the absorbing molecule returns to the ground state, the “excess” excitation energy is transmitted to other molecules and stored as chemical energy.生物分子能捕獲可見光譜中的光能。植物細胞中葉綠素在不同光波下吸收部分吸收光譜。在吸收分子中，光的作用使分子中的電子發生重排。光子的能量激活了分子的能量狀態，使其從穩定態進入不穩定的激活態。All photosynthetic organisms contain various classes of chlorophylls and one or more carotenoid(accessory)pigments that also contribute to photosynthesis.Groups of pigment molecules called antenna complexes are present on thylakoids.Light striking any one of the pigment molecules is funneled to a special chlorophyll a molecule, termed a reaction-center chlorophyll, which directly participates in photosynthesis.Most photosynthetic organisms possess two types of reaction-center chlorophylls, P680 and P700, each associated with an electron acceptor molecule and an electron donor.These aggregations are known respectively as photosystem Ⅰ(P700)and photosystem Ⅱ(P680).所有的光合作用生物含有不同等級的葉綠素和一個或多個類胡蘿卜素（光合作用的輔助色素）。稱作天線復合體的色素分子群存在于類囊體中。激活色素分子的光能進入葉綠素反應中心，其直接參與光合作用。大部分光反應細胞器擁有兩套反應中心，P680和P700，每個光系統都含有一個電子受體和電子供體。這些集合體就是大家熟識的光合系統Ⅰ和光合系統Ⅱ。

The Light-Dependent Reaction: Converting Solar Energy into Chemical-Bond Energy 光反應：光能轉化成化學鍵能

The photosystems of the light-dependent reactions are responsible for the packaging of light energy in the chemical compounds ATP and NADPH.This packaging takes place through a series of oxidation reduction reactions set in motion when light strikes the P680 reaction center in photosystem Ⅱ.In this initial event water molecules are cleaved, oxygen is released, and electrons are donated.These electrons are accepted first by plastoquinone and then by a series of carriers as they descend an electron transport chain.For each four electrons that pass down the chain, two ATPs are formed.The last acceptor in the chain is the P700 reaction center of photosystem Ⅰ.At this point incoming photons boost the energy of the electrons, and they are accepted by ferredoxin.Ferredoxin is then reoxidized, and the coenzyme NADP+ is reduced to the NADPH.The ATP generated previously and the NADPH then take part in the light independent reactions.光反應的光系統將光能轉化成化學復合物ATP和NADPH。當光激活光系統Ⅱ的光反應中心時，通過一系列的氧化還原反應實現能量的傳遞。反應開始時，水被分解，氧被釋放并提供電子。電子首先傳遞給質體醌，然后通過一系列載體形成的電子傳遞鏈。每傳遞4個電子，形成2個ATP。最后一個受體存在于光反應系統Ⅰ的反應中心里。此處光子激活電子，電子傳遞給鐵氧還蛋白。鐵氧還蛋白再氧化，并且輔酶NADP+還原成NADPH。早期產生的ATP和NADPH進入暗反應。

The production of ATP from the transport of electrons excited by light energy down an electron transport chain is termed photophosphorylation.The one-way flow of electrons through photosystems II and I is called noncyclic photophosphorylation;plants also derive additional ATP through cyclic photophosphorylation, in which some electrons are shunted back through the electron transport chain between photosystems Ⅱ and Ⅰ.由電子傳遞鏈偶連產生ATP的過程稱為光合磷酸化。通過光合系統Ⅱ流經光合系統Ⅰ的電子路徑稱非循環式光合磷酸化；植物通過循環式光合磷酸化獲得額外的ATP，一些電子在光合系統Ⅰ和Ⅱ之間的電子傳遞鏈中回流。

The Light-Independent Reactions: Building Carbohydrates 暗反應：碳水化合物的形成

In the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, which are driven by ATP and NADPH, C02 is converted to carbohydrate.The reactions are also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle.Atmospheric CO2, is fixed as it reacts with ribulosebiphosphate(RuBP), a reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulosebiphosphate carboxylase.The reduction Of C02 to carbohydrate(fructose diphosphate)is completed via several more steps of the cycle.Finally, RUBP is regenerated so that the cycle may continue.由ATP和NADPH驅動的暗反應中，二氧化碳轉化成碳水化合物。即卡爾文循環。二磷酸核酮糖固定二氧化碳，由二磷酸核酮糖羧化酶催化。

Oxygen: An Inhibitor of photosynthesis（氧：光合作用的抑制因子）High levels of oxygen in plant cells can disrupt photosynthesis and can also cause photorespiration-an inefficient fun of the dark reactions in which 02 is fixed rather than C02 and no carbohydrate is produced.Reprieve from Photorespiration: The C4 Pathway Most plants are C3 plants;they experience decreased carbohydrate production under hot, dry conditions as a result of the effects of photorespiration.Among C4 plants, however, special leaf anatomy and a unique biochemical pathway enable the plant to thrive in and conditions.Thus C4 plants lessen photorespiration by carrying out photosynthesis only in cells that are insulated from high levels of CO2.They also possess a novel mechanism for carbon fixation.大部分植物是碳3植物，在高溫干旱條件下，由于光呼吸作用而使碳水化合物的合成降低。而在大多數的碳4植物中，由于葉脈的特殊構造和獨特的化學路徑使植物依然很茂盛。這是碳固定的一個新機制。

課后作業：第一篇閱讀材料 答案：1B,2A,3A,4D,5C,6c Glossary

light-dependent reactions 光反應-The first stage in photosynthesis, driven by light energy.Electrons that trap the sun's energy pass the energy to high-energy carriers such as ATP or NADPH, where it is stored in chemical bonds.light-independent reactions 暗反應

The second stage of photosynthesis, also called the Calvin-Benson cycle, which does not require light.During the six steps of the cycle, carbon is fixed and carbohydrates are formed.chloroplast 葉綠體

A plastid in which photosynthesis is carried out.Chloroplasts occur in all photosynthetic organisms except photosynthetic bacteria and blue-green algae.absorption spectrum 吸收光譜，吸收譜

The spectrum obtained when radiation(light, ultraviolet radiation, etc.)from a source giving a continuous spectrum is passed through a substance.Calvin-Benson cycle 卡爾文?本森循環

Cyclic reactions that are the “synthesis” part of the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.In land plants, RUBP, or some other compound to which carbon has

been affixed, under goes rearrangements that lead to formation of a sugar phosphate and to regeneration of the RUBP.The cycle runs on ATP and NADPH from light-dependent reactions.carotenoid 類胡蘿卜素

Light-sensitive, accessory pigments that transfer absorbed energy to chlorophylls.They absorb violet and blue wave-lengths but transmit red, orange, and yellow.chlorophyll 葉綠素

The green substance of plants by which photosynthesis is accomplished;it is usually localized in intracellular organelles called chloroplasts.cyclic photophosphorylation 環形光合磷酸化（作用）

Cyclic photophosphorylation is coupled to cyclicelectron flow, in which ATP is the only product.C3 plant 三碳植物 A plant in which the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis start with a threecarbon compound.Most plants are C3 plants.C4 plant 四碳植物

A plant such as corn in which the light independent reactions of photosynthesis star with a four-carbon compound.noncyclic photophosphorylation

非環形光合磷酸化作用

Noncyclic photophosphorylation is coupled to noncyclic electron flow, the electrons being used to reduce NADP+ as well as to make ATP.photon 光子

A particle that has zero mass or charge and unit spin, the quantum of the electromagnetic field and carrier of the electromagnetic force.photophosphorylation 光合磷酸化作用

The synthesis of ATP from phosphate and ADP during photosynthesis, using light energy.photorespiration 光呼吸

A light-dependent type of respiration that occurs in most photosynthetic plants and differs from normal(or dark)respiration.photosynthesis 光合作用

The synthesis of organic compounds by reduction of carbon dioxide using light energy absorbed by chorophyll.photosystem 光合系統

One of the clusters of light-trapping pigments embedded in photosynthetic membranes.Photosystem I operates during the cyclic pathway;photosystem Ⅱ operates during both the cyclic and noncyclic pathways.ribulosebiphosphate(RUBP)核酮糖二磷酸

A compound with a backbone of five carbon atoms that is required for carbon fixation in the Calvin-Benson cycle of photosynthesis.thylakoid 類囊體

One of a number of flattened fluid-filled sacs that form the photosynthetic lamellar system of chloroplasts, photosynthetic bacteria, and blue-green algae.Lesson Three（2學時）

Cellular Reproduction: Mitosis and Meiosis

教學目的：使學生掌握細胞的有絲分裂和無絲分裂的作用機理，有絲分裂和無絲分裂之間的區別和相同點。相關英語詞匯以及主要用法。

教學重點：有絲分裂和無絲分裂中相關的概念和功能，及相關英語詞匯的掌握 教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：4月12日 教學內容：

The Nucleus and Chromosomes The cell nucleus is the main repository of genetic information.Within the nucleus are the chromosomes tightly coiled strands of DNA and clusters of associated proteins.Long stretches of the continuous DNA molecule wind around these clusters of proteins, or histones, forming beadlike complexes known as nucleosomes.More coiling and supercoiling produces a dense chromosome structure.Each long strand of DNA combines with histones and nonhistone proteins to make up the substance chromatin.細胞核是貯藏遺傳信息的主要場所。DNA盤繞成螺旋線以及相關的成簇蛋白質。DNA螺旋線纏繞成簇的組蛋白形成珠鏈狀的核小體。這些螺旋和超螺旋形成致密的染色體組結構。每個長鏈DNA與組蛋白和非組蛋白一起構成染色質物質。

A pictorial display of an organism's chromosomes in the coiled, condensed state is known as a karyotype.Karyotype reveal that in most cells all but sex chromosomes are present as two copies, referred to as homologous pairs.Non-sex chromosomes are called autosomes.Organisms whose cells contain two sets of parental chromosomes are called diploid;those with cells containing a single set of parental chromosomes are called haploid.染色體致密的超螺旋狀態我們稱染色體組。除了性染色體外，大多數細胞的染色體組成對出現，稱同源染色體對。非性染色體稱常染色體。生物細胞含有兩套父母本染色體的稱二倍體；含有單套染色體的稱單倍體。

The Cell Cycle The cell cycle is a regular sequence in which the cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form two daughter cells, each of which then repeats the cycle.Such cycling in effect makes single-celled organisms immortal.Many cells in multicellular organisms, including animal muscle and nerve cells, either slow the cycle or break out of it altogether.在細胞生長過程中，細胞循環遵循特定程序，分裂準備，分裂成2個子細胞，子細胞再循環。此循環使得單細胞永生。多細胞生物中的許多細胞，包括動物肌肉和神經細胞，要么降低循環速度，要么同時分裂。The normal cell cycle consists of four phases.The first three include G1, the period of normal metabolism;S phase, during which normal synthesis of biological molecules continues, DNA is replicated, and histones are synthesized;and G2, a brief period of metabolism and additional growth.Together the G1, S, and G2 phases are called interphase.The fourth phase of the cell cycle is M phase, the period of mitosis, during which the replicated chromosomes condense and move and the cell divides.It is believed that properties of the cell cytoplasm control the cell cycle, along with external stimulators and inhibitors such as chalones.正常細胞循環由4個時期組成。頭三期包括G1,正常新陳代謝；S期,正常新陳代謝同時，DNA復制，組蛋白合成； G2 期，短期的新陳代謝和少許生長。G1, S, 和G2稱分裂間期。最后是M期，有絲分裂期，復制的染色體組濃縮，移動并細胞分裂。據稱是染色質控制了細胞循環，伴隨外部激活因子和抑制因子如抑素。

Mitosis: Partitioning the Hereditary Material Biologists divide the mitotic cycle into four phases.At the beginning of prophase the chromosomes each consist of two highly condensed chromatids attached to each other at a centromere.As prophase ends and metaphase begins, the condensed chromosomes become associated with the spindle.Eventually the chromosomes become arranged in a plane(called the metaphase plate)at a right angle to the spindle fibers.Next, during anaphase, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome split, and one from each pair is drawn toward each pole of the cell.During telophase nuclear envelopes begin to form around each set of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm takes place.生物學家將有絲分裂劃分為4個階段。分裂前期，高度濃縮的兩個染色單體通過著絲粒連接在一起。在分裂前期后期和分裂中期前期，濃縮的染色體與紡錘體相連，最后以正確的角度排列在赤道板上。在分裂后期，兩個姊妹單體分離，分別拽向細胞兩極。在分裂末期，在每套染色體周圍形成核膜，細胞質發生分裂。As mitosis proceeds, the spindle microtubules play a crucial role in ensuring that both paired and separated chromatids move in the right directions at the proper times.Each half of the spindle forms as microtubules extend from each pole of a dividing cell to the region of the metaphase plate.During prophase, other microtubules, the centromeric fibers, extend outward from the spindle poles to structures on the chromosomes called kinetochores.During anaphase the fibers begin to shorten, and the chromatids begin to move apart.在有絲分裂過程中，是紡錘體微管確保了染色單體在適當時間以正確方向進行分離。紡錘體微管由兩極向赤道板延伸。在分裂前期，其它微管，著絲粒纖維延伸到染色體的動粒。在分裂后期，纖維開始變短，染色單體分離。

The spindle forms differently in plant and animal cells.In animals it is associated with centriole, while in plant and fungal cells spindle formation is associated with reions called microtubule organizing centers.植物和動物細胞形成的紡錘體不同。動物細胞與中心粒相連，而在植物和真菌細胞中，紡錘體與微管組織中心的離子相連。

Cytokinesis: Partitioning the Cytoplasm 胞質分裂：細胞質分離

The division of the cell cytoplasm at the end of mitosis is called cytokinesis.In animal cells it takes place as a ring of actin filaments contracts around the cell equator, pinching the cell in two.In plant cells, which are bounded by a cell wall, cytokinesis involves the building of a new cell plate across the dividing cell at its equator.Cell wall material is then deposited in the region of the cell plate.在動物細胞中，環形肌動蛋白絲延赤道板收縮而使細胞一分為二。在植物細胞中，在赤道板形成新的細胞板。

Meiosis: The Basis of Sexual Reproduction Meiosis is a special form of cell division that takes place in the reproductive organs that produce sex cells.Like mitosis, it takes place after DNA replication has occurred and involves two sequential nuclear divisions(meiosis I and meiosis Ⅱ).These divisions result in four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.The phenomenon of crossing over during meiosis results in exchanges of genetic information between chromosomes.Hence, the homologous chromosomes distributed to different progeny cells are not identical.減數分裂是性細胞分裂的特殊形式。如有絲分裂，它也是發生在DNA復制后并有連續的兩個核分裂。產生4個子細胞，分別含有親本一半的染色體數。

As in mitosis two chromatids exist for each chromosome at the beginning of prophase 1.During this phase the homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis, or pairing, which is brought about by a bridging structure of proteins and RNA called the synaptonemal complex.The homologous pairs stay together when they align on the metaphase plate.Unlike the anaphase of mitosis, however, during anaphase I the two chromatids of each chromosome stay joined at the centromere and move together to one of the two poles of the cell.It is this event that results in the halving of the chromosome number in the four daughter cells that result from meiosis.正如在有絲分裂中一樣，兩個同源染色單體通過蛋白質和RNA橋配對形成聯會復合體。與有絲分裂不同的是，每組染色體的兩個染色單體連接在著絲點上并一起移向細胞兩極的一級。由此而導致4個子細胞染色體數減半。

During telophase I nuclear envelopes enclose the chromosomes in nuclei, and in most species cytokinesis(the first nuclear division)follows.The second nuclear division begins with metaphase Ⅱ, in which the chromosomes in each daughter cell again align on a metaphase plate.The centromeres finally divide, and each sister chromatid moves to one of the poles of the spindle.The next phase is telophase , followed again by cytokinesis.The result of the entire process is four haploid cells in which parental chromosomes are randomly distributed.第二次核分裂開始于分裂中期，子細胞中染色體重新排列在赤道板上。著絲粒最終分離，每個姊妹染色單體分向兩極。接著胞質分裂。產生4個單倍體，父母染色體隨機分配。Asexual Versus Sexual Reproduction Mitosis and meiosis, respectively, make simple cell division and sexual reproduction possible.Each means of passing on hereditary information has advantages.In asexual reproduction the parent organism gives rise to offspring that are genetic clones of the parent.The advantages of this type of reproduction are that it preserves the parent's successful genetic complement, requires little or no specialization of reproductive organs, and is more rapid than sexual reproduction.A major disadvantage of the asexual mode is that a single catastrophic event or disease may destroy an entire population of genetically identical organisms.A prime benefit of sexual reproduction is that it provides genetic variability and a ready mechanism for the elimination of deleterious mutations.It also allows “new” gene forms to arise and spread through populations.有絲分裂和減數分裂在傳遞遺傳信息過程中各有優勢。體細胞的繁殖就是父母本的克隆，其優勢是保留了父母本的成功遺傳信息，不需要特殊器官，比性復制快的多。但一個簡單災難性事件或疾病都可能摧毀一個細胞群體。性復制的優勢是它提供了遺傳可變性和現存排除有害突變的機制。也可以產生新的基因并在種群中蔓延。

課后作業：第一篇閱讀材料 答案：1C,2B,3D,4B,5A,6D

Glossary

mitosis 有絲分裂

Process that results in equal and identical distribution of replicated chromosomes into two newly formed nuclei.meiosis 減數分裂

The process by which a nucleus divides into four daughter nuclei, each containing half the number of chromosomes of the parent nucleus.histone 組蛋白

One of a group of simple proteins that have a high content of the basic amino acids arginine or lysine and are found associated with nucleic acids in the chromatin of eukaryotic cells.nucleosome 核小體

The basic unit of chromatin structure in eukaryotic cells.A nucleosome consists of eight histone molecules of four different types, together with about 140 base pairs of DNA coiled around it.chromatin 染色質

The material of which the chromosomes are composed.DNA and protein are the main constituents of chromatin, most of the protein being histone.karyotype 核型，染色體組型 , The appearance of the chromosome complement of an organism or cell.homologous pair 同源染色體對

Chromosomes that pair during meiosis.Each homologue is a duplicate of one of the chromosomes contributed at syngamy by the mother or father.Homologous chromosomes contain the same linear sequence of genes and as a consequence each gene is present in duplicate.diploid二倍體

Any nucleus, cell, or organism that possesses twice the haploid number of chromosomes.haploid 單倍體 Any nucleus, cell, or organism that possesses a single set of unpaired chromosomes, interphase(cycle)分裂間期（周期）

In a cell preparing to duplicate, the interphase stage can divided into a period of initial growth(G1), a period of DNA synthesis(S), and a second growth period(G2).chalone抑素

Substances found in mammalian tissue homogenates that, when applied to intact tissue cells, inhibit mitosis, particularly in the presence of adrenaline and corticosteroids.prophase（分裂）前期

First stage of mitosis, during which individual chromosomes become visible.chromatid 染色單體

A replicated chromosome physically attached to an identical chromatid at the centromere.centromere 著絲粒

The small area of a chromosome that does not stain with basic dyes during mitosis and meiosis;at interphase it is single while the rest of the chromosome is made up of two chromatids.metaphase（分裂）中期

Second stage in mitosis, during which the chromosomes align at the equatorial plane.spindle 紡錘體

An array of microtubutes extending from pole to pole and used in the movement of chromosomes.metaphase plate 赤道板，中期板

The grouping of the chromosomes in a plane at the equator of the spindle during the metaphase stage of mitosis.anaphase 分裂后期

The third stage of mitosis, during which the centromeres split and the chromosomes move to the poles.telophase（分裂）末期

Last stage in mitosis during which daughter nuclei are formed.cytokinesis 胞質分裂

Division of the cytoplasm of one cell into two new cells.cell plate 細胞板

A plant cell structure that begins to form in the center of the cell and proceeds to the cell membrane, resulting in cytokinesis.Lesson Four（2學時）

Foundations of Genetics

教學目的：使學生了解遺傳學的發展歷程，掌握孟德爾遺傳學的建立及經典實驗。相關英語詞匯以及主要用法。教學重點：孟德爾遺傳學的兩個定律，及相關英語詞匯的掌握 教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：4月19日 教學內容：

Early Theories of inheritanee Early ideas of inheritance included Hippocrates' theory of pangenesis and August Weismands germ plasm theory.Based on experiments with mice, Weismann proposed that hereditary information in gametes transmitted traits to progeny.Both of these early views incorporated the blending theory: they held that heritable traits of the two parents blend, so that the distinct characteristics of each are lost in offspring.遺傳學的早期理論包括泛生說和種質理論。基于小鼠實驗，維絲曼提出遺傳信息儲存在配子中并將遺傳信息傳遞給后代。這兩個早期觀點合起來形成融合理論：子代擁有父母本混合的遺傳特征，而不完全象親代。Gregor Mendel and the Birth of Genetics Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian monk in the monastery at Brunn, Austria, is known as the “father of genetics.” Having been exposed to theories of the particulate nature of matter while a university student and having a background in mathematics, Mendel carried out a series of carefully planned experiments that demonstrated the particulate nature of heredity.His revolutionary ideas were neither understood nor accepted until many years after Mendel died.孟德爾，眾所周知的遺傳學之父，是一名修道士。當他還是大學生時就提出了物質的粒子屬性。孟德爾進行了一系列周密安排的實驗來證實遺傳的顆粒性。直到他去世后，他的理論才被理解和接受。Mendel's Classic Experiments Mendel studied genetics through plant-breeding experiments with the garden pea, a plant species that is self-fertilizing and h offspring is identical to the parent in the trait of interest).To test the blending theory, he focused his research on seven distinct characters.Each of these characters, such as seed color and plant height, present only two, clear-cut possibilities.He also recorded the type and number of all progeny produced from each pair of parent pea plants, and followed the results of each cross for two generations.孟德爾通過豌豆實驗研究遺傳學，豌豆是自花授粉植物和純品系。為驗證融合理論，他的研究主要集中在7個特征上。例如，種子顏色，植株高度，這些特征只有兩個明確的可能性。他記錄了產生的每一個子代類型和數量，在雜交產生子2代。

For each of the characters he studied, Mendel found that one trait was dominant while the other was recessive.In the second filial(F2)generation, the ratio of dominant to recessive was 3:1.Mendel deduced that this result was possible only if each individual possesses only two hereditary units, one from each parent.The units Mendel hypothesized are today known as alleles, alternative forms of genes.Genes are the basic units of heredity.An organism that inherits identical alleles for a trait from each parent is said to be homozygous for that trait;if different alleles for a trait are inherited, the organism is heterozygous for that trait.When an organism is heterozygous for a trait, the resulting phenotype for that trait expresses only the dominant allele.Thus, the organism’s phenotype—its physical appearance and properties-differs from its genotype, which may include both a dominant and a recessive allele.A pictorial representation of all possible combinations of a genetic cross is known as a Punnett square.對于每個特征而言，要么顯形，要么隱性。在子2代中顯形與隱性比為3∶1。只有在每個個體僅擁有兩個研究遺傳單元，并每個單元來自一個親代時，實驗結果才成立。此遺傳單元就是今天共識的等位基因。兩個一樣的等位基因決定一個特征，稱純合。相反，稱雜合。當生物是雜合時，它的表型由顯性基因決定。因此，生物的表型與基因型是不同的。旁納特方格可以陳列所有可能的遺傳組合。The results of Mendel's experiments on dominant and recessive inheritance let to Mendel's first law: the law of segregation.This law states that for a given trait an organism inherits one allele from each parent.Together these alleles form the allele pair.When gametes are formed during meiosis, the two alleles become separated(halving of chromosome number).To gain evidence for his theory Mendel performed test crosses, mating plants of unknown genotype to plants that were homozygous recessive for the trait of interest.The ratio of dominant phenotypes(if any)in the progeny makes clear whether the unknown genotype is heterozygous, homozygous dominant, or homozygous recessive.分離定律，生物只遺傳父母本等位基因對的一個等位基因。減數分裂期形成配子時兩個等位基因分離。為驗證此理論，他做了測交實驗，即基因型未知的植物與純合的隱性基因植物雜交。子代顯性表型可以明確測得雜合基因或純合基因的基因型。

Mendel's Ideas and the Law of independent Assortment Mendel also performed dihybrid crosses, which enabled him to consider how two traits are inherited relative to one another.This work let to the law of independent assortment, which states that the alleles of genes governing different characters are inherited independently.An apparent exception to Mendel's laws is incomplete dominance, a phenomenon in which offspring of a cross exhibit a phenotype that is intermediate between those of the parents.However, incomplete dominance reflects the fact that both alleles for the trait in question exert an effect on the phenotype.The alleles themselves remain separate.雙因子雜合試驗，兩個特征是如何相互影響遺傳的。試驗結果產生獨自分配定律，即等位基因獨立遺傳。特例是，不完全顯性。子代的表型是父母本的中間類型。不完全顯性說明了兩個等位基因對表型都有影響。，等位基因會繼續分離。

Mendel presented his ideas in 1866 in a scientific paper published by the Brunn Society for Natural History.Unfortunately, the meaning of his research was not understood by other scientists of the day.His work was rediscovered in 1900 by Carl Correns and Hugo de Vries.1866年，孟德爾在自然史上發表了他的科學論文，陳訴了他的觀點。不幸的是，他的研究不被當時科學家接受。在1900年，他的著作再被發現利用。Chromosomes and Mendelian Genetics Soon after Mendel's work was rediscovered, Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri independently proposed that the hereditary units might be located on chromosomes.Experiments to prove this hypothesis were carried out by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students at Columbia University, in research on the sex chromosomes of fruit flies.Morgan's studies were also the first exploration of sex-linked traits.It also led to the discovery in 1916 by Calvin Bridges of the phenomenon of nondisjunction, in which a chromosome pair fails to segregate during meiosis.孟德爾著作被再發現不久，Walter Sutton 和Theodor Boveri提出，遺傳單位可能定位在染色體組上。伴性遺傳又導致了不分離現象的發現，即在減數分裂中，染色體對不分離。課后作業：第一篇閱讀材料 答案：1C,2C,3A,4A,5B,6B Glossary

pangenesis 泛生論，泛生說

The theory of heredity postulating that germs, humours, or essences migrate from individual body cells to the sex organs and contribute to the gametes.germ plasm theory 種質學說

A substance thought to be transmitted in the gametes(germ cells)in an unchanged form from generation to generation.The germ plasm was believed to be unaffected by the environment and to give rise to the body cells.dominant 顯性

The member of a pair of alleles that shows its effect in the phenotype whatever other allele is present.recessive 隱形的

The member of a pair of alleles that does not show its effect in the presence of any other allelic partner.allele 等位基因

Alternative forms of a gene for a particular characteristic(e.g., attached earlobe genes and free earlobe genes are alternative alleles for ear shape).gene 基因

A unit of heredity located on a chromosome and composed a sequence of DNA nucleotides.homozygous 純合的

A diploid organism that has two identical alleles for particular characteristic.heterozygous 雜合的

A diploid organism that has two different alletic forms of a particular gene.Genotype 基因型 The catalog of genes of an organism, whether or not these genes are expressed.phenotype 表型

The physical, chemical, and psychological expression of genes possessed by an organism.Punnett square 旁納特方格

A method used to determine the probabilities of combination in a zygote.law of segregation 分裂定律

When gametes are formed by a diploid organism, the alleles that control a trait separate from one another into different gametes, retaining their individuality.test cross 測交

A cross between a heterozygote of unknown genotype and an individual homozygous for the recessive genes in question.dihybrid cross 雙因子雜種，雙因子雜合子

A cross between individuals that differ with respect to two specified gene pairs.law of independent assortment 獨立分配定律，自由組合定律

Members of one gene pair will separate from each other independently of the members of other gene pairs.incomplete dominance 不完全顯性

The condition in which two allelic genes have a different effect when they are together as a heterozygote in a diploid cell than either of them have in the homozygous state nondisjunction 不分離

The failure of separation of paired chromosomes at metaphase, resulting in one daughter receiving both and the other daughter cell none of the chromosomes in question.Nondisjunction can occur during a meiotic or mitotic division.Lesson Five（2學時）

Discovering the Chemical Nature of the Gene

教學目的：使學生了解遺傳學化學本質的發現過程，及相關假說，使學生掌握相關專業詞匯以及主要用法。教學重點：DNA分子組成及相關英語詞匯的掌握。教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：4月26日 教學內容：

Genes Code for Particular Proteins The first scientist to investigate the question of how genes affect phenotype was Sir Archibald Garrod, whose studies of alkaptonuria implied a relationship between genes and enzymes.Thirty years later Beadle and Ephrussi showed a relationship between particular genes and biosynthetic reactions responsible for eye color in fruit flies.Next, in a series of classic experiments on the effects of mutations in the bread mold Neurosporacrassa, Beadle and Tatum explored the one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis-the idea that each gene codes for a particular enzyme.Their work paved the way for other researchers to elucidate the precise ways in which enzymes affect complex metabolic pathways.In 1949, in research on the role of hemoglobin in sickle cell anemia, Linus Pauling helped refine the one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis into the one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis.Archibald Garrod是第一個研究基因是如何影響表型的科學家，他對尿黑酸癥的研究揭示了基因與酶之間的關系。Beadle 和Ephrussi在三十年后對果蠅眼睛顏色的研究發現特殊基因與相關反應的生物合成有關。接著對面包發霉粗糙脈孢菌的突變試驗得出一個基因一個酶的假說。他們的工作為其他工作者鋪平了道路，即精確地闡明了酶影響了復雜的新陳代謝途徑。在1949年，對鐮刀狀細胞貧血癥的研究對一個基因一個酶的假說進一步上升為一個基因一個多肽。

The Search for the Chemistry and Molecular Structure of nucleic Acids Nuclei acid, originally isolated by Johann Miescher in 1871, was identified as a prime constituent of chromosomes through the use of the red-staining method developed by Feulgen in the early 1900s.Frederick Griffith's experiments with the R and S stains of pneumococci showed that an as yet unknown material from one set of bacterial could alter the physical traits of a second set.In the 1940s the team of Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty showed that this unknown material was DNA.At about the same time P.A.Levene discovered that DNA contained four nitrogenous bases, each of which was attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate group-a combination Levene termed a nucleotide.在1871年，核酸最初是由Johann Miescher分離成功，并由Feulgen在1900年證實核酸是染色體組最基本的組成。Frederick Griffith對粗糙和光滑的肺炎球菌實驗表明，不確定的某種物質可以從一組細菌轉移到另一種細菌中。在1940年，確認該物質為DNA。四個堿基和磷酸分子分別連接在糖分子上，稱核苷酸。Disagreement over whether DNA could carry complex genetic information was ended in the early 1950s by Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey, whose work with E.coli showed clearly that DNA, and not protein, is the bearer of genetic information.直到1950年，通過對大腸桿菌實驗發現，遺傳物質是DNA，而不是蛋白質。

Each DNA nucleotide contains a five-carbon sugar, deoxyribose, attached to one of four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine.Adenine and guanine molecules are double-ring structures called purines, while cytosine and thymine are single-ring structures called pyrimidines.The molecule made up of a base plus a sugar is termed a nucleoside.In each molecule of DNA a phosphate group links the five-carbon sugar of one nucleoside to the five-carbon sugar of the next nucleoside in the chain.This phosphate bonding creates a sugar-phosphate backbone.每個核苷酸都含有一個五碳脫氧核糖，分別連接4個堿基，即：腺嘌呤，鳥嘌呤，胞嘧啶，胸腺嘧啶。堿基連接糖稱核苷。磷酸鍵形成磷酸骨架。

Chargaff’s rules describe the fact that(1)the amount of adenine is equal to the amount of thymine in DNA, with amount of cytosine equal to that of guanine, and(2)the ratios of A to T and of C to G vary with different species.（1）腺嘌呤與胸腺嘧啶，胞嘧啶與鳥嘌呤相等；（2）腺嘌呤與胸腺嘧啶，胞嘧啶與鳥嘌呤的比例隨物種不同而不同。

The Research Race for the Molecular Structure of DNA In the late 1940s and early 1950s, researchers looking for the structure of DNA drew upon Chargaff s insight, Levene's ideas on DNA components, and two other lines of evidence.One was the suggestion of Linus Pauling that DNA might have a helical structure held in place by hydrogen bonds, and the other was X-ray diffraction photos of DNA, showing a helical structure with distance between the coils, taken by Franklin and Wilkins.直到40年代末50年代初，研究者在尋求DNA結構過程中，確立了Chargaff 的觀點和, Levene的組成理論以及其他兩個線索。一個是Linus Pauling的假設，DNA可能具有螺旋結構，通過氫鍵連接。另一個是X-衍射圖片，Franklin and Wilkins提供。

Based on this information Watson and Crick proposed the double helix model of DNA-A twisted ladder-like molecule with two outer sugar phosphate chains and rungs formed by nucleotide pairs.Paired nucleotides, which always occur as A-T or G-C, are linked by hydrogen bonds.Watson and Crick also proposed that genetic information is encoded by the sequence of base pairs along the DNA molecule.基于這些信息，Watson 和 Crick提出了雙螺旋結構模型，成對的核苷酸通過氫鍵相連，遺傳信息就貯藏在堿基對中。

How DNA Replicates In their model of DNA structure and function, Watson and Crick hypothesized that DNA replicates itself by “unzipping” along the hydrogen bonds joining A to T and C to G.This process would produce two opposite halves that could then serve as templates for the construction of new, complementary strands.This model of semiconservative replication conservative because each new molecule has one half of the former parent molecule-was later confirmed by the work of DNA進行復制是以拉鏈方式自我復制，產生的兩個二分體分別為模板生成互補鏈，即半保留復制。并由Meselson和 Stahl驗證。

In E.coli DNA replication begins with the formation of a bubblelike structure on the circular chromosome that is produced by replication forks.Studies of bacterial DNA replication have shown that a growing DNA chain lengthens only in the 5' to 3' direction(from the 5' carbon of one sugar to the 3' carbon of the next).The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand is synthesized in short stretches known as Okazaki fragments.The enzyme DNA polymerase links free nucleotides as they line up on the template formed by the original strand of the parent molecule.In eukaryotes DNA replication follows the same general principles as in prokarotes.On the long DNA molecules replication proceeds(in two directions at once)from hundreds or thousands of points of origin.大腸桿菌復制開始時形成泡樣復制叉，鏈生長方向由5′向3′端，前導鏈連續生成，后隨鏈由岡崎片段組成，由DNA聚合酶催化。真核生物復制與原核生物復制相似，但有幾百到幾千個復制原點（原核一般只有一個復制原點）。

課后作業：第一篇閱讀材料 答案：1C,2C,3B,4A,5D,6D,7B

Glossary

one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis 一基因一酶假說

The hypothesis that a large class of gene exist in which each gene controls the synthesis or activity of but a single enzyme.Since enzymes and other proteins whose syntheses are controlled by more than one gene are now known, this hypothesis has been replaced by the one-gene-one polypeptide hypothesis.one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis一基因一多肽假說 The hypothesis that a large class of genes exist in which each gene controls the synthesis of a single polypeptide.The polypeptide may function independently or as a subunit of a more complex protein.adenine 腺嘌呤

A purine base that is an essential constituent of the nucleic acids and also of such coenzymes as NAD and FAD.guanine 鳥嘌呤

A double-ring nitrogenous base molecule in DNA and RNA.It is the complementary base of cytosine.cytosine胞嘧啶

A single-ring nitrogenous base molecule in DNA and RNA.It is complementary to guanine.thymine 胸腺嘧啶

A single-ring nitrogenous base molecule of DNA but not RNA.It is complementary to adenine.purine 嘌呤

One of a group of nitrogenous bases whose parent compound has the formula shown.The two most abundant purines are adenine and guanine, which are constituents of nucleic acids and coenzymes.pyrimidine 嘧啶

A heterocyclic organic compound, C4N4N2 the fundamental form of pyrimidine bases.Some of these bases are constituents of nucleic acid.nucleoside 核苷

A purine or pyrimidine base attached to ribose or deoxyribose.The nucleosides commonly found in DNA and RNA are: cytidine, cytosine deoxyriboside, thymidine, uridine, adenosine, adenine deoxyriboside, guanosine, and guanine deoxyriboside.Note that thymidine is a deoxyriboside and cytidine, uridine, adenosine,andguanosine are ribosides.X-ray diffraction

X射線衍射

A technique for determining the arrangement of atoms in a crystalline substance by analysing the diffraction patterns produced when a narrow beam of X-rays is passed through the substance.X-ray diffraction has contributed to the elucidation of structure of many biological molecules, including some important macromolecules, e.g., DNA, haemoglobin, myoglobin.DNA double helix 雙螺旋

The three-dimensional structure of doublestranded DNA.semiconservative replication 半保留復制

The method of replication of DNA in which the molecule divides longitudinally, each half being conserved and acting as a template for the formation of a new strand.replication fork 復制叉

A point at which the two strands of a DNA double helix are unwound and separated during replication.Okazaki fragment 岡琦片斷

A short sequence of DNA that is the primary product of DNA polymerase during DNA replication.polymerase DNA 聚合酶

An enzyme that brings new DNA triphosphate nucleotides into position for bonding on another DNA molecule.Lesson Six（2學時）

The Origin and Diversity of Life

教學目的：使學生了解生命的起源和多樣性及相關假說，使學生掌握相關專業詞匯以及主要用法。教學重點：生物分類的組成及相關英語詞匯的掌握。教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：5月10日 教學內容：

A Home for Life: Formation of the Solar System and Planet Earth The story of life's origins begins with the formation of the earth.The sequence of events that gave rise to our planet began, in turn, with the cosmic explosion physicists call the Big Bang.The sun at the center of our solar system condensed from a cloud of primordial matter roughly 5 billion years ago;the planets, including the earth, condensed about 4.6 billion years ago.The earth is composed of a number of layers: a solid crust, a semisolid mantle, and a largely molten(liquid)core that has a solid center.Basic physical features of Earth that may have made the emergence of life possible include the planet's size, temperature, composition, and distance from the sun.The major current hypothesis holds that life arose spontaneously on the early earth by means of chemical evolution from nonliving substances.生命起源于地球的形成。大爆炸是我們行星形成的開始。太陽在50億年前生成，位于太陽系中心，行星，包括地球，在46億年前生成。地球由多層組成：堅硬的地殼，半流體的地幔，一個很大的溶解中心中存在一個堅實的中心。地球的基本特征使生命起源成為可能，包括行星的大小，溫度，組成以及離太陽的距離。當前主要假設認為，由非生命的化學物質進化過程自發產生了生命。The Emergence of life: Organic and Biological Molecules on a Primitive Planet Evidence for prelife stages of chemical organization comes from laboratory experiments that try to duplicate the physical environment and chemical resources of the early earth.These experiments, including the pioneering work of Miller and Urey, have successfully produced organic monomers including amino acids, simple sugars, and nucleic acid bases.The probable next step toward life was the spontaneous linking of such monomers into polymers such as proteinoids and nuclei acids.Current research suggests that likely sites for this polymerization were clay or rock surfaces.通過創造出地球早期的自然條件和化學資源條件，科學家在實驗室中已經獲得了化學有機體生命前階段的證據。這些實驗包括米勒等早期所做工作，成功地產出了有機單體，包括氨基酸，單糖，核酸堿基。這些單體自發的連接成多聚體，如類蛋白和核酸，使進入生命狀態成為可能。這些聚合作用可能發生在泥土或巖石表面。

Researchers have found that, when energy is available to a system, they can generate three kinds of organic molecular aggregates.The Russian AleksandrOparin obtained polymer-rich droplets, called coacervates from solutions of polymers.Sidney Fox generated proteinoid microspheres from mixtures of amino acids and water.A third laboratory structure is the liposome, a spherical lipid bilayer that forms from phospholipids.A structure similar to one or more of these aggregates may have been the precursor of true cells.當一個系統獲得能量時，可能發生3種有機分子的聚集。從多聚物的溶液中俄國科學家獲得了富含小液滴的多聚物，即凝聚物。從氨基酸和水的混合液中Fox獲得了類蛋白微球體。實驗室第三個結構物質是脂質體，即由磷脂形成的球形脂雙層結構。

Further steps in the appearance of cells on the earth included the development of RNA and DNA as biological information molecules.Evidence suggests that RNA, which can form spontaneously under conditions mimicking those of the early earth, was the first informational molecule.The discovery of RNA ribozymes-RNA that can act as an enzymelike catalyst suggests that such catalytic RNA also could have assembled new RNAs from early nucleotides.Certain catalytic RNAs can also carry out sexlike exchanges of pieces of RNA.RNA可能是地球早期形成的第一個貯藏信息的物質。在實驗室模擬早期地球自然條件下其可自發形成。核酶的發現說明它可以催化早期核苷酸形成新的RNA。某些催化RNA具備類似于RNA 片段性交換的功能。Following the development of a lipid-protein surface layer and replicating RNA and DNA informational molecules, the events leading to the emergence of living cells would have included the origin of the genetic code;the sequestering of RNA or DNA into cell-like structures;and the development of metabolic pathways.接下來脂蛋白表層的形成，RNA的復制,DNA信息分子的形成，最終導致活細胞的出現，包括最初的遺傳密碼，RNA或DNA被包裹進細胞樣的結構中；及代謝途徑的建立。The Earliest Cells The oldest fossils that may represent living cells are found in rocks that are about 3.5 billion years old.The cells were probably anaerobic heterotrophs, with autotrophs arising much later.The first autotrophs produced their own nutrients and released O,-a metabolic by-product that had a crucial impact on later life forms.The resulting ozone layer in the earth's atmosphere reduced the penetration of ultraviolet light.As a result, cells would survive in shallow water and on the land surface.The increasing quantity of atmospheric oxygen also permitted the evolution of aerobic cells and cellular respiration, which in turn signaled the beginning of the global carbon cycle.Although the earliest cells were all prokaryotes, by about 1.5 billion years ago eukaryotes appeared.能說明活細胞存在的最古老化石大約有35億年了。最早出現的細胞可能是厭氧異氧生物，自養生物很久后出現。最早的自養生物自己生產營養并釋放氧氣，這個新陳代謝副產品對后期生命的形成有一個深遠的影響。臭氧層的出現減少了紫外線的滲透。結果，細胞就能夠在淺水區和陸地上生存了。大氣中氧氣數量的增加使得需氧細胞進化并產生細胞呼吸，這預示著全球碳循環的開始。最早期的細胞都是原核生物，直到15億年后，真核細胞才出現。The Changing Face of planet Earth Changes in land masses, the seas, and climate have greatly affected the evolution of life on the earth.The basic parts of the planet include a light, solid crust over a hot, semisolid mantle and an inner, partially molten core.Massive segments or plates of the crust move over the mantle in the process of continental drift.Over the past 500 million years, continental drift has sculpted the earth's crusts to produce the form and distribution of present-day continents.Climatic changes that greatly affected living organisms accompanied these plate movements;the period was marked by occasional waves of mass extinctions of living creatures.Organisms were also affected by periods of glaciation that followed variations in the earth's orbit and in the output of energy by the sun.大陸板快，海洋的改變，以及氣候對地球生命的進化都有深遠影響。地幔上大板快地殼的擠壓形成大陸漂移。大陸漂移雕塑了地殼的外觀，使現在大陸形成。伴隨板塊運動，氣候改變對活有機體有深遠影響。在特定時期的生物大量滅亡高峰是這個時期的見證。生物也受冰河期影響，在冰河期，地球軌道和太陽能的輸出都發生了很大變化。

Taxonomy: Categorizing the Variety of living Things Biologists use the binomial system of nomenclature developed by Linnaeus to categorize the varieties of life on the earth.The system assigns each type of organism to a genus and species.Organisms are then further classified into higher taxonomic categories-family, order, class, division(plants), phylum(animals), and kingdom.Evidence from many subfields of biology, such as biochemistry and comparative anatomy, helps define species and higher taxa(taxon).And whereas species were originally defined in terms of morphological traits, today biologists generally use the criterion of a reproductively isolated population.生物學家利用林奈發展的雙名法對生物分類。系統選定每個類型的生物進入屬和種，然后將生物進一步分類更高級類別中，即科，目，綱，門，界。來自于生物化學和比較解剖學等亞生物學領域的證據有助于劃分物種和更高級的分類單位，然而物種最初依據形態學特征進行分類的，今天生物學家大體上使用生殖隔離群體作為標準。

Taxonomy reveals a great deal about the evolutionary relationships among organisms.A clade is a taxonomic unit whose members are derived from a common ancestor.分類學揭示了物種間進化的大量關系。進化枝中的成員來自一個共同的祖先。The Five Kingdoms A phylogenetic tree is a graphic representation of evolutionary relationships.Your text uses a common five-kingdom arrangement: organisms are grouped into the kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.Although this system is a convenient organizational tool, the kingdoms are probably no true clades.進化系統樹是進化關系的圖解表現。教材中使用一個通用的5界：原核生物，原生生物，真菌，植物，動物。盡管這個系統是一個便利的組織工具，5界劃分可能不是正確的進化枝。課后作業：第一篇閱讀材料 答案：1B,2A,3B,4C,5A,6C

Glossary

Big Bang 大爆炸

An explosion producing a pressure oscillation of the order of a millibar or more at a distant point on the Earth.e.g., the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883.Large nuclear fusion explosions are comparable.crust 地殼

The crust of the Earth is the outer shell of the Earth, defined by its composition and the properties of some seismic waves.mantle 地幔

The part of the interior of the Earth between the crust and the core.core 核心

The core of the Earth is that part lying below the mantle.coacervate團聚體，凝聚層

A collection of organic macromolecules surrounded by water molecules that are aligned to fon-n a sphere.liposome 脂質體

A vesicle formed by the homogenization(emulsification)of phospholipids in dilute salt solutions.Liposomes are the prototypes of membrane-bound biologic structures.ozone layer 臭氧層

A layer of the atmosphere, about 20 to 50 km above the surface, which contains ozone produced by ultraviolet radiation.proteinoid類蛋白[質] A proteinlike structure of branched amino acid chains that is the basic structure of a microsphere.continental drift 大陸漂移

The theory that the present continents result from the break-up of a larger continent and have moved independently to their present positions.binomial system of nomenclature雙名法

Uses two Latin names, genus and species, for each type of organism.genus 屬(plural, genera)A unit used in the classification of plants and animals.A genus consists of a number of closely related species, and members of the same genus often have a number of obvious characteristics in common by which they can clearly be seen to be related.species 物種

A unit used in the classification of plants and animals.Ideally a species is defined as a group of organisms that interbreed with each other to produce fertile offspring.family 科

A unit used in the classification of plants and animals.A family consists of a number of closely related or similar genera or occasionally of only one genus.Family names end in-aceae or-ae in botany and in-ideae in zoology.order 目

A unit used in the classification of plants and animals.An order consists of a number of similar or closely related families or only on family.Names of orders end typically in-ales in plants and in-a in animals.class 綱

A group used in the classification of living organisms.A class consists of a number of similar or closely related orders or occasionally of only one order.Classes are usually large and easily recognized groups.division 門

A unite used in the classification of plants.A division consists of a number of classes, or occasionally of only on class, with certain important characteristics in common.phylum 門(復數 phyla)A unit used in the classification of animals.A phylum consists of a number of classes, or occasionally of only one class, with certain important characteristics in common, implying that all members are descended from a common ancestor.kingdom 界

In biology, a major category into which living material is classified.taxon 分類單位，分類群(復數 taxa)A unit of classification of any rank in the hierarchical scale.taxonomy 分類學

The study of the theory, procedure, and rules of classification of organisms according to the Similarities and differences between them clade 進化枝，分化單位

In a cladistic classification, organisms are placed into taxonomic groups called clades when they share characteristics that are thought to indicate common ancestry.Lesson Seven(2學時)

Fungi: The Great Decomposers

教學目的：使學生了解真菌的分類，典型真菌的結構特點，使學生掌握相關專業詞匯以及主要用法。教學重點：真菌分類的組成及相關英語詞匯的掌握。教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：5月17日 教學內容：

Characteristics of Fungi

The approximately 175,000 species of fungi include some of the simplest multicellular organisms.Fungi have a variety of lifestyles.They may be saprobes that decompose dead organic matter;they may be parasites which obtain nutrients from living hosts;or they may live in symbiotic relationships with algae or with the roots of higher plants.In spite of these variations, however, all fungi carry out extracellular digestion: they secrete enzymes that digest organic matter, and then they absorb the resulting nutrients.包括最簡單的多細胞生物在內，真菌大概有175，000種。真菌有多種生命形式。他們可能是分解無生命的腐生菌；也可能是寄生菌；或者與藻類共生，或者與高等植物共生。不管如何變化，所有真菌都是細胞外消化。他們分泌酶消化有機物，然后吸收有效的營養物質。

Most fungi have the same basic body structure consisting of a main body or thallus composed of filaments called hyphae.In most species the walls of hyphal cells contain chitin.Hyphae in certain species may become specialized to form rhizoids, which serve as rootlike anchors, or they may become the feeding structures known as haustoria.Finally, hyphae may or may not be septate-having cross walls that segregate independent cells, each with at least one nucleus.Lower fungi are coenocytic;that is, they are one mass of cytoplasm that contains multiple nuclei.大多數真菌有同樣的基本結構，即由菌絲組成的菌體。大多數真菌的細胞壁含有明角質。某些種類的菌絲可能特化形成假根，具有根樣的固定作用，或者他們成為飼喂結構稱吸器。菌絲或有細胞隔膜或沒有細胞隔膜，但至少有一個細胞核。低級真菌是多核體的，即，一大團細胞質含有多個細胞核。

Hyphae grow and branch to form a filamentous network called a mycelium.Food is digested and absorbed at the tip of each hyphae;more hyphae are generated as this process continues.As a result, fungi may grow very rapidly.Growth depends on mitosis and the rapid manufacture of cytoplasm;fungal mitosis is unique in that it occurs within the nucleus.Hyphae from genetically distinct individuals may fuse to form a heterokaryon-a single cytoplasm with dissimilar nuclei.菌絲生長形成分支，進而形成網狀結構稱為菌絲體。在菌絲尖端，食物被消化并吸收；這個過程能持續產生更多菌絲。結果，真菌生長很快。生長靠有絲分裂和細胞質的快速產生。真菌的有絲分裂很獨特，即它只發生在細胞核里。遺傳學明顯不同的菌絲個體融合形成異核體——同一個細胞質中含有不同的細胞核。As nonmotile heterotrophs, fungi must eventually be able to find new sources of nutrients.This function is fulfilled by spores, the fungal reproductive bodies.Spores may be home on aerial hyphae, which discharge spores into the air, and depending on the species they may haploid or diploid.There are two main categories of spores:(1)dispersal spores, which are usually short-lived and are produced in large numbers during active fungal growth;and(2)survival spores, which are usually produced in smaller numbers and at a time in the life cycle when the fungus is under some kind of environmental stress.作為不會移動的異養生物，真菌最終能夠發現營養新資源的。這個過程由孢子來完成，即真菌的生殖體。孢子可能是在氣生菌絲的中心，將孢子釋放到空氣中，依賴物種不同，可能是單倍體也可能是二倍體。有兩種主要的孢子：（1）分散的孢子，通常生命期短，數量大，主要存在于活躍的菌絲生長階段；（2）存活孢子，通常產生很少的數量，在生存壓力條件下的一種生命循環。Classification of fungi As with some of the other groups you have studied, it is difficult to group fungi according to actual evolutionary relationships.In general, they are classified according to morphology, methods of reproduction, and modes of spore production.On the basis of these features, the single division of the kingdom Fungi, Mycota, is divided into six principal classes.對真菌依據實際進化關系進行分類是很困難的。總體來說，它們是依據形態學，生殖方式，孢子產生的模式來分類。基于這些特性真菌界的門被分成6個基本綱。

The lower fungi comprise the groups Chytridiomycetes, Oomycetes, and Zygomycetes.All lack septate hyphae and are commonly coenocytic;spores are formed by asexual means.Of the six fungal classes, only the oomycetes usually have a diploid vegetative state.Oomycetes and chytrids(sometimes called water molds)produce motile, flagellated spores in sporangia.They also produce gametes in gametangia;oomycetes are distinguished by their large, immobile egg cells.In fact, both these groups have such distinctive features that some biologists prefer to classify them as protists rather than fungi.Zygomycetes resemble the other two classes in this group but have nonmotile spores.They are also completely terrestrial, and some form mycorrhizal associations with plant roots.低級真菌包含壺菌，卵菌綱和接合菌。所有缺乏隔膜的菌絲是通用的多核細胞的；孢子通過非性方式產生。只有卵菌綱通常有二倍體的營養狀態。卵菌綱和壺菌在孢子囊中產生能動的帶鞭毛的孢子。在配子囊中產生配子；卵菌綱具有非尋常大的靜止的卵細胞。實際上，這兩大群具有不同的特征，生物學家寧愿把它們歸為原生動物而不是真菌。接合菌與其它兩綱相似，但它的孢子不會動。它們完全是陸生的，一些菌根與某些植物的根形成共生關系。

The higher fungi include the class Ascomycetes, the largest class of fungi.Most ascomycetes are either saprobes or parasites.Asexual reproduction produces spores called conidia, which develop on the tips of specialized aerial hyphae.In the ascomycete sexual cycle, hyphae of different mating strains fuse, giving rise to ascospores that form in a small, saclike ascus.Groups of asci form fruiting bodies.Ascomycetes of interest to humans include truffles, yeasts, and Penicillium species.高級真菌包括子囊菌綱，最大的真菌綱。大多數子囊菌要么是腐生菌，要么是寄生菌。非性繁殖產生的孢子稱分生孢子子實體，其依賴特化的氣生菌絲尖。在子囊菌性循環過程中，不同的菌絲通過株融合進行匹配，產生的子囊菌存在于小類子囊中。子囊群形成果實體。對人類有利的子囊菌包括塊菌，酵母和產青霉素菌。

Most members of the class Basidiomycetes—the second group of higher fungi form visible fruiting bodies.A prime characteristic distinguishing basidiomycetes from ascomycetes is the dense mass of dikaryotic hyphae called the basidiocarp-the “mushroom” seen on damp lawns and the forest floor.Club-shaped basidia, each bearing four haploid basidiospores, line the surfaces of the gills on the underside of the mushroom cap.Members of this group undergo both sexual and asexual reproductive processes at different times in their life cycle, and in response to varying environmental influences.綱中大多數菌為擔子菌，第二大類高級真菌，能形成可見的果實體。擔子菌與子囊菌相比，最基本不同是它具備濃密的雙核菌絲，稱擔子果。棒形擔子，每個都含有4個單倍體的擔子孢子，線形地排列在蘑菇帽下的菌褶表面。大多數成員有性和非性繁殖兩種，在不同生命循環中有不同形式，并依據環境變化而變化。The class Deuteromycetes, or Fungi Imperfecti, includes a variety of fungi that lack modes of sexual reproduction.Most are known to reproduce asexually by means of conidia.Deuteromycetes important to humans include those used to ferment soybeans and rice to make soy sauce and sake respectively, and those responsible for producing citric acid and the highly dangerous aflatoxin.半知菌綱，包括大量無性繁殖的真菌。分生孢子完成非性繁殖。對人類很重要的半知菌綱包括發酵大豆成醬油和大米發酵成清酒的菌類，它們也產生檸檬酸和有毒的黃曲霉毒素。Lichens: The Ultimate Symbionts Lichens are composite organisms in which about 90 percent of the lichen mass consists of one species of fungus, while the remaining 10 percent is made up of one or two species of algae.The algal portion of the lichen provides the fungal portion with essential nutrients, while the presence of the fungal component may enable the alga to exploit an otherwise unavailable ecological niche.Lichen fungi are usually ascomycetes, although the other two higher fungi are sometimes found in lichens.Lichens have a number of remarkable features, including their ability to become almost completely desiccated without drying and their ability to absorb inorganic nutrients.Reproduction in lichens is not well understood.地衣是復合生物，大概90%的地衣團由一種地衣組成，10%含有一兩種藻類。藻類為真菌提供必要的營養，真菌為藻類提供了難得的小生態環境。地衣真菌通常是子囊菌，有時在地衣中也能發現其他兩類真菌。地衣有大量的顯著特征，包括在幾乎脫水條件下仍能吸收無機養分。地衣繁殖方式還不清楚。Fungal Evolution The various fungi may have arisen independently from prokaryotes, since some evidence suggests that ascomycetes and basidiomycete did not evolve from known lower forms.However, all fungi do show the same dependence on nutrients produced by plants, animals, or algae.各種真菌可能都獨立進化于原核生物，有證據表明，子囊菌和擔子菌沒有進化。但所有真菌都依賴由植物，動物或藻類產生的營養。課后作業：閱讀材料一 答案：1B,2B,3A

Glossary

saprobe 腐生菌

An organism that lacks the ability of photosynthesis, and lives on dead or decaying organic matter, a saprophyte.hyphae 菌絲(復數hypha)

Fungal filaments that develop from the growth of germinating spores.They are the fundamental elements of a mycelium.rhizoid 假根

One of many uni-and multicellular filamentous outgrowths that are produced by some algae and by the gametophytes of bryophytes and pteridophytes and function as roots.haustorium吸器（復數haustoria)A specialized structure of some parastic plants(e.g., dodder, mistletoe etc.)which penetrates into the vascular bundles of the host plant to obtain nourishment.mycelium 菌絲體(復數mycelia)The tangled mass of hyphae that forms the vegetative body(sometimes terined a thallus)of a fungus.heterokaryon異核體

In somatic cell genetics, the state when two cells have ftised but their nuclei have not yet fused septate有隔膜的，分隔的

Divided by a septum.sporangium 孢子果，孢子囊（復數 sporangia）A cell within which spores or sporelike bodies are home.Generally, it is an asexual structure of certain fungi gametangium配子囊(復數gametangia)A gamete-producing structure or sex organ in plants, i.e.an antheridium, oogonium, or archegonium..ascomycetes子囊菌

A female reproductive structure of some ascomycetes in which plasmogamy occurs prior to ascus formation.conidium分生孢子子實體(復數conidia)An asexual spore of certain fungi that is abstracted from the tip or the side of special hyphae called conidiophores.Conidia may consist of one cell or of several cells;in the latter case the septa may be longitudinal, transverse, or mixed.ascus子囊(復數asci))The characteristic structure producing sexual spores in the Ascomycetes.basidiomycetes擔子菌綱

A group of mycelial fungi(Eumycophyta)whose sexual reproduction results in the formation of basidia, which(except in the rusts and smuts)are home on basidiocarps.basidiocarp擔子果

A fruiting body of the higher basidiomycete fungi.Basidiocarps are the most obvious manifestations of these fungi and include mushrooms, toadstools, and similar bodies.basidium擔子(復數basidia)

The characteristic structure producing sexual spores in the Basidiomycetes.Fungi Imperfecti(Deuteromycetes)半知菌屬，半知菌亞門

A group of fungi with septate mycelia in which sexual reproduction is either lacking or is not known.Many of these fungi are of great importance as they cause diseases in plants, animals, and man.lichen 地衣

Thallophyte plants composed of a fungus and an alga in such close symbiosis that they form a vegetative plant body that is morphologically different from either of the constituents.Lesson Eight

Animal Development

教學目的：使學生了解動物的生育過程，胚胎發育的結構特點，使學生掌握相關專業詞匯以及主要用法。教學重點：動物發育過程及相關英語詞匯的掌握。教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：5月24日 教學內容：

Production of Sperm and Eggs

In sexually reproducing organisms males and females produce sex cells, known as gametes.These are swimming sperm in males and ova(eggs)in females.在性繁殖過程中，生物的雄性和雌性產生性細胞，稱配子。雄性是能夠游動的精子，雌性是卵子。The process of sperm production, spermatogenesis, takes place in testes.The sperm originate in gonial cells(spermatogonia)in the walls of seminiferous tubules.Spermatocytes produced by mitosis in spermatogonia divide meiotically to generate haploid spermatids.The mature sperm has a tail, a nucleus containing haploid chromosomes, and a front end with an acrosome, the storage site for enzymes that will aid fertilization.精子產生過程，即精子發生在睪丸中。精子產生于輸精管壁的性母細胞（精原細胞）。精原細胞經有絲分裂再減數分裂產生單倍體精子細胞，即精母細胞。成熟精子有尾部，單倍體染色體組，頭部有頂體，內部儲存酶類，有助于受精。

Ova, which are produced during oogenesis, are generated in gonial cells(oogonia)of the female's ovaries.Oocytes then enter a stage of arrest in early meiosis.At a species-specific later point, a final ripening(ovulation)and the first meiotic division occur.A second meiotic division, followed by development of the embryo, takes place if the egg is fertilized.在卵子發生過程中，由卵巢中的性母細胞產生。卵母細胞進入減數分裂的抑制階段。第一次減數分裂產生一個成熟卵。如果卵受精，那么第二次減數分裂伴隨胚胎的發育。

Eggs vary greatly in size from species to species and have complex structures.Virtually all developing animal ova are surrounded by helper cells, either follicle cells or nurse cells.Depending on the species, eggs also store varying amounts of yolk, a reservoir of nutrients produced by digestive-gland cells in the mother's body.Finally, follicle cells or cells of the maternal oviduct provide protective coatings for the egg, including albumen(egg white)and various types of outer membranes and shells.品種間卵的大小變化很大，并且有復雜的結構。實際上，所有發育過程中的卵都輔助細胞環繞，要么是濾泡細胞，要么是撫育細胞。依賴物種的不同而不同，卵黃貯備也不同，即由母體消化腺細胞產生的營養儲備。最后，濾泡或母體輸卵管細胞產生保護性的卵膜，包括清蛋白和各種外部膜及殼。

Frog oocytes have served as model systems for studies of oocyte development.During maturation they produce huge numbers of ribosomes through gene amplification.Large quantities of mRNA may also be made and stored.蛙卵母細胞作為卵母細胞發育的研究系統模型。在成熟過程中，通過基因擴增產生大量的核糖體。同時也產生和儲備了大量的mRNA。Fertilization: Initiating Development Fertilization unites male and female gametes and initiates development.In some species fertilization is external;in others(including most terrestrial animals)it takes place internally.The first contact of the sperm head with the egg's jelly coat triggers the acrosome reaction, in which enzymes are released to digest a hole through the egg's protective layers, and the plasma membrane of the sperm is brought into position to bind to the ovum's surface.After fusion of the egg and sperm plasma membranes, the haploid male nucleus with its chromosomes moves into the egg cytoplasm.Fusion also triggers the egg's final meiotic reduction divisions.When sperm and egg nuclei unite, the two sets of chromosomes mingle to create a diploid set.The fertilized egg is now a zygote.雌雄配子結合作用稱受精作用，發育開始。某些物種中，是外部受孕；另一些物種，包括大部分陸生動物，是內部受孕。當精子和卵子的膠狀膜發生接觸時，觸發了頂體反應。釋放多種酶而將卵保護膜消化出一個洞。精子的原生質膜與卵子的表面連接起來。精卵原生質膜融合后，單倍體雄性核進入卵細胞質。融合也觸發了最后的減數分裂。當精卵核結合時，兩套染色體混合產生一二倍體，即受精卵。

The egg's cortical reaction serves as a barrier to the entry of more than one sperm.Initially, there is a temporary change in the egg's electrical state, and the egg cell is activated.The final stage of the reaction, the rapid elevation of the fertilization membrane, prevents further sperm penetration.卵皮層阻止其他的精子進入，充當壁壘作用。開始時，卵電位發生暫時變化，卵細胞被激活。反應最后階段，受精卵的膜快速隆起，阻止更多精子進入。

In some species fertilization is not necessary.Instead, parthenogenesis takes place: the egg is spontaneously activated and proceeds to normal embryonic development.對某些物種而言，受精不是必須的。孤雌生殖，即卵自發地被激活并進入正常的胚胎發育過程中。Cleavage: An Increase in Cell Number Cleavage, the major developmental event immediately following fertilization, is a special form of cell division(mitosis).Cleavage produces a blastula, a sheet of cells rounded into a sphere that in most species surrounds a cavity.In the process, the single-celled zygote is divided into many small cells, and yolk, mRNA, ribosomes, and other materials arc distributed to each cell in precise ways.The cells of the blastula, called blastomeres, also each receive a full diploid set of chromosomes.受精后，立即發生卵裂，細胞有絲分裂的特殊過程。卵裂產生一個囊胚，形成的細胞壁球形排列形成一個空腔。在這個過程中，單細胞的受精卵分裂成許多小細胞，卵黃，mRNA，核糖體和其他物質被精確分配到每個細胞中。這些囊胚細胞，稱卵裂球，每個細胞都有一套二倍體染色體組。

There are different patterns of cleavage in different species.The amount of yolk present in the egg is a major factor in determining the pattern: in species having little yolk(such as mammals)the zygote cleaves completely through, forming cells that are roughly equivalent in size.In frogs, in which the egg has somewhat more yolk, cleavage proceeds more rapidly in regions of the embryo having less yolk.In bird eggs the yolk is so massive that cleavage divisions are restricted to a tiny area of cytoplasm.不同物種，卵裂方式不同。決定因素主要取決于卵黃的含量。含有少量卵黃的物種（例如哺乳動物），合子分裂得很徹底，子細胞大致平均分裂。蛙卵，卵黃稍微多點，在胚胎的卵黃較少區域發育更快些。鳥卵卵黃很大，卵裂被限制在細胞質很小區域內。

In many species the precise distribution to blastomeres of molecular determinants in the cytoplasm is crucial to proper development of different cell types in the embryo.In mammal and bird species the fate of cells is determined by the position of a cell late in cleavage.細胞質中分子遺傳因素精確分配到卵裂球中，對許多物種而言，是發育成胚中不同類型細胞關鍵所在。對哺乳動物和鳥類而言，細胞的命運最終由細胞分裂后所處的位置決定的。Gastrulation: Rearrangement of Cells（原腸胚：細胞重排列）

The rearrangement of the blastula into a three-dimensional organism with inner, middle, and outer layers occurs during gastrulation.The resulting gastrula consists of an outer ectoderm, an inner endoderm, and a mesoderm layer positioned between them.在原腸胚形成過程中，囊胚重新排列，形成包括內層，中層，外層的三圍組織。最終原腸胚由一個外腸胚，內腸胚，和一個中腸胚構成。

Each layer gives rise to specific tissues during embryonic development.A variation in gastrulation, involving the movement of cells into endodermal and mesodermal positions through the thickened primitive streak, arose in reptiles and can still be seen in bird and mammalian embryos, lending support to the theory that birds and mammals evolved from reptiles.每個胚層產生特殊的胚胎組織。密實的原腸胚通過細胞運動進入內胚層和中胚層，爬蟲，鳥，哺乳動物的胚胎都如此。因此提出這樣的理論，鳥類和哺乳動物是由爬蟲進化而來的。Organogenesis: Formation of Functional Tissues and Organs The organs and tissues of the embryo arise during organogenesis as cells inside the embryo and on its surface become specialized.Organogenesis actually includes two closely linked processes, morphogenesis and differentiation.During morphogenesis cells and cell populations change shape: an example is neurulation in vertebrate embryos, in which the edges of the flat neural plate fold upward and fuse, forming the beginnings of the hollow brain and spinal cord.During differentiation cells mature so that they may perform separate functions.This maturation may include taking on a function-related shape, such as the long, spindly shape of skeletal-muscle cells.Cell differentiation also results in responsiveness-the ability of a cell to be regulated within the organism through the action of hormones, neurons, and other signals.胚經過內部細胞和表面細胞特化后，器官形成，發育成器官和組織。器官形成實質上包括兩個聯系緊密的過程，即形態發生和分化。在形態發生期間，細胞和細胞群體形狀發生改變：例如，脊椎動物的神經胚，扁平神經板的邊緣向上折疊并融合，是中空大腦和脊髓神經形成的開端。在分化期間，細胞成熟，執行各自功能。成熟包括功能相關的成型過程。例如，細長的骨骼肌肉細胞。細胞分化也產生應答能力，即細胞受生物體內激素，神經和其他信號的調控過程。Embryonic Coverings and Membranes The embryos of land vertebrates are enclosed within four extraembryonic membranes that afford protection while still permitting the exchange of gases, nutrients, and other materials.脊椎動物的胚胎被4層膜包被，起保護作用，但仍能交換氣體，營養和其他物質。Growth: Increase in Size Growth in embryos is largely due to an increase in the number of cells rather than to an increase in the size of individual cells.In many species the extent of embryonic growth is limited by the availability of food(yolk).In animals that develop entirely free of the maternal body, such as frogs and insects, the embryo give rise to a larval stage that can feed itself and later undergo metamorphosis to attain the adult stage.In many species the most spectacular growth phase takes place during the juvenile and adolescent phases of the life cycle.Actual growth generally stops once the organism reaches its typical adolescent phases of the life cycle.Actual growth generally stops once the organism reaches its typical adult size, although replacement of dead cells may continue.胚的生長很大程度取決于細胞數量的增加而不是單個細胞大小的改變。在大多數物種中，胚的生長是受卵黃的量限制的。在動物細胞中，完全依賴于母體，例如蛙和昆蟲，胚產生幼蟲狀態，后來經歷變態而進入成年狀態。在許多物種中，在少年和青春期，發生特別顯著的生長。一旦細胞進入成年狀態和成年大小，生長就停止了，盡管死細胞的替代不斷發生。

A special type of growth, regeneration of lost body parts, can take place in adults of some species.Prior to such regeneration cells in stump tissue undergo dedifferentiation.They lose their functional phenotype, divide rapidly, and generate a population of cells that will regenerate the lost part.Compensatory hypertrophy is a different, temporary growth response in which residual tissue increases in mass and cell number: cells undergo mitosis but do not dedifferentiate.一個特殊類型的生長，再生失去的部分軀體，發生在某些物種的成體中。在再生之前，殘肢組織細胞經歷了去分化過程。他們失去功能表型，快速分裂，產生細胞群來再生失去的部分。代償式肥大是一個不同的，暫時的生長應答過程，殘余組織在體積和細胞數量上增加：細胞經歷了減數分裂，但沒有去分化過程。Aging and Death: Final Developmental Processes Aging is an ongoing, time-dependent developmental process in which body parts deteriorate.Proposed causes include the degeneration of collagen(the fibrous proteins of the connective tissues)and limits on the number of times cells can divide.Other theories focus on a decline of the immune system or on the accumulation of lipofuscins(aging pigments).老化是一個持續過程，隨時間發育，身體部分惡化。可能原因包括膠質的退化（纖維蛋白）和能分裂活細胞的限制。另外理論認為，免疫系統的免疫下降或脂褐素的堆積造成的。課后習題：閱讀材料一

Glossary

sperm精細胞

Cells that develop from the spermatids by losing much of their cytoplasm and developing long tails;the male gamete.ovum 卵，卵子（復數,ova）

An unfertilized non-motile female gamete.In many animals it is produced in the ovary.spermatogenesis 精子發生

The specific name given to the gametogenesis process that leads to the formation of sperm.oogenesis 卵子發生-The specific name given to the gametogenesis process that leads to the formation of eggs.ovaries 卵巢，子房

The female sex organs the produce haploid sex cells, the eggs or ova.yolk 卵黃，蛋黃

The store of food material, mostly protein and fat, that is present in the eggs of most animals oviduct 輸卵管

The tube(fallopian tube)that carries the primary oocyte to the uterus.gene amplification 基因擴增

A temporary dramatic increase in the numbers of a particular gene in a genome during one developmental period.fertilization 受精

The joining of haploid nuclei, usually from an egg and a sperm cell, resulting in a diploid cell called the zygote.Zygote受精卵

A diploid cell that results from the union of an egg and a sperm.acrosome reaction 頂體反應

That series of observable, structural changes undergone by a sperm when in the vicinity of an ovum in the oviduct.Specifically, many openings appear in the sperm head membrane, through which the contents of the acrosome appear to be released.parthenogenesis ['pa:einE]u'd3enisis]單性生殖，孤雌生殖

Reproduction in which eggs develop normally without being fertilized by a male gamete, producing an individual usually genetically identical to the parent.cleavage 卵裂

The mitotic division of the zygote that occurs immediately after fertilization and produces a ball of smaller cells without an overall increase in size.blastula 囊胚，囊胚泡

The stage of the early animal embryo that succeeds cleavage and precedes gastrulation.A blastula is usually made up of a hollow ball of cells, with a wall one to several cells thick;the central cavity is the blastocoel.blastomere卵裂球

One of several small cells formed from an animal zygote during cleavage.gastrulation 原腸胚形成

The process in the animal embryo by which a blastula is converted into a gastrula, with the laying down of the germ layers.gastrula 原腸胚

The stage in the development of animal embryos that follows the blastula and results from gastrulation.The cells of a gastrula are differentiated into the germ layers and the central cavity opens to the exterior by the blastopore.ectoderm 外胚層，內層

The outermost of the germ layers of metazoan embryos.It develops mainly into epidermal tissue, the nervous system, sense organs, and(in lower forms)the nephridia.endoderm 內胚層，內層

The innermost of the germ layers of metazoan embryos.Mesoderm中胚層，中層

The middle layer of the three germ layers of triploblastic animal embryos.It develops into cartilage, bone, muscle, blood, kidneys, and gonads.primitive streak 原腸胚 A longitudinal band of embryonic mesodermal cells that develops within a dorsal groove along the length of the gastrula of mammals and birds.organogenesis 器官形成 The formation of organs.morphogenesis形態發生，形態建成

The developmental processes leading to the characteristic mature form of an organism or part of an organism.differentiation 分化，鑒別

The complex of changes involved in the progressive diversification of the structure and functioning of the cells of an organism.For a given line of cells, differentiation results in a continual restriction of the types of transcription that each cell can undertake.neurulation神經胚形成

Developmental stage in an embryo during which the cells differentiate into the brain and spinal cord.metamorphosis 變態

The transformation from larval to adult form.regeneration 再生

The replacement by an organism of tissues or organs that have been lost.dedifferentiation 去分化，脫分化

The loss of differentiation, as in the vertebrate limb stump during formation of a blastema.compensatory hypertrophy 代償式肥大 See regeneration.Lesson Nine

The Origin of Species

教學目的：使學生了解物種起源相關理論，使學生掌握相關專業詞匯以及主要用法。教學重點：物種起源相關理論及相關英語詞匯的掌握。教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：5月31日 教學內容：

How Biologists Define a Species Modern biology generally define a species as group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that is reproductively isolated from the such groups.Members of a species can interbreed with each other, but they cannot breed with organisms belonging to another species.One advantage of the standard of reproductive isolation is that it is very precise.Notice, however, that it can only be applied to organisms that reproduce sexually.Asexual reproducers, including most prokaryotes, many plants, and some animals, must be classified into species on the basis of physical(biochemical or morphological)traits.現代生物學大體將物種定義為實際上的一群或潛在的雜交群體，即從這個群體隔離繁殖的后代。種族中個體可以互相交配，但種間不能。這種繁殖隔離的一個優勢是很精確。但僅適用于性繁殖的生物。非性繁殖，包括大多數原核生物，許多植物，某些動物，需要通過自然特征進行歸類。Preventing Gene Exchange Two general types of mechanisms operate to block the exchange of genes between individuals of related groups.The first general type is made up of prezygotic isolating mechanisms that prevent the formation of zygotes.Prezygotic isolation falls into two categories: ecological and behavioral.In the first case, two related group may become adapted to slightly different environments-perhaps varying soil types or food sources.Over time, these genetic differences become so great that successful cross-fertilization can no longer take place.In behavioral isolation, related groups evolve differing behaviors such as specific mating rituals-that restrict the exchange of genes to members of the same group.兩種基因型機制阻礙了相關群體中個體的基因交換。第一種基因型由前合子機械隔離機制阻止合子的生成。前合子隔離分兩類：生態學的和行為學的。第一種情況，兩個相關群體可能分別適應稍微不同的環境，如土壤類型或食物來源的變化。長時間，這些遺傳差異變得很大而很難異體受精。而行為學隔離，相關的群組進化成不同的行為方式，例如，結婚儀式，從而限制了同群成員基因交流。

Sometimes the differences that produce prezygotic isolation involve mechanical isolation.That is, mating is physically impossible between members of different species because genitals of males and females are structurally incompatible or because molecules on the surfaces of sperm and egg fail to bind.A final type of prezygotic mechanism is temporal isolation, in which time-related environmental cues that trigger reproductive processes are different for related species.有時，產生前合子隔離的差異涉及了隔離機制。即，由于生殖器結構不匹配或精卵分子表面不結合而使不同種群成員間不能自然結合。最后一類前合子機制是暫時隔離，與時間有關的環境因素觸發了相關物種的不同繁殖過程。

In postzygotic isolating mechanisms mating occur, but the resulting hybrid organism is inviable or sterile.In a special case of hybrid sterility termed hybrid breakdown, the second and subsequent generations after a cross show reduced reproductive success.Contrast this fact with the very different outcome of crossbreeding between two genetically distant members of the same species, where the result is often heterozygote advantage(hybrid vigor).在合子后隔離機制中，匹配可以進行，但或不產生雜種或雜種不育。雜種不育在某些特殊情況下，是指第二代或以后幾代顯示出雜交繁殖能力的降低。正是同種遠基因成員間的雜交產生不同的結果，而產生雜種優勢。

Populations of a species that are spread out over a broad geographical range are often arrayed in a cline-a gradual change in one or more characteristics as each population evolves adaptations to its own local environment.Along a cline, subspecies with distinct characteristics may arise.Often, individuals at either end of a cline are reproductively isolated.地域上分布很廣的種的群體中，經常存在變異群，因為適應當地的環境，每個群體逐漸產生一個或多個與眾不同的特點。在變異群中，帶有明顯特征的亞群可能產生。通常，在兩個變異群中的個體是繁殖隔離的。Becoming a Species: How Gene Pools Become Isolated Ernst Mayr's model of allopatric speciation proposes that species can originate in a two-stage process.In the first stage, populations of existing species are separated by a physical or geographical barrier.As a result, over time genetic differences leading to pre-or postzygotic isolation arise between the two groups.In the second stage, the diverged populations may again come into contact.If this happens, speciation becomes complete through the action of natural selection.異地物種形成模型認為，物種可能起源于兩個階段。第一階段，已經存在的物種群體可能由于自然或地理屏障被隔離。結果，長時間后，在兩個群體間遺傳差異導致前合子或后合子隔離的產生。第二階段，這些趨異群體可能再次接觸，物種發生可能通過自然選擇發生。The Genetic Bases of speciation The extent of differences between populations that are diverging into separate species or between species that have already diverged is represented by a statistic called genetic identity-the relative proportion of the same structural genes present in members of groups being compared.In general, biologists believe that the genetic events leading to speciation take place gradually.Once a new species has arisen, it tends to diverge genetically from related species at a more rapid pace.In some cases, such as the primate order, major differences in body form are not reflected by corresponding divergences in structural genes.This has led Biologists to hypothesize that small changes in regulatory genes may account for many of the large-scale changes responsible for sepciation and the origin of higher taxonomic groups.能夠趨異的群體或已經趨異的物種，他們之間差異的擴大，由一個穩定的遺傳識別代表。即在可比群體成員中相同基因所占相關比例。大體而言，生物學家相信，遺傳導致的物種形成是逐漸發生的。在某些情況下，身體主要差別并不能反映結構基因的趨異，生物學家因此提出，調控基因很少的改變可能導致很大規模物種改變和更高分類學上群體的產生。

One mechanism that may rapidly split populations genetically is polyploidization—the sudden multiplication of an entire complement of chromosomes.This can result in sympatric speciation, in which new species arise even though no geographical isolation has taken place.A phenomenon similar to polyploidization involving the rearrangement of chromosomes has been proposed to explain the evolutionary origin of giant pandas.Clearly, species can originate in a variety of ways.遺傳學上可以快速分離群體的一個機制是多倍體，一個完全互補染色體組的突然倍增。結果導致同域物種形成，即使沒有地理隔離也會產生新的物種。與多倍體相似的一個現象是染色體重排，可以解釋巨大熊貓的進化起源。顯然，物種可以以多種方式進化。Explaining Macroevolution: Higher-order Changes The changes that generate species are sometimes termed microevolution;those that produce the major phenotypic differences that separate genera, classes, orders, and so on are termed macroevolution.Some lines of descent can be traced by studying the fossil record.In other cases relationships must be inferred by comparison of related living organisms.When lines of descent over evolutionary time are constructed, the result is a phylogeny.遺傳物種的改變有時稱微進化；那些產生很大差異用來區分屬，綱，目的表型變化稱大幅進化。某些品系的后代可以通過化石追根溯源。而其他相關性可以通過現存活體的比較來推論。當品系后代以進化鐘構建時，形成系統發育樹。

The rationale for building a phylogeny is simple: it assumes that similarities in body structure, biochemistry, reproductive strategies, and other features of organisms can be used to trace lines of common descent.The process is complex because evolution proceeds in different patterns.In cases of parallel evolution, two or more lineages evolve along similar lines.In convergent evolution, very distantly related lineages become more alike as similar adaptations take hold in response to demands of the environment.Thus similar structures in different organisms may reflect homology(derivation from a common ancestor)or analogy(independent origin of structures used for similar purposes).建立系統發育樹的基本理論很簡單：把身體結構，生物化學，繁殖策略以及其他特征相似的生物劃分進同一個品系。這個過程很復雜，因為進化經歷不同模式。就平行進化而言，兩個或更多的血統沿相似品系進化。在相似生存條件下，親源關系很遠的血統也可能更相似。不同生物間的相似結構可能說明它們具有同源性。

One of the most common evolutionary patterns that can be constructed from the fossil record is divergent evolution or radiation.It is represented by the branching and rebranching of a single line.Another common feature of evolution is extinction-the complete loss of a species or group of species.Mass extinctions have occurred at least five times in the earth's history.從化石證據構建的最普通進化模式是趨異進化。由分支和次級分支的簡單線條代替。另一個進化的共同特征是滅絕。地球歷史中至少發生過5次大規模的滅絕。

Gaps in the fossil record have led some paleontologists to propose the punctuated equilibrium theory of evolution.The theory holds that evolution proceeds by spurts-radical changes over short(in geological time)periods of time-with intervening periods of equilibrium.The theory is controversial and tends not to be supported when an abundant fossil record is available.化石證據上的斷代使古生物學家們提出間斷平衡進化理論。這個理論認為進化在短期內經歷了根本突變，中間又介入均衡階段。這個理論很有爭議，一旦發現豐富的化石證據，理論就難支撐了。The Role of microevolution in Macroevolution Biologists have no certain answers to a number of questions about large-scale evolutionary changes.These questions range from whether novel higher taxa result from as-yet undescribed radical genetic processes, to whether known processes such as genetic drift and small gene changes can plausibly account for the evolution of new genera, families, and orders.Investigators are exploring these areas using traditional methods as well as the newer techniques of molecular biology.生物學家還無法回答關于大規模進化的許多問題。許多問題是新類別的物種可能起源于還不確定的遺傳過程，或者知道遺傳過程，例如，遺傳漂移和少量基因的改變可能是新屬，科，目產生的原因。科研工作者不但利用傳統方法對這些領域進行研究，還利用分子生物學新科技。Glossary

hybrid sterility 雜種不育性

The failure of hybrids between different species to produce viable offspring.cline 梯度變異，變異群

A smooth gradation of characteristics from one end of the range of a species to the other, usually brought about by gradients of climate, soil, or other environmental variables.allopatric speciation

異域物種形成，異地物種形成

The development of distinct species through differentiation of populations in geographic isolation.sympatric speciation

同域物種形成，同地物種形成

Speciation that follows after ecological, behavioral, or genetic barriers arise within the boundaries of a single population.This can happen instantaneously, as when polyploidy arises in a type of flowering plant that can self-fertilize or reproduce asexually.microevolution 微進化，種內進化

Changes in allele frequencies brought about by mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection.macroevolution 宏觀進化，大進化，種外進化

The large-scale patterns, trends, and rates of change among groups of species.phylogeny 種系發生，系統發生，系統發育

Evolutionary relationships among species, starting with most ancestral forms and including the branches leading to their descendants.parallel evolution平行進化

The evolution of organisms that were originally very similar and have both evolved in the same direction.(Contrast with convergent evolution)convergent evolution

趨同進化

An evolutionary pattern in which widely different organisms show similar characteristics.Homology 同源性，同種性，同系性

A similarity between two structures that is due to inheritance from a common ancestor.The structures are said to be homologous.(Contrast with analogy)analogy 相似，同功

A resemblance in function, and often appearance as well, between two structures which is due to convergence in evolution rather than to common ancestry.(Contrast with homology)divergent evolution 趨異進化

A basic evolutionary pattern in which individual speciation events cause many branches in the evolution a group of organisms.extinction 滅絕，熄滅，消失

In genetics, inhibition of the expression of differentiated properties in hybrid cells from differentiated and undifferentiated parental cells.punctuated equilibrium 間斷平衡

Evolutionary theory that holds that morphological changes occur rapidly in time;during speciation these changes occur in small populations with the resulting new species being distinct from the ancestral form.After speciation, species retain much the same form until extinction;distinct from the phyletic gradualism theory.Lesson Ten

The Ecology of Populations

教學目的：使學生了解物種群體生態學相關理論，使學生掌握馬爾薩斯人口理論及相關專業詞匯和主要用法。

教學重點：馬爾薩斯人口理論及相關英語詞匯的掌握。教學難點：專業英語詞匯的記憶

講授方法：以學生翻譯為主，老師講解相關專業知識輔助學生理解 授課時間：5月31日 教學內容：

Population Growth

Populations-groups of individuals belonging to the same species-all have three very significant statistical characteristics: per capita birth rate or natality;per capita death rate or motality;and number of individuals per unit area or density.種群中的每個個體都屬于同一個物種，具有三個非常顯著的統計學特征：出生率；死亡率；種群密度。As first described by Malthus, a population theoretically can grow exponentially(geometrically)if there are no limits on resources such as food or hiding places and no predation(ac of population growth is represented by an exponential growth curve.The condition exponential growth rarely occur in nature, however.The finite levels of resources in any environment set an upper limit to population size—termed carrying capacity(K)—that can be reached but never long exceeded.A logistic growth curve plots the leveling-off of growth when population size reaches equilibrium with available resources.馬爾薩斯首次闡述了人口理論，他指出，如果沒有類似于食物，庇護所等資源的限制，沒有被捕食，群體總量的增長符合指數或幾何關系。即指數生長曲線。但，這種指數生長在自然界中很少發生。環境中有限的資源限制了群體規模，即環境的容納量，只能接近而不能超過。當群體規模接近可獲得資源的最大平衡態時，邏輯生長曲線呈現負增長。When resource limits are approached or exceeded, time is required for the birth rate to fall and for the death rate to rise.This response time is known as reproductive time lag.It is one reason for the fluctuations in numbers that are seen in every population.In many natural populations, carrying capacity(and hence population size)fluctuates seasonally.If a population drastically exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment temporarily, damage may occur that permanently lowers environmental carrying capacity.當接近或超過資源限制時，出生率下降，死亡率升高。這段時期稱繁殖滯后時期。這種群體數量的波動存在于每一個群體中。在自然群體中，群體數量隨季節波動。若暫時超出環境的容納量，可能造成對環境持久的傷害而保持很低的容納量。

Besides environmental carrying capacity, a population's age structure and reproductive strategy also affect the rate at which the population grows.Age structure reflects the relative numbers of young, middle-aged, and older individuals in a give population.In a population having many members at or nearing reproductive age, significant growth may occur.Age structure may also be represented by a survivorship curve.除環境容納量外，群體的年齡結構和繁殖方式也影響群體增長率。年齡結構反映中青老的比例關系。若生育年齡的比例大，則顯著增長。存活曲線也可以反映年齡結構。

The reproducing members of a population follow a complex adaptive reproductive strategy that has evolved over millennia.Reproductive strategies generally fit into one of two categories: those of r-selected species and those of K-selected species.In r selection individuals reach reproductive age quickly and produce many offspring., Each offspring is small and enters the world with relatively few resources.Out of the many produced, only a few will survive until reproductive age.In K selection, a strategy related to environmental carrying capacity and the need to compete for resource, individuals mature slowly and produce few offspring.However, parents invest a great deal of resources in each offspring;and after a long period of growth to large size, each offspring's chances of survival until reproductive age are high.幾千年來，進化形成兩個繁殖策略，一是繁殖周期快，后代數量多，每個后代小并可獲得資源少。僅有少量存活到生育年齡。一是和環境的容納量及可匹配資源有關，個體成熟慢并產生很少的后代。但，父母給后代提供很多資源，需要很長的生長期，存活到生育年齡的機遇很高。Limits on Population Size The size of a population is measured in terms of its density.Whether population density is high or low, the distribution of individuals within the population is usually uneven.Common distribution patterns include clumped, uniform, and random.Negative consequences are often attached to high(or rising)population density.These density-dependent factors include increased predation, parasitism, disease, and intraspecific and interspecific competition.Population size may also be reduced by densityindependent factors, a category that includes natural catastrophes.群體的規模也可以用密度來衡量。不論群體密度高與低，群體中個體的分布是不均一的。通用分布模式包括群體的，均勻的，隨機的。密度依賴因子包括增加了的捕食，寄生，疾病，種內競爭和種間競爭。群體規模也可因為密度無關因子而降低，包括自然災難。

The interactions of predators and their prey affect population size in complex ways.Such populations sometimes cycle regularly between growth and decline, in part from the effects of reproductive time lags.In general, predation may slow or stop the growth of a prey population only when many reproducing individuals are eliminated.If only weak, sick, or very young prey are taken, the effect of predation on the density of the population as a whole may be slight.捕食和被捕食的相互復雜關系影響著群體的規模。例如群體規模規律的增長和下降，部分是由于繁殖滯后期的影響。總的來說，當被捕食的是能繁殖的個體時，可能減慢或停止群體的增長。反之，影響就很微弱。An area of controversy among ecologists is the question of whether species diversity in a community tends to generate stability of whether stability encourages species diversity.One aspect of this argument is the hypothesis that a complex food web is more stable than a simple one.In nature, however, many stable, highly diverse communities are characterized by the presence of numerous simple food webs.It may be that stable environments beget diversity because they allow rare species to persist.生物學家一直在爭論，是否是物種差異產生穩定性還是穩定性促成了物種差異。一種假設認為，復雜的食物鏈要比簡單的食物鏈更穩定。實際上，許多穩定的，高差異的社會群體是由眾多簡單食物鏈支撐的。可能是穩定的環境引起差異，它只允許很少的物種存留。How Populations Are Distributed

Just as competition, predation, and other elements interact to determine the size of a population within a community, population distribution is the result of many interrelated factors.Overall, the distribution of a population in its potential range depends on locations of food and suitable habitat, interspecific competition for resources, and other variables.Among plants, one of the most effective forms of interspecific competition for resources is allelopathy.Among species that share similar or identical habitat niches, resource partitioning is often seen.In character displacement, closely related species have evolved physical differences in body structures used for exploiting a limited resource.Eventually, such solutions to the need for dividing up a scarce resource may lead to speciation.正如競爭，捕食，和其他因素相互作用影響著群體大小，群體分布是許多相關因子相互作用的結果。總之，潛在的群體分布取決于食物的位置和穩定的住所，種間對資源的競爭，以及其他可變因素。對于大多數植物，種間最有效的資源競爭是異種相生相克關系。許多物種分享相似或相同的生存環境，而進行資源劃分。對于特征替換，關系更近的物種已經在進化過程產生了很大體證差異。最終，這種對珍貴資源的劃分方式可能導致物種形成。

Human Population: A Case Study in Exponential Growth

The awesome rate of increase that is now a feature of the human population started about 10,000 years ago during the agricultural revolution.At that time, world human population is estimated to have totaled 133 million people;today it has reached a staggering 5 billion.Viewed on a graph, this increase closely resembles the classical exponential growth curve-a growth pattern that cannot be sustained.自從1萬年前農業革命以來，人類人口以驚人的速度增長著。當時，世界人口估計在133百萬；今天已經達到50億。幾乎接近典型的指數增長曲線，一個不穩定的增長模式。

While the birth rate in many developed countries has slowed, it remains high in less well developed areas of the world.Demographers predict that, if this rate continues, the human population level will reach 30 billion before the end of the twenty-first century.Yet most biologists believe that the earth's carrying capacity for humans is only 10 billion.Clearly, we humans face a serious problem in managing the earth's precious resources while sustaining such a high population density.盡管許多發達國家的出生率降低，但也有高出生率的。人口統計學預測，若出生率持續增加，21世紀末世界人口將達到300億。然而，生物學家普遍認為，地球的容納量僅為100億。顯然，人類將面臨嚴重的考驗，如何利用如此珍貴的資源維持如此高的人口密度。Glossary

natality出生率

The number of individuals entering the population by reproduction per thousand individuals in the population.mortality 死亡率

The number of individuals leaving the population by death per thousand individuals in the population.exponential growth curve指數生長曲線 Pattern of population growth in which greater and greater numbers of individuals are produced during the successive doubling times;the pattern that emerges when the per capita birth rate remains even slightly above the per capita death rate, putting aside the effects of immigration and emigration.carrying capacity 容納量，攜帶量，負載力

The maximum number of individuals in a population(or species)that can be sustained indefinitely by a given environment.logistic growth curve 邏輯生長曲線

Pattern of population growth in which a low density population slowly in creases in size, goes through a rapid growth phase, then levels off once the carrying capacity is reached.age structure 年齡結構

Of a population, the number of individuals in each of several or many age categories.population density 種群密度，群體密度

The number of individuals of a population that are living in a specified area or volume.density-dependent factors密度依賴因子，密度制約因子

population-limiting factors that become more effective as the size of the population increases.intraspecific competition種內競爭

Interaction among individuals of the same species that are competing for the same resources.interspecific competition種間競爭

Two-species interaction in which both species can harmed due to overlapping niches.density-independent factors密度無關因子，非密度制約因子

Population-controlling factors that are not related to the size of the population increases.allelopathy種間感應現象，異種相克相成

A chemical interaction between organisms in which one organism suppresses the germination, growth, or reproduction of the other by releasing toxins into the environment.It occurs particularly between freshwater animals, flowering plants, bacteria, and fungi.survivorship curve 存活曲線，生存曲線

A plot of the age-specific survival of a group of individuals in a given environment, from the time of their birth until the last one dies character displacement特征替換

An alteration of the traits of a species as a result of competition or other interactions with associated species.課后作業：第一篇閱讀材料

圖書描述

出版日期: 2005年3月1日

《生物專業英語》在第1版的基礎上更新了部分較為陳舊的閱讀材料，增加了文獻數據庫檢索網上資源檢索等資料，內容涉及面廣，取材新穎，圖文并茂,難易適度，充分反映了現代生物學的發展趨勢。在選擇補充材料時，著重挑選《生物學文摘》（BA）、《化學文摘》（CA）、《科學引文索引》（SCI）檢索和利用的資料，以期通過這些內容提高學生專業學術期刊閱讀能力、科技寫作能力和文獻檢索水平。內容涉及動物學、植物學、細胞生物學、遺傳學、微生物學、生態學、分子生物學、生物進化、生物信息學、情報學等。書后附有練習答案、專業詞匯和參考文獻。

________________________________________ 基本信息

出版社: 高等教育出版社;第2版(2005年3月1日)

平裝: 302頁

開本: 16開

ISBN: 7040161435

條形碼: 9787040161434

商品尺寸: 25.6 x 18.2 x 1.4 cm

商品重量: 422 g

ASIN: B0011AUSE6

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《生物專業英語》可作為高校生物類專業英語教材，也可作為從事生物學、農林等研究領域的科學工作者及參加TOEFL或CRE考試學生的考前閱讀材料。目錄

Lesson One Inside the Living Cell: Structure andFunction of Internal Cell Parts 1 Glossary 3 Exercises 5 Additional Information 8 1．Names of Chemical Element Symbols Commonly Used 8 2．Mathematical Symbols Commonly Used 8 3．Symbols of Length, Capacity and Weight Commonly Used 9 Reading Comprehension 9 Reading Materials 11 The Construction Of Cells 11 Lesson Two Photosynthesis 15 Glossary 17 Exercises 18 Additional Information 21 How to Write a Report or Paper(I)21 Reading Comprehension 26 Reading Materials 27 How Cells Make ATP 27 Using the Electrons Generated by the Citric Acid Cycle to Make ATP 28 Lesson Three Cellular Reproduction：Mitosis and Meiosis 29 Glossary 31 Exercises 32 Additional Information 35 How to Write a Report or Paper(II)35 Reading Comprehension 41 Reading Materials 42 What is Biology 42 The Value of Biology 43 Biological Problems 43 Lesson Four Foundations of Genetics 45 Glossary 46 Exercises 47 Additional Information 51 Chemical Abstract Service 51 Printed Chemical Abstracts(CA)51 Biochemistry Sections of CA(I)52 Reading Comprehension 55 Reading Materials 56 Genes and Characteristics 56 Environmental Influence on Gene Expression 58 Lesson Five Discovering the Chemical Nature of the Gene 59 Glossary 60 Exercises 62 Additional Information 65 Biochemistry Sections of CA(II)65 Reading Comprehension 68 Reading Materials 69 How is the Information in DNA Reproduced so Accurately? 69 What is the Unit of Hereditary Information? 71 Lesson Six The Origin and Diversity of Life 75 Glossary 77 Exercises 78 Additional Information 81 Abbreviations Used in Journals of Biological Sciences 81 Reading Comprehension 83 Reading Materials 84 Earth as a Stage for Life 84 The Unseen Drama: from Molecules to Cells 86 Lesson Seven Fungi：The Great Decomposers 89 Glossary 91 Exercises 92 Additional Information 95 CAS Standard Abbreviations and Acronyms 95 Nature Guide to Authors(I)98 Reading Comprehension 104 Reading Materials 106 The History and Scope of Microbiology 106 Lesson Eight Animal Development 117 Glossary 119 Exercises 121 Additional Information 124 Nature Guide to Authors（Ⅱ）124 Reading Comprehension 130 Reading Materials 131 Animals 131 Lesson Nine The Origin of species 137 Glossary 139 Exercises 140 Additional Information 143 Nature Guide to Authors(Ⅲ)1 43 A．Nature"s Other Submitted Material 1 43 Reading Comprehension 149 Reading Materials 150 How Species Form 150 Lesson Ten The Ecology of Populations 155 Glossary 157 Exercises 158 Additional Information 161 Nature Guide to Authors(IV)161 B．Presubmission Enquiries 161 C．Nature Online Submissions 162 D．Nature Online Revisions 163 E．Getting Published in Nature 165 Reading Comprehension 170 Reading Materials 172 Behavioral Ecology 172 Lesson Eleven Abstracts in Biological Abstracts 1 79 Additional Information 180 Biological Abstracts 180 How to Use Biological Abstracts 184 HOW to Use the Indexes 185 Abbreviations Often Appeared in Biological Abstracts 189 Lesson Twelve The ISI Web of KnowledgeSM Platform：Current and Future Directions 193 Additional Information 203 Web of Science?(I)203 Lesson Thirteen The Handing of Plant Chromosomes 213 Additional Information 223 Web of Science?(Ⅱ)223 Lesson Fourteen Plant Bioinformatics: from Genome to Phenome 241 Additional Information 247 Web of Science?(III)247 Lesson Fifteen Plant Tissue Culture Techniques 257 Additional Information 272 Web of Science?(IV)272 The ISI? Database：The Journal Selection Process 284 Answers to Exercises 289 Glossary of Biological Terms 297 References 301

第二篇：生物教學案10-5

第10章 人體內的物質運輸和能量供給

第五節 人體能量的供給

【學習目標】

1、說出人體內能量的供給的過程。

2、說出體溫的概念及體溫變化對人體的影響。

【知識要點】

一、人體能量的供給

1、轉變成人體的組成物質

人體從食物中獲得的能量

（利用氧氣將營養物質氧化分解釋放能量）

熱價：蛋白質17.15kJ/g，糖類17.15kJ/g，脂肪38.91kJ/g。

能量等于重量乘以熱價。

二、體溫

1、體溫是指人體內部的溫度。

2、測量體溫的三個部位：腋窩（36.8℃）、口腔（37.2℃）、直腸（37.5℃）。直腸的溫度最接近真實體溫。

3、維持體溫的相對穩定，是人體進行正常生命活動的基礎。

4、“發熱”在一定范圍內是有利的，當體溫達到43℃ 就有生命危險。

【典型例題】

例

1、下列與人體能源物質供給無直接關系的系統是（D）

A、消化系統B、循環系統C、呼吸系統D、內分泌系統

例

2、相同質量的下列營養物質中，含有能量最多的是（C）

A、蛋白質B、糖類C、脂肪D、維生素

例

3、測得某男同學口腔、腋窩和直腸三處的體溫分別是37℃、36.5℃、37.2℃，則最接近他實際體溫的是（C）

A、36.5℃B、37℃C、37.2℃D、37.5℃

【鞏固練習】《補充習題》P45-46。

【學有所得】通過本節課的學習，你有哪些收獲?請寫下來1、2、3、

第三篇：感 悟 教 師 人 生

感 悟 教 師 人 生

——也談教師師德

百年大計教育為本，教育大計教師為本，教師大計則師德為本，要培養適合時代需要的高素質人才，教師是否具有良好的道德修養至關重要。

師德，是一個古老而永恒的話題。而提到師德，人們也常會用“靈魂工程師”、“無私奉獻”、“蠟燭精神”、“為人師表”做為社會衡量教師的潛標尺。知識經濟時代對師德賦予了新的內涵。2006年2月20日《中國教育報》刊載了郭元祥教授撰寫的《感悟“教師人生”》一文，作者談到了“教師之服飾”，認為“細節決定品質，服飾影響人的品位”、“教師服飾無小事”；談到了“教師之語言”，認為教師“優美的語言是給學生的最美的教育享受”、“教師的語言是實現偉大的教育功能的基本途徑”；談到了“教師之習慣”，認為“好習慣提升人的品質和生活品位，壞習慣糟蹋人的形象和生活層次”、“教育改革核心價值的追求，需要的是創新，而不是習慣”；談到了“教師之微笑”，認為“教師微笑著面對學生，能給學生一種寬松的師生交往人際環境，使學生感受到教師的理解、關心、寬容和激勵”、“教師微笑著面對同事，校長微笑著面對教師，有利于構建合作性的同事關系，有利于營造一種積極向上、追求卓越、團隊學習的發展型組織”；作者還談到了“教師之思想”，認為“思想有多遠，我們就能走多遠”、“一個有思想的教師一定是學生喜愛的教師，一個有魅力的教師，一個有精神感召力的教師”；最后，作者談到了“教師之信念”，認為教師的核心競爭力，“也許就是教師的信念”、“教師的信

念蘊含著教師的信誓，教師的激情”、“教師的信念中還包含著責任與使命、愛心與真情、堅持不懈與持之以恒”。因此我認為“教師人生”這個新的論斷是一種對師德的新的詮釋。

所謂教師人生，就是不僅僅把教育作為一個職業來看待，而是將教育當成自己人生的一個部分來對待，來體驗，來充實，來完成。而這樣以對待自己的生命的態度對待教育，向愛惜自己的生命一樣珍惜教育事業的境界，我認為正是一種高尚的師德體現。那么，如何使教師人生精彩而有價值呢？

一、“教師人生需要生命的活力，需要生命的激情，需要生命的靈動”

車爾尼雪夫斯基曾說過這樣一段名言：一個沒有受到獻身的熱情所鼓舞的人，永遠不會做出什么偉大的事情來。作為教師，我們不僅需要一顆對學生的愛心，相信“皮格馬利翁效應”，給每個學生以“象牙姑娘”的期待。我們還需要善于結合學生的愛好和興趣情況，在引導和啟發下開展教育教學。要有一顆耐心，耐心的等待學生的進步，等待學生從興趣茫然到對所學課程熱愛的過程。同時更要求教師要不斷從生活的感悟中提升自己的人生境界，完善自己的道德情操。

精深的生活感悟可以提升教師的人生境界和道德情操。作為一名教師要能在外界豐富多彩的環境中給自己留下一個空間，靜下心來以自己的方式來讓自己的生命充實。煥發教師人生生命的活力，生命的激情和生命的靈動。比如，有的教師就曾這樣感悟到：讀書依然是她最主要的休閑方式。她讀了一些專業書籍，努力勾勒為師者的形象；投身教育科

研，做研究性、有靈氣的教師；重朔師生關系，做民主型、有魅力的教師；形成自身風格，做個性化、有才情的教師。她還讀了不少閑書，在文化的浸染中滋養心靈，努力在血液中注入人文關懷，讓生活中充滿情趣和生機。她堅持讀書，因為她覺得做為一名當前社會環境下的職業學校的教師，決不只是機械的備課、上課、批改作業更應該結合當前社會的發展，為專業發展的新需要而廣聞博取，咀嚼經典，接受時尚。

人們總是喜歡把教師看作是“人類靈魂的工程師”，把教育事業比作是“太陽底下最光輝的職業”，無形中確定了教師的工作性質就是要塑造人的靈魂，又把教師的這種工作推到了崇高與偉大的位置上。而這些都應該成為歷史性的認識。因為教育本身就是一項成長中的事業，這種成長，不僅有學生的，也有教師的。教育，不是知識的蔓延、思想的傳遞，更不是按一定的模式去生產一種產品。教育，應該是一種成長影響另一種成長。

二、“教師人生需要感動。感動自己，感動學生，感動家長，感動社會……”

感動是一種情感操練,是一種有益的陶冶，更是繼續教師人生的一份支持。作為一名職業學校的教師，面對著學生從做人品德的提升到能主動去領悟專業知識再到學生的成功就業和就業崗位上的出色表現。我們要不斷的在學生的改變中感動自己。進而把這種感動化作一份繼續教師人生的動力和行動，因為行動是感動的延伸,是我們盡好責任、做好教師的關鍵。在職業學校的教育教學中，很關鍵的一個過程是喚起學生的學習興趣和培養學生學習的堅持力。我們要善于發現學生的興趣點，然后巧妙的切入。比如，學生的某項專業

特長的粗淺愛好，青春期學生的好奇好勝，一次偶然的積極表現等等，都可以讓我們當作一個教育契機，把學生表現出來的一點點積極的傾向演變、擴大成真正的興趣進而穩定成愛好和繼續發展的方向。所以一些豐富的專業實踐活動，比如，一次外出的表演機會，一個被選為禮儀代表的小事等都可以讓我們來變成讓學生感動學生自己的機會。而學生的進步更需要家長的支持和肯定。所以，我們在感動了學生的同時也要創造機會讓家長來重新認識自己的子女。比如把專業演出帶到學生家鄉而帶給家長的那份感動，可以讓我們把在校的一份工作效果擴大到無限。而每一個職業學校的學生的順利工作和工作崗位的突出成績，也很好的達成了職業教育的社會責任。

三、“教師人生需要責任，需要體驗教育的快樂，感受教育的幸福。”

教師人生需要責任，要有以一種對人生負責的態度，對學生負責、對家長負責、對職業負責、對社會負責。使教師人生成為一種信念。可以這樣說，一個教師具有什么樣的思想，也就注定了他有什么樣的教育人生。現在，對于很多老師來說，都很難擺脫生存的壓力和物質利益的誘惑，因而很少關注自己的內心世界，致使很多人思想逐漸萎靡，靈魂日益空虛，在教育路上只剩下忙忙碌碌的空殼。再加之教育理想與教育現實之間殘酷的沖突，也讓更多的老師失去了教育的熱情，產生了教育懈怠的思想、出現了教育倦怠的現象。這樣的教育氛圍，又怎能影響學生具有積極進取的人生態度呢？所以作為我們教師自己，應該主動地去擺脫這種不良情緒的影響，建立自己樂觀向上的人生態度和積極進取的教育思想。而要擺脫眼前的困境，走出心靈的低谷，就要像郭元

詳先生所說，趕快去讀書。因為只有讀書，才能充實我們空洞的大腦，豐盈我們單薄的靈魂，還我們健康的人格。我們在讀書中才能找回從前的夢想，完成真正的自己，用積極的思想譜寫出自己瑰麗的教育人生。楊啟亮教授在一次學術報告會上說，教師的職業境界有四個層次，一是把教育看成是社會對教師角色的規范、要求；二是把教育看作出于職業責任的活動；三是把教育看作是出于職業良心的活動；四是把教育活動當作幸福體驗。教育從根本意義上來說，就是以人為本，關注人的幸福，培養人的生活能力，培養人的幸福能力。教師的最高境界是把教育當作幸福的活動。幸福的教育需要幸福的教師：有了幸福的教師，才可能有幸福的學習，才可能有幸福的學生。當枯燥的概念、專業的表達方式被我們的教師用生命的激情去表達和詮釋的時候，教育顯得如此的獨特、美麗。我們在這樣的經歷中關注著自己教學生命的成長發展，感受著教育理想的生命活力。那滋味，是快樂，是滿足，是成就！

師德建設是當前教育工作的熱點，而且也引起了全社會的廣泛關注。而師德的標準不是唯一的，每一名教師無論是將教育當作一份事業或是將教育當成人生，通過師德建設問題的探討，我們每位教師都能認真的審視自己的教育經歷和行為，對整個教師隊伍的師德狀況，對本人的師德情況引發思考，提高教師師德的境界。同時在教師人事制度改革的今天，我們職業學校更需要一種與學校共甘苦、同發展的“校園精神”！所以在抓師德建設中，進行“愛校”教育也應該是一個重要環節。

最后引用我最欣賞的一句教育名言，作為教師人生的最高境界。和同事們共勉：

教育是事業，事業的成功在于奉獻； 教育是科學，科學的探索在于求真； 教育是藝術，藝術的生命在于創新”

第四篇：高三生物教學案：基因工程

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高三生物教學案：基因工程

班級 姓名

一、基礎填空：

1、基因工程概念

基因工程又叫 或。它是按照人們的意愿，把一種生物的個別基因復制出來，加以修飾改造，然后放到 的細胞里，生物的遺傳性狀。

2、基因的操作工具

（1）基因的剪刀—— 一種限制酶只能識別 特定的核苷酸序列，并在特定的位點切割DNA分子。

（2）基因的針線—— 把兩條DNA末端之間的縫隙“縫合”起來。

（3）基因的運輸工具—— 運載體能夠在宿生細胞中復制并穩定保存，具有多個限制酶切點，具有標記基因。常見的運載體有、、等。

3、基因操作的基本步驟

（1）提取目的基因 有兩條途徑： 和。

（2）目的基因與運載體結合 用 酶處理目的基因和運載體，而后加入DNA連接酶，使目的基因載入到運載體中，形成。（3）將目的基因導入受體細胞 重組DNA導入受體細胞。

（4）目的基因的檢測與表達 根據 判斷目的基因導入與否；根據受體細胞表現出特定的 判斷目的基因的表達與否。

二、單選題：

1．下列不屬于獲取目的基因的方法是 A．“鳥槍法” B．轉錄法 C．反轉錄法 D．根據已知氨基酸序列合成法 2．下列哪項不是基因工程中經常使用的用來運載目的基因的載體

A．細菌質粒

B．噬菌體 C．動植物病毒

D．細菌核區的DNA 3．（2005·全國卷Ⅰ·3）鐮刀型細胞貧血癥的病因是血紅蛋白基因的堿基序列發生了改變。檢測這種堿基序列改變必須使用的酶是（）A、解旋酶 B、DNA連接酶 C、限制性內切酶 D、RNA聚合酶 4．（2005·全國卷Ⅲ·5）科學家通過基因工程的方法，能使馬鈴薯塊莖含有人奶主要蛋白。以下有關基因工程的敘述，錯誤的是（）A、采用反轉錄的方法得到的目的基因有內含子

B、基因非編碼區對于目的基因在塊莖中的表殼是不可缺少的 C、馬鈴薯的葉肉細胞可用為受體細胞

D、用同一種限制酶，分別處理質粒和含目的基因的DNA，可產生粘性末端而形成重組DNA分子 5．有關基因工程的敘述正確的是

A．限制酶只在獲得目的基因時才用 B．重組質粒的形成是在細胞內完成的

C．質粒都可作為運載體 D．蛋白質的結構可為合成目的基因提供資料

6、下列有關基因工程操作的正確順序是（）①目的基因的檢測和表達 ②目的基因與運載體結合 ③將目的基因導入受體細胞 ④提取目的基因 A．①②③④ B.④③②① C.④②③① D.③④②①

7．不屬于質粒被選為基因運載體的理由是（）

A．能復制

B.有多個限制酶切點

C．具有標記基因 D．它是環狀DNA 8．有關基因工程的敘述中，錯誤的是（）楊衛東生物工作室www.aqyz.net/bb A． DNA連接酶將黏性未端的堿基對連接起來 B． 限制性內切酶用于目的基因的獲得 C． 目的基因須由運載體導入受體細胞 D． 人工合成目的基因不用限制性內切酶

9、細菌常常作為基因工程的受體細胞，下列理由較充分的是

（）

A．形體微小 B．結構簡單 C．容易監測 D．繁殖速度快

10、基因工程的“四步曲”中未發生堿基互補配對的是()A．用鳥槍法分離出抗病毒基因

B．將人的胰島素基因與大腸桿菌質粒結合，形成重組質粒 C．將重組質粒導入受體細胞 D．抗病毒基因的表達

11、基因工程又叫DNA重組技術，是在分子水平上對生物的定向改造。以下的敘述中，正 確的是

A．一種限制酶只能識別一種特定的核苷酸序列 B．基因工程所用的工具酶是限制酶、連接酶和運載體 C．限制酶的切口一定是GAATTC堿基序列 D．目的基因就是指重組DNA質粒

（）

三、多選題

12．目前常被使用的基因載體有()A．質粒

B．噬菌體

C．染色體

D．動、植物病毒

13．人們利用基因工程的方法，用大腸桿菌生產人類胰島素，這一過程涉及到（）A．用適當的酶對胰島素基因與運載體進行切割并連接 B．把重組后的DNA分子導入受體細菌內進行擴增 C．檢測重組DNA分子是否導入受體細菌內并表達出性狀 D．篩選出能產生胰島素的“工程菌”

14．科學家已能運用基因工程技術，讓羊合成并分泌抗體。相關敘述不正確的是（）A．該技術將導致定向的變異 B．受精卵是理想的受體細胞

C．垂體分泌的催乳素能促進效應B細胞產生抗體 D．采用鳥槍法法獲得目的基因

15、下列關于基因工程的說法正確的是（）A.基因工程的設計和施工都是在分子水平上進行的

B.目前基因工程中所有的目的基因都是從供體細胞直接分離得到的 C.基因工程能使科學家打破物種界限，定向地改造生物性狀

D.只要檢測出受體細胞中含有目的基因，那么目的基因一定能成功地進行表達

四、非選擇題

16．（2005·江蘇生物·38）在植物基因工程中，用土壤農桿菌中的Ti質粒作為運載體．把目的基因重組人Ti質粒上的T-DNA片段中，再將重組的T-DNA插入植物細胞的染色體DNA中。

(1)科學家在進行上述基因操作時，要用同一種 分別切割質粒和目的基因，質粒的黏性末端與目的基因DNA片段的黏性末端就可通過 而黏合。

(2)將攜帶抗除草劑基因的重組Ti質粒導入二倍體油菜細胞，經培養、篩選獲得一株有抗除草劑特性的轉基因植株。經分析，該植株含有一個攜帶目的基因的T-DNA片段，因此可以把它看作是雜合子。理論 楊衛東生物工作室www.aqyz.net/bb 上，在該轉基因植株自交F1代中，仍具有抗除草劑特性的植株占總數的，原因是。

(3)種植上述轉基因油菜，它所攜帶的目的基因可以通過花粉傳遞給近緣物種，造成“基因污染”。如果把目的基因導人葉綠體DNA中，就可以避免“基因污染”，原因是。

17、在藥品生產中，有些藥品如干擾素，白細胞介素，凝血因子等，以前主要是從生物體的組織、細胞或血液中提取的，由于受原料來源限制，價價十分昂貴，而且產量低，臨床供應明顯不足。自70年代遺傳工程發展起來以后，人們逐步地在人體內發現了相應的目的基因，使之與質粒形成重組DNA，并以重組DNA引入大腸桿菌，最后利用這些工程菌，可以高效率地生產出上述各種高質量低成本的藥品，請分析回答：

（1）在基因工程中，質粒是一種最常用的，它廣泛地存在于細菌細胞中，是一種很小的環狀 分子。

（2）在用目的基因與質粒形成重組DNA過程中，一般要用到的工具酶 是 和。

（3）將含有“某激素基因”的質粒導入細菌細胞后，能在細菌細胞內直接合成“某激素”，則該激素在細菌體內的合成包括 和 兩個階段。

（4）在將質粒導入細菌時，一般要用 處理細菌，以增大。

18、中國青年科學家陳炬成功地把人的抗病毒干擾素基因“嫁接”到煙草的DNA分子上，使煙草獲得了抗病毒能力，試分析：

（1）陳炬的“嫁接”技術稱為___________。

（2）人的基因能接到植物體內，其物質基礎是__________________________。

（3）煙草有了抗病毒能力，這表明煙草體內“嫁接”的基因經___________產生了___________。這個事實說明：人和植物共用一套___________，且蛋白質的合成方式__________________。

19.干擾素是治療癌癥的重要藥物，它必須從血中提取，每升人血只能提取0.05 μg，所以價格昂貴。現在美國加利福尼亞的基因公司用如下圖的方式生產干擾素，試分析其原理和優點。

（1）從人的淋巴細胞中取出___________，使它同細菌質粒相結合，然后移植到酵母菌的細胞里，讓酵母菌__________________。

（2）酵母菌能用___________繁殖，速度很快，能大量生產___________，不但提高了產量，也降低了成本。

（3）酵母菌能產生干擾素，這個事實說明，人和酵母菌共用一套___________。

19、豇豆對多種害蟲具有抗蟲能力，根本原因是豇豆體內具有胰蛋白酶抑制劑基因（CpTI基因）。科學家將其轉移到水稻體內后，卻發現效果不理想，主要原因是CpTI蛋白質的積累量不足。經過在體外對CpTI基因進行了修飾后，CpTI蛋白質在水稻中的積累量就得到了提高。修飾和表達過程如下圖所示：

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請根據以上材料，回答下列問題：

⑴CpTI基因是基因工程中的 基因，“信號肽”序列及“內質網滯留信號”序列的基本組成單位是

，在①過程中，首先要用

酶切開，暴露出

，再用

酶連接。

⑵在轉基因過程中，供體細胞是

，受體細胞是

。⑶②過程稱為。

⑷檢測修飾后的CpTI基因是否表達的最好方法是。

基因工程答案

（一）基因工程的基本內容

1、基因工程概念

基因工程又叫基因拼接技術或DNA重組技術。它是按照人們的意愿，把一種生物的個別基因復制出來，加以修飾改造，然后放到另一種生物的細胞里，定向地改造生物的遺傳性狀。

2、基因的操作工具

（1）基因的剪刀——限制性內切酶 一種限制酶只能識別一種特定的核苷酸序列，并在特定的位點切割DNA分子。

（2）基因的針線——DNA連接酶 把兩條DNA末端之間的縫隙“縫合”起來。

（3）基因的運輸工具——運載體 運載體能夠在宿生細胞中復制并穩定保存，具有多個限制酶切點，具有標記基因。常見的運載體有質粒，噬菌體、動植物病毒等。

3、基因操作的基本步驟

（1）提取目的基因 有兩條途徑：直接分離基因和人工合成基因。

（2）目的基因與運載體結合 用同一限制酶處理目的基因和運載體，而后加入DNA連接酶，使目的基因載入到運載體中，形成重組DNA。

（3）將目的基因導入受體細胞 重組DNA導入受體細胞。

（4）目的基因的檢測與表達 根據標記基因判斷目的基因導入與否；根據受體細胞表現出特定的性狀判斷目的基因的表達與否。

二、單選題：BDAAD CDADC A

三、多選題 12ABD 13ABCD 14CD 15AC

四、非選擇題

16．(1)限制性內切酶，堿基互補配對。

(2)3/4，雌雄配子各有1／2含抗除草劑基因；受精時，雌雄配于隨機結合。

(3)原因是 葉綠體遺傳表現為母系遺傳，目的基因不會通過花粉傳遞麗在下一代中顯現出來。

17、（1）基因的運載體 DNA 楊衛東生物工作室www.aqyz.net/bb（2）限制性內切酶 DNA連接酶（3）轉錄 翻譯

（4）氯化鈣 細菌細胞壁的通透性

18、（1）基因工程（2）人和植物的遺傳物質DNA結構基本相同（3）轉錄和翻譯 抗干擾素 遺傳密碼 基本相同

19、（1）干擾素基因 合成干擾素（2）出芽生殖 干擾素（3）遺傳密碼

20、⑴目的四種脫氧核苷酸

限制性內切酶

黏性末端

DNA連接

⑵豇豆

水稻

⑶轉錄 ⑷讓多種害蟲食用水稻葉片

第五篇：高三生物教學案封面

高三生物試題集

班級：_______________ 姓名：_______________ 把簡單的事情做到極致便是奇跡

淺談高三生物復習方法與技巧

生物學科屬于自然科學，也是基礎教育必修的一門學科。然而由于受中考與高考指揮棒的影響，一些學校為了片面追求升學率，生物學科的教學在中學往往沒有得到足夠的重視。因為初中生物不屬于中考科目，許多初中學校的生物課基本屬于走過場，往往是在會考前劃出一定的范圍或指定幾套練習讓學生死記硬背。進入高中，由于高中生物無論從知識的深度還是廣度上，都與初中生物有很大的不同，所以相當一部分同學學習生物比較困難。筆者從事高三畢業班的生物教學多年，親眼所見一些學生學習生物的被動與苦惱。其實，高三生物復習并不是雜亂無章的，以下是老師們的一些體會，其中提到的方法和技巧可供同學們借鑒。

一、幾種錯誤認識和做法

1.很多人說生物是理科中的文科，學生物背背書就行。學生物，的確要背書，但如果要真正學好生物，單靠死記硬背是絕不可能的。

2.有些學生不重視基礎知識，上課不喜歡聽老師講課，也不愿看書，更不愿對教材中基本概念、規律加以理解，在平時的課堂上總是一味地忙著做題，希望通過做題來熟悉相應的知識點。這種做法其實是不利于生物成績全面提高的。

3.部分學生一進入高三的復習，就急于做套題(各地模擬題)，其實這也是不好的。因為此時學生對知識的掌握不系統不完整，還不具備做高考模擬題的能力。各地模擬題往往是按高考的標準來命制的，它對學生的能力要求比較高，而我們學生各方面綜合能力的形成還有一個過程。所以，在第一輪復習過程中，最好是跟著老師的進度，做相應的考點訓練。

4.相當一部分學生沒有養成做題的良好習慣，喜歡把參考答案放在一邊，只要不會，馬上就看答案，不愿意更深層次地去思考問題。很多學生題做了一大堆，能力并沒有提高，就是這個原因。

二、根據生物學科的特點，掌握科學的學習方法

1.掌握規律。規律是事物本身固有的本質的必然聯系。生物有自身的規律，如結構與功能相適應，局部與整體相統一，生物與環境相協調，以及生物從簡單到復雜、從低等到高等、從水生到陸生的進化過程等。掌握這些規律將有助于生物知識的理解與運用，如學習線粒體就抓結構與功能相適應：①線粒體外膜，將其與細胞周圍分隔開，使有氧呼吸集中在一定區域內進行；②內膜向內折疊形成嵴，擴大了膜面積，有利于與有氧呼吸有關的酶在其上有規律地分布，使各步反應高效有序地進行（有氧呼吸第三階段）；③內膜圍成的腔內有基質，基質中也有酶的分布，有酶促反應進行（有氧呼吸第二階段）；④由于有氧呼吸第一階段不在線粒體中進行，因而線粒體是有氧呼吸的主要場所。．．2.突破難點。有些知識比較復雜，或是過于抽象，同學們學起來感到有困難，這時就應化難為易，設法突破難點。通常采用的方法有以下兩種：

(1)復雜問題簡單化。生物知識中，有許多難點存在于生命活動的復雜過程中，難以全面準確地掌握，而將復雜問題簡單化能使知識一目了然。例如人體體溫的調節，我們只要抓住健康人產熱與散熱要達到動態平衡就很容易掌握要點。產熱的機制可以有骨骼肌戰栗(收縮)，代謝加強則依賴甲狀腺激素和腎上腺素分泌增加來調節；散熱則與皮膚毛細血管和汗腺有關。在分析的過程中，學生很容易體會到體溫的調節是一個神經——體液的調節過程。

(2)抽象問題形象化。有些知識，與現實聯系少，理解起來困難。這時，要盡量借助某種方式，使之與實際聯系起來，便于理解。比如，有絲分裂和減數分裂的學習，一直是一些學生覺得非常抽象的。如果我們能以2對同源染色體為例獨立畫出各時期的圖形，我想關于圖像的識別、染色體、染色單體的數量變化和各時期主要特征的有關知識，應該就不在話下了。因此，學習生物常常需借助圖形、表格、模型、標本、錄像等形象化的手段來幫助理解一些抽象的知識。

3.歸納總結。在生物第一輪的復習過程中，老師一般都是按教材的順序將知識分塊學習。但當學完一部分內容之后，就應該把分散在課本不同章節的分塊的知識聯系起來，歸納整理成系統的知識。這樣不僅可以在腦子里形成完整的知識結構，而且也便于理解和記憶。歸納總結要做到“三抓”：一抓順序，二抓聯系，三抓重點。抓順序就是要將各知識點按照本身的邏輯關系將其串聯。抓聯系就是要掌握各知識點之間的內在聯系，理清點線的縱橫關系，由線到面，擴展成知識網絡。抓重點就是抓主流，進行歸納總結，不能大雜燴，胡子眉毛一把抓。

4.圖表過關。生物圖表題是一種難度大，靈活性強，知識覆蓋面廣，能力要求較高的綜合性試題。特別是非選擇題中的圖表作答題，許多學生感到十分棘手，這其中除了與基礎知識不扎實有關外，更重要的是沒有掌握運用好一種科學的思維方法。教材中有大量的圖表，這些圖表在課后復習時應很好地利用。我們可以嘗試著先將課本中所有的圖表題過關，再結合參考資料上的圖表題專門訓練。非選擇題生物圖表題的一般解法歸納為“審題、定點、作答”3個步驟。審題就是要讀懂題目，弄清楚題意。定點就是在審題的基礎上，確定題目所涉及到的課本中的知識點。作答是在審題、定點的基礎上，做出與題目要求觀點一致的答案，前兩步是對生物圖表題的分析，此步驟則是對分析的結果進行說明，即進行文字表達，它要求科學準確，言簡意賅，要引導學生運用相關的專業術語來答題。還要注意文字表達的角度與題干保持一致，密切相關，否則就會出現文不對題的情況。

5.學以致用。生物學是一門與生產和生活聯系非常緊密的科學。我們在復習生物學知識時，應該注意理解科學技術和社會（STS）之間的相互關系，理解所學知識的社會價值，并且運用所學的生物學知識去解釋一些現象、解決一些問題。近幾年的廣東高考題越來越接近生產生活實際，許多材料選自平常老百姓的日常生活。在命題材料的選擇上，往往以社會熱點問題切入，所以熱點要引起足夠的重視，如生態農業、環境污染、能源問題、全球氣候問題（關注哥本哈根會議）等。

三、從小處著手，重視能力培養

1.學會“看”

高考題目千變萬化，但 “題在書外，理在書中”。在復習中，要認真閱讀課本，對課本的核心知識要達到“滾瓜爛熟”的地步。此外還要注意以下幾方面的內容，一是旁文即教材旁邊提供的小資料或小問題，這些都是對教材內容的補充。在看書時加以關注，一方面有利于拓展知識面，另一方面有利于把握重點；其次是教材中的插圖，有模型，有坐標曲線，也有示意圖，這些不僅是高考直接考察的內容，而且也是幫助學生加強理解的輔助工具；然后是課后的閱讀資料，這部分一般不做考試要求，但是這些課外閱讀資料與正文有一定聯系，關注之后有利于幫助學生理解正文，事實上，考試題目的背景有時候也會采用這些材料。

2.學會“聽”

聽課聽什么？要聽老師分析本節課的重點、難點、考點和疑點；聽自己在預習過程中所未能理解的內容；聽老師對相關問題（或習題）是如何分析的。不僅要認真聽，還要做好必要的筆記。筆記如何做也有一定的講究，有些同學喜歡將老師的板書一字不漏地記下來，其實大可不必。我們只要將老師補充的一些重要的知識點、結論做一些筆記，對于習題也只需記一些主要的分析過程，課后再進行必要的完善即可；萬萬不可顧此失彼，因為忙著做筆記而忽略了聽課。

3.學會“說”

課堂上對一些問題的分析和解決，不要總是依靠于老師的講。有些同學習慣于老師的滿堂灌，不喜歡自己整理知識和組織語言，這就很難將知識的理解上升到一定的高度。每一位同學都應該積極思考，我怎么解決這個問題？這種思維方法好嗎？哪種表達更為準確？所以在課堂上要敢于大膽表述自己的觀點，提高自己的語言表達能力。

4.學會“練”

對于某一部分知識點的掌握情況，光會聽和會看還不行，還需要通過一定的習題來鞏固。一般建議大家在老師的推薦下選擇合適的復習資料，但同學們萬萬不要陷入“題海”，要掌握好訓練的“度”。在訓練過程中，建議大家準備一個錯題本，將典型的錯題整理到錯題集上，做錯的題目實際上是寶貴的資源，能夠提醒你在以后的復習中避免出錯。

5.學會“思”

古語云：“學而不思則罔，思而不學則殆”。此言提醒我們在學習的過程中要經常進行反思。其實，學習生物知識最關鍵的是學會其中的學科思想和答題方法，學會思維。因而，同學們在看書或做題時，要多想為什么？是否還有其他的方法或表述？此類習題有何規律？在反思中提高自己的生物思維模式和答題能力。

6.學會“調”

整個高三的復習都是緊張有序的，整個過程伴隨著大大小小的考試，伴隨著學校、家庭的期望與個人價值的實現，而最終都要通過考試體現出來。高考是對一個考生知識與技能、方法與心理等各項綜合素質全方位的考查，要想力挫群雄，六月折桂，除掌握必備的知識、技能、方法外，心理素質也是高考成敗的重要因素之一。要做到在高考時沉著應考，處驚不變，在加強解題訓練的同時，應加強心理訓練。

總之，高考本身就是一門綜合的藝術，需要大家在復習過程中不斷領悟。而生物的學習雖無定法，但有章可循。只要我們遵循認知的規律，善于歸納小結，看練結合，用心體會，就一定能找到一套適合自己的學習方法。