第一篇：中西方商務(wù)禮儀差異

武漢紡織大學(xué)外經(jīng)貿(mào)學(xué)院

商務(wù)禮儀（小論文）

課題名稱：

完成期限： 2013年10月01日至 2013年10月31日

學(xué)院名稱 外經(jīng)貿(mào)學(xué)院專業(yè)班級(jí) 工商管理21102 學(xué)生姓名 江 津 學(xué) 號(hào) 1014221075 指導(dǎo)教師 陳曉燕 指導(dǎo)教師職稱 副教授 學(xué)院領(lǐng)導(dǎo)小組組長簽字

緒論?????????????????????????????????1

一、商務(wù)禮儀的內(nèi)涵??????????????????????????2

（一）禮貌????????????????????????????2

（二）禮節(jié)????????????????????????????2

二、中西語言文化差異?????????????????????????3

（一）中西方禮尚交往的區(qū)別????????????????????3

（二）不同文化背景下的商務(wù)禮儀??????????????????3

三、中西方文化背景的差異???????????????????????3

（一）交際語言的差異???????????????????????4

（二）餐飲禮儀的差異???????????????????????4

（三）中西方服飾禮儀的差異????????????????????4 結(jié)論?????????????????????????????????5 參考文獻(xiàn)???????????????????????????????6

緒論

中國一向是禮儀之邦，禮儀對(duì)每個(gè)中國人來說是非常重要的，無論是會(huì)見親朋好友或者是在人與人的打交道上，都離不開禮儀。禮儀被認(rèn) 為是一個(gè)人道德修養(yǎng)的表現(xiàn)，一個(gè)人若毫無禮儀可言，那么他在學(xué)習(xí)或工作時(shí)都將不會(huì)很順利，因?yàn)闆]有人愿意和這樣一個(gè)人相處。如今隨著世界經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展，特別是全球經(jīng)濟(jì)一體化的不斷形成，各國間的聯(lián)系加強(qiáng)，商務(wù)往來增多，如何才能在眾多企業(yè)中脫穎而出，除了需要卓越的能力外，還要掌握有效溝通及妥善人際關(guān)系，建立良好優(yōu)雅的企業(yè)形象，此時(shí)，商務(wù)禮儀便起到了一個(gè)十分重要的作用。商務(wù)禮儀顧名思義就是商務(wù)活動(dòng)中對(duì)人的儀容儀表和言談舉止的普遍要求，體現(xiàn)了人與人之間的相互尊重，同時(shí)也約束了商務(wù)活動(dòng)中的某些方面。而在商務(wù)往來中，任何一個(gè)表現(xiàn)都可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致意想不到的結(jié)果，也許是一塊手表，也許是一頓晚餐。學(xué)習(xí)商務(wù)禮儀最主要的是可以提高個(gè)人的素養(yǎng)。比爾蓋茨曾講過，企業(yè)競爭，是員工素質(zhì)的競爭，進(jìn)而到企業(yè)，就是企業(yè)形象的競爭，教養(yǎng)體現(xiàn)細(xì)節(jié)，細(xì)節(jié)展示素質(zhì)。可見一個(gè)人的素養(yǎng)高低對(duì)企業(yè)的發(fā)展是多么重要啊！其次是為了交際應(yīng)酬，因?yàn)樯虅?wù)活動(dòng)中畢竟是離不開這個(gè)的，在不同的交往活動(dòng)中我們會(huì)遇到不同的人，而面對(duì)不同的人怎樣進(jìn)行交往也是一門藝術(shù)，如何讓人感到舒服，卻又沒有拍馬屁的嫌疑是非常關(guān)鍵的。最后便是有助于維護(hù)企業(yè)形象。在商務(wù)交往中，個(gè)人便代表了整體，個(gè)人的所作所為，一舉一動(dòng)，一言一行，就是企業(yè)的典型活體廣告。

東西方商務(wù)禮儀的差異

一、商務(wù)禮儀的涵義

商務(wù)禮儀是指在商務(wù)活動(dòng)中的禮儀規(guī)范和準(zhǔn)則。它是一般禮儀在商務(wù)活動(dòng)中的運(yùn)用和體現(xiàn)，在內(nèi)容上比一般的人際交往禮儀更為豐富。同一般的人際交往禮儀相比，商務(wù)禮儀具有很強(qiáng)的規(guī)范性和可操作性，并且與商務(wù)組織的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益密切相關(guān)。商務(wù)禮儀具體表現(xiàn)為禮貌、禮節(jié)、儀表、儀式等方面。

（一）禮貌

禮貌是指人們在商務(wù)活動(dòng)中展現(xiàn)出來的得體的風(fēng)度和風(fēng)范。禮貌是禮的行為規(guī)范，是指人在儀容、儀表、儀態(tài)、語言和動(dòng)作上待人接物的表現(xiàn)。禮貌主要通過言語和動(dòng)作表現(xiàn)對(duì)他人的謙虛和恭敬，它是一個(gè)人文化層次和文明程度的體現(xiàn)。良好的教養(yǎng)和道德品質(zhì)是禮貌的基礎(chǔ)，我們可以通過自覺的培養(yǎng)和必要的訓(xùn)練，養(yǎng)成良好的禮貌習(xí)慣。在日常生活和工作環(huán)境中，習(xí)慣的微笑、主動(dòng)打招呼、善意的問候、得體的舉止等都是禮貌的反映。商務(wù)交往中有禮貌的人往往熱情大方、待人謙恭、行為舉止得體，顯得很有教養(yǎng)。在商務(wù)會(huì)面時(shí)，他會(huì)自覺地向?qū)Ψ絾柡茫兄乱舛Y或握手禮，說話彬彬有禮，一切禮儀的運(yùn)用看上去自然和諧。

（二）禮節(jié)

禮節(jié)是指人們在社會(huì)交往過程中表示出的尊重、祝頌、問候、哀悼等慣用的形式和規(guī)范。禮節(jié)是禮的慣用形式，是禮貌的具體表現(xiàn)方式。比如現(xiàn)代商務(wù)交往中，初次見面要行握手禮、交換名片等禮節(jié)。禮節(jié)從形式上看，具有嚴(yán)格規(guī)定的儀式；從內(nèi)容上看，它反映著某種道德原則，反映著對(duì)人的尊重和友善。在行握手禮時(shí)，長輩、上級(jí)、女士先伸手，晚輩、下級(jí)、男士才能伸手相握；交換名片時(shí)一般是地位低的先向地位高的遞名片，對(duì)方人員較多時(shí)，先 將名片給職務(wù)高或年齡大的，分不清職務(wù)時(shí)，按照座次遞送名片，這都是禮節(jié)。在國際交往中，由于各國的風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣和文化的不同，禮節(jié)的具體表達(dá)具有明顯的差異。例如，握手、點(diǎn)頭、擁抱、鞠躬、合十、碰鼻子、折肚皮等，都是禮節(jié)的表現(xiàn)形式，而且不同國家、地區(qū)和民族的表達(dá)形式不同。禮節(jié)是社會(huì)交往中人與人之間約定俗成的“法”，是必須遵守的表示禮儀的一種慣用形式。因此，我們平時(shí)應(yīng)十分注重不同禮節(jié)的具體運(yùn)用，以避免出現(xiàn)“失禮”行為而影響商務(wù)活動(dòng)的進(jìn)行。

二、中西語言文化差異

（一）中西方禮尚交往的區(qū)別

近代歷史上有兩則故事，相信大家會(huì)比較熟悉。故事一是：李鴻章曾應(yīng)俾斯麥之邀前往赴宴，由于不懂西餐禮儀，把一碗吃水果后洗手的水喝了。當(dāng)時(shí)俾斯麥不了解中國的虛實(shí)，為了不使李鴻章丟丑，他也將洗手水一飲而盡，見此情景，其他文武百官只能忍笑奉陪。還有一個(gè)故事是：一個(gè)國民黨軍官攜夫人去機(jī)場迎接來自美國的顧問。雙方見面后，美國顧問出于禮貌說:“您的夫人真漂亮!”軍官甚感尷尬又不免客套一番：“哪里，哪里!”在中國，這本是一句很普通的客套話，可是蹩腳的翻譯卻把這句話譯成：where?where?美國顧問聽了莫明其妙，心想：我只是禮貌地稱贊一下他的夫人，他居然問起我他的夫人哪里漂亮?于是他只好說：“從頭到腳都漂亮!”這兩個(gè)故事都是由于中西文化差異鬧出的禮儀上的笑話。通過以上兩則小故事可體現(xiàn)出：了解中西方禮尚交往之間的習(xí)慣差異是很有必要的。往大處來說，一個(gè)國家無論是在政治上，還是在經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易中，了解對(duì)方國家的禮儀習(xí)慣，將有利于各國之間的交往。從小處來講，一個(gè)人了解對(duì)方的禮儀民間習(xí)慣，是對(duì)對(duì)方的尊重，容易給對(duì)方留下一個(gè)好印象，以便交往的順利進(jìn)行。隨著東西方文化的不斷發(fā)展，東西方的禮儀正在相互融合，西方人逐漸地接受了東方文化中重情感等合理因素，東方人也逐漸地接受了西方文化中先進(jìn)文明的禮儀和交往方式。

（二）不同文化背景下的商務(wù)禮儀

跨國商務(wù)活動(dòng)中,不同文化背景下的理解和溝通是極其重要的。人們在進(jìn)行跨文化交流時(shí),很容易出現(xiàn)誤解。雖然將一種語言翻譯成另外一種語言時(shí),基本上可以直接而準(zhǔn)確傳達(dá)信息,但是實(shí)踐中也出現(xiàn)過因語言差異而造成國際商務(wù)活動(dòng)失敗的案例。例如,百事可樂公司的“七-UP”(七喜)牌汽水在上海一直銷路不暢,經(jīng)過調(diào)查才發(fā)現(xiàn),這個(gè)品牌用上海方言來說即為“去死”,上海人當(dāng)然是不會(huì)去買這“去死”牌汽水了。再比如,法國雪佛萊汽車公司對(duì)“諾瓦”牌轎車在拉美地區(qū)的銷售狀況很是沮喪,隨后才發(fā)現(xiàn)該品牌在西班牙語中的意思是“不

走”。最終,雪佛萊公司只好改變銷往拉美國家的汽車品牌。

所以從種種生活中的小例子可體現(xiàn)出：所以說,對(duì)商務(wù)活動(dòng)中難以理解事情的分析,從文化背景角度上考慮往往能得出正確的結(jié)論。與其他領(lǐng)域相比,許多國家的商界對(duì)跨文化活動(dòng) 較為敏感。來自《1995國家競爭報(bào)告》的研究顯示,對(duì)跨國文化的理解程度最高的是瑞士,其下依次是新加坡、荷蘭、馬來西亞和瑞典,中國排在墨西哥之后列第十六位。在跨越文化鴻溝時(shí),要有一雙傾聽的耳朵,敞開理解的胸懷,這樣雙方的溝通才不是一件難事。

三、中西方文化背景的差異

（一）交際語言的差異

日常打招呼，中國人大多使用“吃了嗎？”“上哪呢？”等等，這體現(xiàn)了人與人之間的一種親切感。可對(duì)西方人來說，這種打招呼的方式會(huì)令對(duì)方感到突然、尷尬，甚至不快，因?yàn)槲鞣饺藭?huì)把這種問話理解成為一種“盤問”，感到對(duì)方在詢問他們的私生活。在西方，日常打招呼他們只說一聲“Hello”或按時(shí)間來分，說聲“早上好！”“下午好！”“晚上好！”就可以了。而英國人見面會(huì)說：“今天天氣不錯(cuò)啊！”

（二）餐飲禮儀的差異

中國人有句話叫“民以食為天”，由此可見飲食在中國人心目中的地位，因此中國人將吃飯看作頭等大事。中國菜注重菜肴色、香、味、形、意俱全，甚至于超過了對(duì)營養(yǎng)的注重，只要好吃又要好看，營養(yǎng)反而顯得不重要了。西方的飲食比較講究營養(yǎng)的搭配和吸收，是一種科學(xué)的飲食觀念。西方人多注重食物的營養(yǎng)而忽略了食物的色、香、味、形、意如何，他們的飲食多是為了生存和健康，似乎不講究味的享受。

在餐飲氛圍方面，中國人在吃飯的時(shí)候都喜歡熱鬧，很多人圍在一起吃吃喝喝，說說笑笑，大家在一起營造一種熱鬧溫暖的用餐氛圍。除非是在很正式的宴會(huì)上，中國人在餐桌上并沒有什么很特別的禮儀。而西方人在用餐時(shí)，都喜歡幽雅、安靜的環(huán)境，他們認(rèn)為在餐桌上的時(shí)候一定要注意自己的禮儀，不可以失去禮節(jié)，比如在進(jìn)餐時(shí)不能發(fā)出很難聽的聲音。

（三）中西方服飾禮儀的差異

古今中外，著裝從來都體現(xiàn)著一種社會(huì)文化，體現(xiàn)著一個(gè)人的文化修養(yǎng)和審美情趣，是一個(gè)人的身份、氣質(zhì)、內(nèi)在素質(zhì)的無言的介紹信。從某種意義上說，服飾是一門藝術(shù)，服飾所能傳達(dá)的情感與意蘊(yùn)甚至不是用語言所能替代的。在不同場合，穿著得體、適度的人，給人留下良好的印象，而穿著不當(dāng)，則會(huì)降低人的身份，損害自身的形象。在社交場合，得體的服飾是一種禮貌，一定程度上直接影響著人際關(guān)系的和諧。影響著裝效果的因素，重要的一是要有文化修養(yǎng)和高雅的審美能力，即所謂“腹有詩書氣自華”。二是要有運(yùn)動(dòng)健美的素質(zhì)。健美的形體是著裝美的天然條件。三是要掌握著裝的常識(shí)、著裝原則和服飾禮儀的知識(shí)，這是達(dá)到內(nèi)外和諧統(tǒng)一美的不可或缺的條件。西方人注重身份，把衣服變成象征，中國注重韻味。如果說西方服飾文化刻意追求表現(xiàn)人體美，而完全忽視了服飾倫理，那么，中國服飾文化由于受到傳統(tǒng)的倫理價(jià)值觀念的影響還或多或少地保留著一些道德上的體統(tǒng)。而最能代表我們國家的是中山裝，西方代表裝是西裝。

結(jié) 論

商務(wù)禮儀乃商務(wù)人員交往之藝術(shù)，只有在商務(wù)交往中做到“約束自己，尊重他人”才能使商務(wù)活動(dòng)在更輕松更愉快地氛圍中順利進(jìn)行。可以說，正確運(yùn)用商務(wù)禮儀既是一個(gè)人內(nèi)在修養(yǎng)和素質(zhì)的外在表現(xiàn)，又是企業(yè)展示形象，塑造企業(yè)文化的一種藝術(shù)。因此，只有正確掌握商務(wù)禮儀才能有助于提高我們自身素質(zhì)修養(yǎng)。從而，更好改善人際關(guān)系，通過自身良好的禮儀展示，樹立良好的企業(yè)形象。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1] 汪洪梅.禮儀在商務(wù)活動(dòng)中的作用分析[J]；科技信息(學(xué)術(shù)研究)2007(33)[2] 呂維霞.現(xiàn)代商務(wù)禮儀及其發(fā)展的新特點(diǎn)[J]國際商務(wù);對(duì)外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)報(bào) 2004(03)[3] 郭 華.淺談商務(wù)禮儀在商務(wù)活動(dòng)中的作用[J]；黑龍江科技信息 2009(26)

第二篇：淺談中西方商務(wù)禮儀的差異

2016屆畢業(yè)論文

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畢 業(yè) 論 文（設(shè) 計(jì)）

中文題目：淺談中西方商務(wù)禮儀的差異

外文題目:Comparison between Chinese and Western Business Etiquette

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摘要

商務(wù)禮儀是商務(wù)活動(dòng)中的行為規(guī)范，它是一門行為科學(xué)，在商務(wù)交往中扮演著重要的角色,了解中西方的禮儀及其差異對(duì)促進(jìn)國際間商務(wù)交往的順利進(jìn)行有著舉足輕重的作用。隨著中國在國際交往的角色發(fā)生改變，中國的對(duì)外交流和合作日益頻繁，國際地位越來越明顯，國際間的交往，尤其是和西方國家的商務(wù)交往就更應(yīng)該規(guī)范化、禮儀化。本文主要介紹了中西方禮儀在問候，拜訪，談判，等方面表現(xiàn)出的不同的形態(tài)，并從文化背景的不同，價(jià)值取向的差異，宗教信仰的影響等方面分析了影響中西方商務(wù)禮儀差異的因素。最后得出“和而不同”的態(tài)度對(duì)待中西方文化差異,將二者合理有效的融合，方能建立適合中國當(dāng)代社會(huì)的禮儀文化體系，達(dá)成和諧社會(huì)的理想。

摘要：商務(wù)禮儀；差異；商務(wù)交往

i

Abstract

Business etiquette, a behavior science, is the norms in the business activities, which plays an important role in the business communication.Understanding Chinese and western etiquette and their distinctions is of great importance in promoting international business exchanges.With the changing role, China played in the international exchanges, We communicate and cooperate frequently with foreigners.It is the notable position that makes us have a more normative and courteous criteria in the international business communication especially in the business activities with westerners.This paper mainly introduces the different forms of Chinese and Western etiquette reflected in greeting,visiting,negotiation etc, and analyzed the factors that affect the difference of etiquette between East and West Only have a clear understanding of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western etiquette and merge them reasonably effectively,can we build the cultural system etiquette that is suitable for Chinese contemporary society, and achieve the ideal of harmonious society

Key words : business etiquette;distinction;business exchange

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Contents

摘要 ………………........……………………………………………………………...............i Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………..................ii Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..............….1 Chapter One : Definition and Characteristics of Business Etiquette ………………....….........2

1.1 Honesty and tolerance......................................................................................................2

1.2 The principle of moderate equality..................................................................................2

1.3 The principle of sincerity and respect..............................................................................3

1.4 Self-confidence and self-discipline..................................................................................3

Chapter Two : Comparison of Business Etiquette between Chinese and Westerners...............4

2.1 Comparison of Etiquette for Business Greeting.............................................................4 2.1.1 Forms of Address........................................................................................................4

2.1.2 Position titles...........................................................................................................4 2.1.3 Professional title.........................................................................................................4 2.1.4 Nonverbal Greetings...................................................................................................5

2.2 Comparison in Etiquette for Business Visiting................................................................5

2.3 Comparison of Etiquette for Business Negotiation.........................................................6 2.3.1 Comparison of negotiation strategies.........................................................................7 2.3.2.Comparison of Negotiation decisions.......................................................................7 2.3.3 Comparison of the Negotiation goal..........................................................................8 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................9 Works Cited……………………………………………………….........................................10 Acknowledgment ………………………………………………………………....................11

Introduction

Business etiquette is a code of conduct, which embodies mutual respect in the day-to-day business activities.It is also the norms for people who is engaged in commercial activities and business communications, in other words, how to master basic business activities, so you can meet the requirements for business;how to make yourself familiar with the norms and disclose your dignified demeanor;how to avoid the embarrassing questions you encountered : such as dress wrong ,dining at a loss;how to eliminate a small matter ,which will have the unexpected negative image to the individuals or companies.Only have you know some Chinese knowledge and English etiquette all these problems can be easily solved.Therefore business etiquette helps to create good personal image and corporate image.Business etiquette is made up of significantly more important things than just knowing which fork to use at lunch with a client.Unfortunately, in the perception of others, the devil is in the details.People may feel that if you can't be trusted not to embarrass yourself in business and social situations, you may lack the self-control necessary to be good at what you do.Etiquette is about presenting yourself with the kind of polish that shows you can be taken seriously.Etiquette is also about being comfortable around people(and making them comfortable around you)

People are a key factor in your own and your business' success.Many potentially worthwhile and profitable alliances have been lost because of an unintentional breach of manners.Dan McLeod, president of Positive Management Leadership Programs, a union avoidance company, says, “Show me a boss who treats his or her employees abrasively, and I'll show you an environment ripe for labor problems and obviously poor customers relations.Disrespectful and discourteous treatment of employees is passed along from the top.”(Dan McLeod：2008)Which strongly emphasize the importance of courtesy, therefore , it’s necessary to know etiquette, especially the business etiquette.Chapter One The Definition and Characteristics of Business Etiquette

As regional and historical reasons, understandings of people from different regions and ethnic varies , as the development of whole world.Chinese people have attached great importance to the foreigners , especially the westerners ,trading between the two regions is becoming more and more frequent ,establishing good relations with western people is of great importance ,therefore ,knowing the business etiquette is essential.As China's reform and opening up the pace accelerated, people’s living and working in foreign exchanges increased.Understanding the content of foreign-related rituals and requirements, and mastering the skills of contacts with foreigners is particularly important.In the business occasions , how to make business etiquette effect completely and how to create the best interpersonal relationships is closely related to the principles of business etiquette , which can be concluded into four aspects: 1.1 honesty and tolerance

Honesty stresses the principle of credibility , Confucius , a great philosopher ,made the statement : people can’t live without credit , if you affiliate with your friends,honesty should be laid in the first place;Which also emphasize the principle of keeping promises.Trustworthiness is the virtue of the Chinese nation , in particular ,it is necessary to stress punctuality , and people should not delay when they go to the fixed appointments, meetings , talks and conferences, etc.One should not make promise so easily ,unless you are really sure about it ,or else you would end with a bad image of dishonest , especially in the business activity , honesty is of great importance.Tolerance is a great human thinking , the idea of tolerance is a magic weapon to create a harmonious interpersonal relationship in interpersonal exchanges.Tolerate others ,understand others and do not always pursue perfection.For a famous saying goes : failure is the mother of success.All in all ,if you consider things from others’ position , I think you have found the best way to win friends ,to win business guests.1.2 The principle of moderate equality

In the social field ,ritual behavior is always expressed as the two sides , for instance, if you treat your business guests sincerely and thoughtfully , others would show the identical courteous respond to your hospitality ,and they would become the potential regular customers.If you performed impatiently and hasty ,there is no doubt that you would get the same response.The purposes of this protocol must emphasize the principle of equality, equal exchanges between the two parts, for equality is the foundation to establish emotion with other people.If you want to maintain a good interpersonal relationship with your business partners or your customers , you should locate modesty in the first place ,because it is the essential way to make more friends.Moderate principle requires us to measure the criteria of etiquette , in accordance with specific circumstance , specific situation and the exercise of the corresponding ritual.For instance ,when doing business with some people both warm and

urbane are required ,one can not be rude and frivolous ,lively and modest ,but lethargic and sophisticated.1.3 The principle of sincerity and respect

Socrates had made a very famous statement: “ there must not be a gift to a friend, you have to contribute to your sincere love ,learning how to use legitimate means to win a person’s heart.”(Voice of English，2005)Which tells us that if you contact with the people , sincere respect for the ritual is the primary principle.Only you treat others sincerely and courteously ,can you create a harmonious happy relations, for good faith and respect are complementary to each other.Sincerity is a practical and realistic approach to communicate with other people ,especially in the business activities , it can be directly reflected.Sincere and respect for the first performance with some people :do not lie ,not hypocrisy ,do not insult people ,the so called “cheating once ,for life no friends.” also the practical reflection of business dealing.Sincere dedication, be fruitful harvest, only sincere respect for the two sides can be affiliated, friendship for a long time.1.4 Self-confidence and self-discipline

The principle of self-confidence is a mental health principle in the social occasion , especially in the commercial contact.Only someone is self-confident ,can he master things freely.Self-confidence is a very valuable psychological quality, people who have full confidence will not discourage when they encounter difficulties , on the contrary , they will counterattack when they are reduced to a rattrap, they are also willing to show their helping hand to people who are involved in jeopardy.People who are not confident enough will run into snags everywhere , even despair of their life.In the process of social interaction and business communication , establishing a sense of moral values and norms of self-cultivation in the mind to our behaviors.Achieving the balance of self education ,self management and self-confidence correctly , placing a rational and active attitude to fulfill the great obligation the life leaves us , refusing self-righteous and arrogant.Nothing great can be achieved without these traits

Chapter Two Comparison of Business Etiquette between Chinese and

Westerner

With the increasingly close business contacts , people’ conduct in the business exchange reflected more frequently in the past ,the actions and manners in business interactions can be best and directly embodied during their communications ,therefore , learning and understanding the appropriate business behaviors between Chinese and foreigners become special significant.2.1 Comparison of Etiquette for Business greeting

All of us have heard of “start well and end well” sometimes before, so it is very important to make a good first impression in business communication to achieve the purpose desired.In this subsection several aspects in the interaction of business greeting will be examined to see common grounds Chinese and English-speaking peoples share and what dissimilarities they have.2.1.1 Forms of Address

In 2000 Ralph Fasold mentioned “When people use language, they do more than just try to get another person to understand the speaker's thoughts and feelings.At the same time, both people are using language in subtle ways to define their relationship to each other, to identify themselves as part of a social and to establish the kind of speech situation they are in.”From what he said we can conclude that address behavior is governed by politeness and successful maintenance of interpersonal relationships.So far,have been various definitions of address form made by various linguists and other scholars.2.1.2 Position titles

In formal occasion, the chief guest and the host are usually addressed in the way of position titles.To address people by their position titles is to address them according to the positions they hold.This is the unique feature in business setting.People often address others in the manner of title plus name when they address others by their position title.For example, Mr.White.List is the president of IP International Investment Bank.People often address him `President White List'.Equally, businessmen often address ”Hu Jian“(胡建)，the General Manager of ABC Company, as ”General Manager Hu Jian“(胡建總經(jīng)理).It is worth notice that some former mannish professional form of address gets changed with the social progress.As more and more women achieve inary achievement in many varied areas.For example, it is believed that `Chairman' in English language can serve as an obvious example.A lot of women believe that `Chairman' is a word with sex discrimination.Therefore, people often use ”Chairperson“ instead of ”Chairman“ in many modern businesses activities.2.1.3 Professional title

Businessmen in both China and the west often address others professional title.Compared with the position titles, the professional titles is much smaller.To address people

by way of professional titles is to address them according to what profession they are engaged in to the tradition and development of society some professional titles are regarded as honorific such as professors, doctors while some other are derogatory, such as peddler, waiter, boy.2.1.4 Nonverbal Greetings

Nonverbal greetings include nodding, smile, shaking hands, bowing and kissing.In different situation we choose different nonverbal greetings to show our graciousness and hospitality.American deaf-and-dumb woman once said: ”Hands can keep people thousands miles away;they can also be filled with sunshine and you can feel comfortable...” Shaking hands is the expression of mutual trust and respect, and it's a good way to send greetings in business situation.It is said that it was used by ancient knights to show his amicableness originally.When two knights met in the old times, they would put down the weapon in the hand and offer the hand in which the weapon had been held to each other and shake the hands with each other to show there was no weapon in the hand now.Gradually, this kind of ritual becomes a kind of etiquette of meeting to show friendliness to interact.In order to shake hands correctly in business.2.2 The Comparison in Etiquette of Business visiting

Business visiting plays a very important role in business interactions, but every nation has their own practice when one is paying a visit in business Occasion.In western cultural , the first step prior to visiting is to make an appointment for a visit to make sure whether the host is free or not.Due to the increasingly fast pace of life and work, business person in the west is afraid of interrupting others’ planned schedule unexpectedly, it's a common practice to make an appointment in advance.He/She often discusses the purpose , time and place before visiting.After mutual consultation, the two sides may decide on the time and place.Once the appointment is made, it must be rigidly observed.Chinese businessmen also observes the international practice to make an appointment before a formal visit, especially for the first formal visit in business setting.They, just as illustrated in E.Hall's theory of uncertainty avoidance, belong to those who try to avoid uncertainty.They may like to use “go-between” to get linked for initial business contacts, even though they may also get connected by telephone call or formal letter of request.If two Chinese business people have done business for many times, they will not make an appointment seriously before visiting.Sometimes they make an oral appointment like“我明天去你辦公室找你。”or“下午去你辦公室看看。”In Chinese tradition, advance notice or appointment is unnecessary between friends.Another reason is that they usually choose a day when the host is not much occupied to pay a visit according to the experience before.In China, hosts rarely ask the guests to take off their gloves and caps although it's polite to put off gloves and caps when entering into the office in western culture.After being asked to sit down, the host may offer something to drink like tea or coffee.The offer is normally

phrased as a question, such as“Would you like a cup of coffee?” The guest is expected to answer honestly, and if they say no, then the host will not offer any drink.If they accept the drink, they will be expected to drink it all before leaving.On the contrary,when the Chinese host ask the Chinese guest, “Would you like something to drink?”, the typical answer is“隨便(just any)“.Sometimes, the host will offer a cup of tea to the guest without asking.During the visit, if a visit is for business rather than a socially one, the Westerners expect the visitors to come straight to the point, rather than go through lengthy preliminary chatting.However, Chinese visitors prefer to make some preliminary remarks in business visits to soften the atmosphere, assume close relationship or show concern for the host.After finishing the business affairs, westerners often indulge a couple of minutes' small talk while preparing for leaving: On the other hand, the Chinese guest often stands up suddenly and moves to the door and bids farewell without giving notice in advance.The hosts always insist that the guests stay longer.Some fixed conversational formulas preceding leave-taking are:“請留步”, “不要送了” ,“再見”.And the common way for the host to respond,“請慢走”“請走好”.2.3 Comparison of Etiquette for Business Negotiation

Business negotiations play an important role in foreign trade business between he two sides.However, as cultural differences have a direct impact on all aspects of business negotiations, people who lack sensitivity of cultural differences will evaluate people's actions, viewpoints, customs with their own cultural models, and this often leads to cultural conflict.So culture difference plays a very important role in Sino-U.S.business negotiation.Businessmen have more or less experience of negotiation in business intercourse.To win or lose in business activities always depends directly on people can carve out their way to success negotiation.Therefore, ”Negotiation is everywhere in business circles“ is a proverb that everyone knows in business circle.The negotiation which the businessmen hold is called business negotiation which is one of important activities in business.Broadly business negotiation is a debate between two Businessmen have more or less experience of negotiation in business intercourse.To win or lose in business activities always depends directly on people can carve out their way to success negotiation.Therefore, ”Negotiation is everywhere in business circles“ is a proverb that everyone knows in business circle.The negotiation which the businessmen hold is called business negotiation which is one of important activities in business.Broadly business negotiation is a debate between two parties for the purpose of reaching an agreement;haggling, bargaining and out are resorted to for passing an obstacle and bleaching out a conflict of opinion.According to conventional rules in business, business negotiation is counted as conciliating the conflicts of interest of the parties concerned.Just as John F.Kennedy said ”Let us begin anew一remembering on both sides that civility is not a

sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject to proof.Let us never negotiate out of fear.But let us never fear to negotiate“

2.3.1 Comparison of negotiation strategies

Based on objective differences, negotiators from different cultures presents the differences in decision-making form a sequential decision-making method and integrated decision-making method of conflict.Chinese-US negotiations, Chinese representatives at the outset by the parties concerned to abide by general principles and discuss common interests.Chinese negotiators think that general principle is the starting point for solving other problems.Only when the General principles identified, possible negotiations on the details of the contract.This ”first principles on details after“ way of negotiating, China's negotiating strategy is one of the most obvious features.Americans believe that the world is made up of facts rather than a concept, so they do not believe too much of something purely rational.Negotiations during them specific rather than General, when faced with a complex negotiation task, sequential decision making method of Americans used to break large tasks into a series of smaller tasks.Price, delivery, warranties and service contracts, problem solving, solving a problem at a time, from beginning to end with concessions and commitments, the final agreement is the sum of a series of small agreements.Negotiations start, they went straight to the point-specific payments.They think the overall principle is optional, only truly to make progress in negotiations on specific issues.Negotiation strategy reflects the difference between the two different ways of thinking.Chinese people attach importance to integrated mode of thinking stems from China's traditional culture.Therefore, the negotiations, the Chinese delegates from the whole to the part, from big to small, from the General to the specific, ”start with matters of principle, after the details".Americans favor a linear way of thinking.Therefore, they tend to pay great attention to details.They are practical, eager to discuss specific amounts at the outset, they regarded the contract which is integrated ,and to be legally binding.2.3.2.Comparison of Negotiation decisions

Different decision mechanisms have their own different reasons.Chinese culture belongs to the high power distance cultures, experience from person to person, position, educational level and other aspects of the different lines of vertical relationships.Member of the Chinese negotiating team can only act in their own right, final decisions are often made by the superiors did not participate in the negotiations.United States culture is a low power distance culture.In the United States under the influence of the concept of equality, relationships are generally horizontal, AC is equal on both sides.Negotiations between business landscape(equal)relationship.They are informal, as equals, on proper business etiquette, civility ,seating and less attention.Negotiations the United States highlighting the role of the individual, will often specify a person solely responsible for the negotiation, is responsible for establishing the 7

necessary decisions and to complete the necessary tasks, while the exercise of the corresponding rights, within its mandate, to make their own decisions.2.3.3 Comparison of the Negotiation goal

Chinese negotiators attached particular importance to the establishment of long-term business relationships.For them, negotiations process is the process of building relationships and negotiations is aimed more for the establishment and development of a long term relationship, signed the contract on behalf of the beginning of a long-term and mutually efficient cooperation.If negotiations fail to establish relations of mutual trust on both sides trading often ended in failure.Americans believe that the ultimate objective of the negotiations was signed the contract for the realization of economic benefits.For the US side, contract signing is the first and fundamental task of the negotiations, is the embodiment of value of their personal interests.They each signed the contract as a separate process.Unlike the Chinese emphasis on friendly and cooperative partnership established, they focus more on the actual value of.In the aspect of negotiation strategies, it is a common way for Chinese businessmen to discuss the general principle and common interest at the of the negotiation.They think the general principle is the point of solving all other problems and it is possible to discuss specific details Only when the is set down.On the western businessmen believe specific details are more important then the general principle.When the negotiation begins, they will go straight to discuss the specific details.When it comes to make decision in negotiation, there are also difference between the east and the west.The Chinese way is that decision comes from the result of collective negotiations.Generally, Chinese businessmen usually avoid making decision individually.Chinese businessmen will exchange their opinion with their colleagues or their leader before and after the negotiation.However, some in the west individual can represent Chinese culture, negotiators pay much attention to establish friendly relationship.They believe the course of negotiation is also the course of establishing relationship.The purpose of negotiation is to establish a long-term corporation.If the both sides fail to build the trust between them, the transaction will end up in nothing.In contrast, western businessmen consider the final result of negotiation is to sign a contract to realize economic benefits.represent the company to make decision after being empowered by the company.Last, thanks all of them again

Conclusion

With the globalization of the world economy, organizations are culturally diverse in handling all kinds of business activities, especially multinational cooperation.More and more business people have become aware of the strong impact from culture.And they should have a good understanding of the other business etiquette culture beforehand, which is beneficial for both sides of the business people.Only in this way will it be possible for them to expand their business and make it more prosperous.This thesis mainly tells us some principles of exchanging in business occasions，which would be beneficial to those who want to do business with people who from different areas and cultures ,meanwhile ,what you should remember is to be courteous and thoughtful to the people around you, regardless of the situation.Consider other people's feelings, stick to your convictions as diplomatically as possible.Address conflict as situation-related, rather than person-related.Apologize when you step on toes.You can't go too far wrong if you stick with the basics you learned in Kindergarten.(Not that those basics are easy to remember when you're in a hard-nosed business meeting!).With the development of society, the business relations are getting wider and wider.A variety of business contacts gradually formed a code of conduct and guidelines, which can help us survive in the society , coordinate human relations and human and social relations.It is also beneficial to promote communication and cooperation.The thesis will be helpful to us;especially to those who would like to engage themselves in international trade and business exchanges.Works Cited

[1]Martin, J.N.and Nakayama, T.K.2004, Experiencing Intercultural Communication: an Introduction [M].McGraw Hill: Boston.[2]De Mente, B.L.1994.Chinese Etiquette and Ethics in Business [M].Lincolnwood, IL;NTC Publishing.Corp.[3]Hsu, F.L.1981.American and Chinese:Passage todifferences.Honolulu [M].University of Hawaii.[4]Hall, E.T.1976.Beyond Culture [M].New York,NY:Random House.[5]胡文仲，1999, 文化與交際[M].北京:外語教學(xué)與研究出版社.[6]胡文仲，1999, 文化交際學(xué)概論[M].北京:外語教學(xué)與研究出版社.[7]胡文仲，2004, 超越文化的屏障[M].北京:外語教學(xué)與研究出版社.[8]郭桃桃，2004, 論跨文化交際中的文化障礙[M].湖南師范大學(xué)教育科.[9]賈玉新，2003，跨文化交流學(xué)[M].上海:上海外語教育出版社.[10]金正昆，1998, 商務(wù)禮儀教程[M].北京:中國人民大學(xué)出版社.Acknowledgment

At the point of finishing this paper, I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the people who have offered me generous help and valuable suggestions in the course of my writing this paper.My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to my dear supervisor, whose guidance and useful advice have ensured the accomplishment.In the past Three years, although Miss Xu had never given me lessons and did not know me, she was quite outgoing and kind when we met at the first time, and then gave me much advice about the title and outline of my paper.Later, she not only walk through and modify each draft again and again, but send me some new inform from school in time.Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this paper could not have reached its present form.Last but not the least, my thanks would go to my beloved family, friends and my colleagues.The forth year may be my busiest year in my university.My loving family and friends offered their substantial support and relevant information to me on many aspects.Because in a foreign company, my colleagues generally told me many different customs and culture, which offered lots of first hand information about the topic of my paper.Finally, thank all of them again.

第三篇：中西方商務(wù)禮儀(英文)

Different Business Etiquette between China and the

West

I.Introduction

Business etiquette is a kind of civilization accumulation of human being.It becomes fixed during the business communication, being handed down from generation to generation.It is also a kind of standard behavior observed by the businessmen in their communication.Different countries have different culture traditions, so their business etiquette is also different from one another.There are great cultural differences between the cultural cores of Confucian in China and the cores of Christian in the West, which leads to some differences in the business etiquette between China and West.II.The Influence of Cultural Differences on Business Etiquette Differences Between China and the West

Generally speaking, the differences on business etiquette between China and the West are influenced by several cultural factors, such as values, view of time, view of space, view of diet, verbal habits and nonverbal.The paper mainly focuses on time and space approach.2.1 From the approach of time

Thoreau once said,“If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer.”Now, we use the phrase “the beat of a different drummer”to explain any different pace of life.The attitudes toward time vary from culture to culture.And it is understandable that people of different cultures hold different views toward time.When it comes to international business, the view of time can be divided into two types, such as monochromic time and polychromic time.Countries that follow monochromic time perform only one major activity at a time, while countries obeying polychromic time perform several activities simultaneously.(Jeanette S.113)The United States is a monochromic culture.In monochromic culture, time is regarded as something tangible.Time is seen as linear and manageable.Therefore, people concentrate on the task at hand, taking time commitments seriously and being accustomed to short-term relationships.For example, in the West, time is a kind of precious and limited resource.The business people attend the business meeting on time.If someone was late, he would be considered to be lack of honesty.And the U.S.business people always expect to solve their business problems within twenty to thirty minutes.In monochromic cultures, it is considered a rude to do two things at once, such as reading a journal in a meeting or answering the telephone while someone is in your office.Schedules and keeping appointments are consistent with value of people in monochromic cultures.Chinese people are typical example of polychromic cultures.Chinese people are well adapted to doing several things at once and do not mind interruptions.In their opinion, people are more important than schedules to members of polychromic cultures.Their lifestyle is less organized than that of monochromic people.In their eyes time is just like a circle that does not have the end.So Chinese people are highly distracted and subject to interruptions.They consider time to be casual and flexible.For example, to most Chinese today, time simply flows from one day to the next.If a job is not done today, maybe it will be done the next day or the next.And the business meeting would generally last for several hours.Compared with the Westerners, few Chinese equate time with money.When foreign businessmen arrive in China, most Chinese will make them settle down in hotels and give them an opportunity to rest up.Because Chinese do not expect them to immediately rush into business.However, generally this arrangement will be politely but firmly rejected by visitors.When Chinese are involved in international business, they will get familiar with the Western concept“time is money”.But they do not automatically relate it to the pace of business.Besides, Chinese do not pay much attention to the appointment.Sometimes even if there is an appointment, the Chinese would not stick to it seriously.When people of different cultures interact, misunderstandings often arise as a result of different time view.For instance, in the Western countries, the business contact would be pre-arranged within three to four weeks.Business people pre-arrange the business contact at least two weeks in America.The appointment is holy to Americans.In the business communication, if someone asks to have a business contact at the last minute, he will be considered to make trouble or insult the others.On the contrary, the Chinese people pay more attention to relationship.In their business activity, if there is an important person need to be contacted, they could cancel the primary appointment to meet him.It is unacceptable to American business people.This example shows the cultural differences in time sense between China and the West.And it becomes increasingly important as modern business communications put more and more businessmen in daily contact.If we are to avoid misunderstanding, we need to know better about our own cultural biases and those of others.(Wen Yaoqing, 127)2.2 From the approach of space Space, is the physical distance between people when they are interacting.It is deeply influenced by culture.When people are having a conversation, the distance between them changes dramatically from one culture to another.Generally speaking, there are four zones when U.S.people interact: the intimate zone, the personal zone, the social zone, and the public zone.The intimate zone, less than 0.46 meters, is reserved for a close friend.And it appears briefly when the business colleagues shake hands.The personal zone, from 0.46 meters to 1.2 meters, is used for giving instructions to someone in an office.The social zone, from 1.2 to 3.6 meters, is used for impersonal and formal business meeting.The public distance, over 3.6 meters, is the most formal zone.(Lillian H.83)Americans tend to need more spaces than Chinese.When having a conversation with Chinese, Americans will back away for the Chinese partner is standing too close.Standing too close to someone in the United States may leave a bad impression on the others, as it implies the person is upset, overbearing, or he is making sexual advances.These negative positions should be avoided in the United States.In China, people prefer to stand close to each other and they think it is a normal and friendly way to communicate with each other.Besides, the arrangement of desks, chairs, and conference table also feature the different styles of communication.When the United States people are conversing, they prefer the face-to-face arrangement of chairs whereas the Chinese prefer side-by-side arrangement.They like this arrangement because they could avoid direct eye contact through it.IV.Conclusion With the globalization of the world economy, organizations are culturally diverse in handling all kinds of business activities, especially multinational cooperation.More and more business people have become aware of the strong impact from culture.And they should have a good understanding of the other business etiquette culture beforehand, which is beneficial for both sides of the business people.Only in this way will it be possible for them to expand their business and make it more prosperous.References

Du, Li.(2004).Comparison of Wine Culture between China and the West.Culinary Science Journal of Yangzhou University,(l):l-4.Jeanette S.,Martin.Global Business Etiquette.Westport,CT:Praeger,2006.Lillian H., Chaney.Intercultural Business Communication.Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2004.Wen,Yaoqing.“Comparison analysis of multinational business culture”.《International business research》，4（2001）：p121-30

第四篇：中西方建筑差異

一建筑材料的差異

中西方建筑對(duì)于材料的選擇，除受其自然因素影響外，更重要的是受文化心態(tài)的影響。中國建筑自古以來以土木 為主要建筑材料，而西方主要以石頭為主要建筑材料。發(fā)源于黃河流域和長江流域的華夏文明，由于地理環(huán)

境遼闊，而導(dǎo)致各個(gè)地域之間存在較大的自然差異，但是無 論民居或者宮殿等建筑，都不約而同地選擇了土木為建筑 材料。中國以農(nóng)業(yè)為主的原始經(jīng)濟(jì)，使得人們對(duì)土地和植物 有著特殊的眷念，造就了中國人自古以來重視人與自然和 諧共處的生活方式，所在從上古時(shí)期建筑材料的選擇上，人 們自然將十分常見的土木作為最為基本的建筑材料。而后 衍生而成的“天人合一”的宇宙觀，更是將人與自然看成一 個(gè)整體，可以說，講求“天人之際，合二為一”的中國古人，將 土木結(jié)構(gòu)作為建筑的最基本的材料，從本質(zhì)上說是重視生 命親和關(guān)系的體現(xiàn)。

據(jù)考證，我國古代的穴居、淺穴居、巢居等建筑，基本上 都是黃土與樹木建造而成的。隨著人類生產(chǎn)技術(shù)的進(jìn)步，建 筑材料也在不斷進(jìn)步，然而以黃土樹木為主要建筑材料的 傳統(tǒng)，卻依然被沿襲至明清，成為中國傳統(tǒng)建筑最基本的特 征。例如，在中國南方，由于氣候濕潤，植被茂盛，南方民居 除了采用青瓦覆頂，以磚砌墻外，大量的建筑材料都是木 材。以粉墻青瓦、磚木石雕、亭臺(tái)樓榭、層樓疊院等為主要建 筑基調(diào)的徽派，就是一個(gè)典型木質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)建筑形態(tài)。與此類似 的還有我國云貴高原一帶常見的木樓和竹樓。西南地區(qū)因 為氣候潮濕把民居抬離地面，便有了所謂的吊腳樓，這類民 居所用的材料都是木材。而我國的北方民居卻一般多用磚 瓦黃土作為建筑材料，例如西北地區(qū)的窯洞，東北地區(qū)的土 坯房，都繼承了我國古代穴居的傳統(tǒng)。

比較之下，位于地中海沿岸的古希臘、古羅馬地勢崎

嶇，河流短促，缺少平原，土質(zhì)稀松而石材豐富，蘊(yùn)藏有大量 石灰?guī)r和大理石等石材資源。這也成為古代西方人選擇以 石材作為建筑材料的自然環(huán)境基礎(chǔ)。加之，西方以狩獵為主 的原始經(jīng)濟(jì)，造就出西方人以人為中心的文化心態(tài)，而后衍 生成為“體分為二”的哲學(xué)傳統(tǒng)，都影響著西方人的社會(huì)文 化。西方人選擇石材作為建筑材料，一方面體現(xiàn)其追求真理 的理性精神，一方面在人與自然的關(guān)系中，強(qiáng)調(diào)人的力量能 夠戰(zhàn)勝一切。由于生產(chǎn)力的發(fā)展和宗教觀念的影響，石材隱 喻著宗教的神秘感與神圣美感。這種產(chǎn)生于原始文化中的 “戀石情結(jié)”，使得石材建筑成為歐洲自古希臘到西方現(xiàn)代 崛起的20世紀(jì)初期，整整2500多年建筑史中的主流建筑 文化。古希臘的神廟、古羅馬的斗獸場、中世紀(jì)歐洲的教堂 等等，都是以石材為主要建筑材料的建筑。直到文藝復(fù)興時(shí) 期的古典主義建筑以及宮殿等官方建筑，都已經(jīng)以石材為 主要建筑材料。以土木為建筑材料的中國建筑，在質(zhì)感上偏于樸素、自 然而優(yōu)美和諧，更富有生命的情調(diào)和陰柔之美。而以石材為 主要建筑材料的西方建筑質(zhì)地堅(jiān)硬、可塑性很小，給人以力 量感、力度和剛度，體現(xiàn)了一種陽剛之美。二建筑結(jié)構(gòu)的差異

北宋精于修造木塔的喻皓在營舍之法的著作《木經(jīng)》中 說：“凡屋有三分，自梁以上為上分，地以上為中分，階為下 分”。這里的“梁以上”指屋頂，“地以下，梁以上”指屋身，屋 身以下階梯、臺(tái)基便是屋基。喻皓的這種描述，明確指出了 中國建筑結(jié)構(gòu)的3個(gè)組成部分即：屋頂、屋身和屋基。無論 是以木材構(gòu)架的疊梁式和穿斗式，還是土木混合結(jié)構(gòu)混合 式建筑，作為中國建筑的個(gè)體，都是由這3個(gè)部分構(gòu)成。在 空間造型中，中國建筑最顯著的結(jié)構(gòu)特征莫過于屋頂之美。傳統(tǒng)的中國建筑多采用梁柱支撐屋頂，同時(shí)為了防止以土 木為主要材料的構(gòu)件損壞或腐爛，而采用了斗拱技術(shù)使得 屋檐在斗拱的支撐下向外延長，以便陰雨天氣將積水排出 屋頂。

梁思成曾有過這樣的闡釋：“歷來被視為極特異、極神

秘的中國屋頂曲線，其實(shí)只是結(jié)構(gòu)上直率自然的結(jié)果，并沒 有什么超出力學(xué)原則以外和矯揉造作之處，同時(shí)在實(shí)用及 美觀上皆異常的成功。這種屋頂全部的曲線及輪廓，上部巍 然高聳，檐部如翼輕展，使本來極無趣、極笨拙的實(shí)際部分，成為整個(gè)建筑美麗的冠冕，是別系建筑所沒有的特征。”正 如梁思成所說，中國建筑的屋頂多種多樣，并且成為中國建 筑空間造型中最為精彩的一個(gè)部分。這種如翼輕展的具有 坡度的屋頂，在不同的歷史時(shí)期又各具特征，例如在大唐時(shí) 期，建筑的屋頂坡度平緩，屋檐出挑深遠(yuǎn)，在日照之下投下 美麗的陰影，使人深感其自然生動(dòng)之美。而清代的建筑屋頂 坡度陡峭，讓人深感其莊嚴(yán)肅穆。總體上，由于受儒家“中 和”思想的影響，中國建筑多表現(xiàn)出和諧含蓄之美，重視建 筑各個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)部分的協(xié)調(diào)共生，統(tǒng)一通順。因此無論是損壞了 建筑中的哪個(gè)部分，小到一木一墻，都會(huì)給人以殘缺不全的 感覺。

比較而言，西方建筑追求一種與自然對(duì)立的結(jié)構(gòu)形式。夸張的尺度和精密的幾何比例之下的西方建筑，體現(xiàn)了西

方人改造自然的征服精神，這種“數(shù)的結(jié)構(gòu)”建筑，處處強(qiáng)調(diào)志W(wǎng)riter Magazine 2010 No.4藝術(shù)空間 的是人工偉力而非人與自然的和諧。例如古希臘帕提儂神 廟的立面、平面和剖面，在內(nèi)外部空間都有著相互適宜的幾 何比例，從而建造出一種“數(shù)的結(jié)構(gòu)”美。

就如中國建筑的屋頂之于中國建筑文化的重要性，西

方的雕塑藝術(shù)之于西方建筑，也是一種重要的文化力量。經(jīng) 過了巴洛克文化和洛可可文化以后，西方建筑開始營造一 種雕塑美。其注重建筑立面的雕塑，而不是結(jié)構(gòu)，這種雕塑 與結(jié)構(gòu)有著密切的聯(lián)系，可以說結(jié)構(gòu)的美是透過雕塑來創(chuàng) 造的，結(jié)構(gòu)是內(nèi)在的，雕塑是外在的，因此從外表看，西方建 筑雕塑感十分強(qiáng)烈。這種雕塑感是富有重量和力度的頑強(qiáng) 的美感，偉大崇高而又震撼人心。例如柯布西埃充滿激情的 建筑作品“朗香教堂”，實(shí)際上是一座令人充滿想象的雕塑 品，這部經(jīng)典創(chuàng)世之作不僅體現(xiàn)了西方建筑追求雕塑感的 建筑文化理念，也在現(xiàn)代建筑文化中，體現(xiàn)了西方建筑對(duì)于 傳統(tǒng)建筑文化的傳承與發(fā)展。三建筑空間布局上的差異

中國社會(huì)自古以血親關(guān)系作為社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)的基本單位，這種血親家族關(guān)系對(duì)中國建筑的群體布局的影響深遠(yuǎn)。我 們常見于中國建筑的群體空間布局，多是以“四合院”的形 式出現(xiàn)，講究以和為貴的中國，建筑上體現(xiàn)了一種家族式集 體的美。王國維曾說：“我們家族之制古矣。一家之中，有父 子，有兄弟，而父子兄弟各有匹偶焉。即就一男子而言，而其 貴者有一妻焉，有若干妾焉。一家之人，斷非一室所能容，而 堂與房又非可居之地也??然欲諸室相接，非四阿之屋不 可。四阿者，四棟也。為四棟之屋，使其堂各各東西南北，于 外則四堂，后之四室，亦自向南北湊于中庭矣??”王國維 的這段話，說明了中國古代家族制對(duì)中國建筑群體布局的 影響，家族結(jié)構(gòu)與建筑布局的相互照應(yīng)，最常見的庭院是四 合院、三合院、二合院。總的特點(diǎn)是由數(shù)座建筑個(gè)體與墻、廊 等圍合而成，一個(gè)院落接著一個(gè)院落，構(gòu)成一個(gè)遞進(jìn)式的建 筑群體。多個(gè)庭院被組織到一個(gè)群體布局之中，表現(xiàn)在出一 種主從分明，軸線齊整。庭院建筑組接的過程中，體現(xiàn)了中 國建筑布局的條理性，也體現(xiàn)了一種根深蒂固的社會(huì)秩序 和清醒世俗的理性精神。

與中國建筑不同的是，歐洲建筑不受血親關(guān)系，家族觀 念的影響，不再追求中國式的封閉式的建筑文化形式。在西 方，廣場是市民生活的一部分，它與城市一起成長，成熟。它 是城市政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)與文化交往的中心區(qū)域，在廣場的四周往 往建有政府大廈、教堂、劇場、商場、神廟等等。廣場是一種 富有民族個(gè)性的建筑文化，例如文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的意大利圣 馬可廣場，是威尼斯一個(gè)中心廣場，周圍有市政府大廈、圣 西密尼安教堂，總督府與圣馬可圖書館等著名建筑。圣馬可 廣場為市民們提供一個(gè)開放的娛樂休閑場所，是一個(gè)人們 用于嬉戲玩耍的露天客廳。廣場的開放性，是西方人活潑、好動(dòng)的個(gè)性的體現(xiàn)。

另外，西方建筑在空間布局上呈現(xiàn)出一種高空垂直、挺 拔向上的形態(tài)。同時(shí)，重視主體意識(shí)，強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)體觀念的社會(huì) 文化心態(tài)，這決定著西方建筑重視個(gè)體特性的張揚(yáng)特點(diǎn)，在 空間布局上多努力突出其個(gè)性特征，盡可能建造得高大挺 拔。例如法國萊茵河畔的斯特拉斯堡主教堂，高達(dá)142米； 德國烏爾姆市教堂高達(dá)161米；古羅馬的萬神廟，其穹頂直 徑和頂端高度均達(dá)43.3米，混凝土建造的墻體厚度達(dá)6.2 米，實(shí)為龐然大物。古羅馬城的一個(gè)平面呈橢圓形的大角斗 場，規(guī)模巨大。長188米，短軸156米，觀眾席立面48.5米，分為四層，可容納8萬觀眾。這些巍然聳立、雄偉壯觀的建 筑個(gè)體，在體積和高度上的龐大，突出了西方建筑的個(gè)性形 象。這樣的建筑空間布局，是西方世界開放民主的社會(huì)文化 氛圍的有利體現(xiàn)，反映了西方人崇拜神靈的狂熱，利用技術(shù) 給人一種奮發(fā)向上的精神支撐。四精神層次的差異

布魯諾·塞維在《建筑空間》論一書中，對(duì)歐洲建筑文化 的人與神的沖突做了這樣的闡釋：“埃及=敬畏的時(shí)代，那 時(shí)的人致力于保存尸體，不然就不能求得復(fù)活；希臘=優(yōu)美 的時(shí)代，象征熱情激蕩中的深思安息；羅馬式=武力與豪華 的時(shí)代；早起基督教式=虔誠和愛的時(shí)代；哥特式=渴慕的 時(shí)代；文藝復(fù)興式=雅致的時(shí)代；各種復(fù)興式=回憶的時(shí) 代。他指出在建筑史上這一主題是不斷轉(zhuǎn)換的，從精神層面 上來講，建筑和其他文化一樣，也是以人與神的文化沖突調(diào) 和作為文化主題的。

中國建筑文化中提及人與神的關(guān)系，當(dāng)然要從最原始 的天地宇宙觀開始說起。上古時(shí)代的中國建筑實(shí)際上就是 人們心中的宇宙，世人從天地宇宙中劃出一個(gè)人為的時(shí)空 領(lǐng)域，房屋建筑效法人們想象中的天地宇宙的外形。可以說 在古代中國，人與建筑的關(guān)系實(shí)際上就是人與宇宙的關(guān)系，中國天地宇宙起源于建筑文化的起源，原是合二為一的。“人類之初，僅能取天然之物自養(yǎng)而已。稍進(jìn)，乃能從事于農(nóng) 牧。農(nóng)牧之事，資生之物，咸出于地，而其豐歉，則懸系于田。故天文之智識(shí)，此時(shí)大形進(jìn)步；而天象之崇拜，亦隨之而盛 焉”。早在殷商之際，地上的王權(quán)觀念放映到“天”上，便形成 了人們心中關(guān)于“天帝”的觀念。而后“，天帝”，“天”，在殷末 周初被奉為神靈，人們在行事之前，常常問卜于“天帝”。而 古代的皇帝就是“天帝”的替代，帝號(hào)統(tǒng)攝天下，進(jìn)而使得人 們對(duì)天地宇宙的崇拜，演變成對(duì)建筑營造活動(dòng)的崇拜。相比較而言，在體現(xiàn)人與神的沖突調(diào)和關(guān)系時(shí)，西方建 筑有著比中國建筑更為明顯的特征。例如其宗教建筑，都在 空間的建構(gòu)中留下了“神”的痕跡。正如黑格爾所說：“自由 地騰空直上，使得它的目的雖然存在等于消失掉，給人一種 獨(dú)立自足的印象”。“它具有而且顯示出一種確定的目的，但 是在它的雄偉與崇高的靜穆之中，它把自己提高到超出單 純的目的而顯示它本身的無限”。西方教堂人與神的沖突，基本上是以神的靈光壓倒人性為特征，卻不等于人性的徹 底毀滅。在神面前，人一方面變得渺小，一方面又把自己的 理想寄寓到神那里。而在中國，由于儒家傳統(tǒng)文化的強(qiáng)大和 頑強(qiáng)，中國自古就是一個(gè)淡泊宗教的民族，使得中國宗教建 筑，盡可能收斂神的靈光，舒展人的姿態(tài)

第五篇：中西方園林差異

中西方園林差異

什么是園林？無論你遠(yuǎn)渡重洋去過法國的凡爾賽宮，倫敦的丘園，還是紐約的中央公園??只要你到過被譽(yù)為“東方威尼斯”的江南蘇州，欣賞過那“甲江南”的蘇州園林，就一定會(huì)被那清麗的典雅的園景所陶醉；如果你到過曾是九朝國都的北京城，看過故宮、北海、頤和園等輝煌的皇家苑囿，也會(huì)被那恢宏的氣勢，壯麗的屋宇和樓堂所傾倒；如果你曾信步“深山藏古剎”的宗教圣地，那金碧輝煌的殿堂，山明水秀的風(fēng)景，定使你心曠神怡，超凡脫俗。這些風(fēng)格迥異，令你流連忘返的人間仙境，就是園林。

園林的概念隨著社會(huì)歷史和人類知識(shí)的發(fā)展而變化的。不同歷史發(fā)展階段有著不同的內(nèi)容和適用范圍，不同國家和地區(qū)的界定也不完全一樣。歷史上，園林在中國古籍里根據(jù)不同的性質(zhì)也稱作園、囿、亭、庭園、園池、山池、池館、別業(yè)、山莊等。英美各國則稱之為Garden,Park,Landscape, 它們的性質(zhì)、規(guī)模雖不完全一樣，但都具有一個(gè)共同的特定：即在一定的地段范圍內(nèi)，利用并改造天然山水地貌或者人為地開辟山水地貌，結(jié)合植物配景和建筑布置，構(gòu)成一個(gè)供人們觀賞、游憩、居住的環(huán)境。

在中國的園林發(fā)展過程中，由于政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化、背景、生活習(xí)俗和地理氣候條件的不同，形成了皇家園林、私家園林兩大派系，它們各具特色。皇家園林主要分布于北方，規(guī)模宏偉，富麗堂皇，不脫嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)莊重的皇家風(fēng)范；私家園林分為江南園林和嶺南園林兩個(gè)分支，江南園林自由小巧，古樸淡雅，具有塵慮頓消的精神境界；嶺南園林布局緊湊，裝修壯美，追求賞心悅目的世俗情趣。中國園林作為世界園林體系中的一大分支，都是“雖由人作，宛自天開”的自然風(fēng)景園，都富于東方情調(diào)。這個(gè)造園系統(tǒng)中風(fēng)貌各異的兩大派系，都表現(xiàn)了中國園林參差天趣，豐富多彩的美。

（1）皇家園林。皇家園林追求宏大的氣派和“普天之下莫非皇土”的意志，形成了“園中園”的格局。所有皇家園林內(nèi)部幾十甚至上百個(gè)景點(diǎn)中，勢必對(duì)某些江南袖珍小園的仿制和對(duì)佛道寺觀的包容，同時(shí)，出于對(duì)整體宏偉大氣勢的考慮，必需安排一些體量巨大的單體建筑及組合豐富的建筑群落，這樣一來也往往比較明確的軸線關(guān)系或主次分明的多軸線關(guān)系帶入到本來就強(qiáng)調(diào)因山就勢，巧若天成的造園理法中。

（2）私家園林。

①江南園林：江南園林大多數(shù)是宅園一體的園林，將自然山水濃縮于住宅之中，在城市里創(chuàng)造了人與自然和諧相處的居住環(huán)境，它是可居、可賞、可游的城市園林，是人類的理想家園。江南園林的疊山、石料以太湖石和黃石為主，能夠仿真山之脈絡(luò)氣勢做出峰巒、丘壑、洞府峭壁、曲岸石磯，或以散置，或倚墻徹壁山等等，更有以假山作為園林主景的疊山技藝手法高超，稱盛時(shí)，蘇州環(huán)繡山莊的假山堪稱個(gè)中佳作。

②嶺南園林：嶺南園林亦以宅園為主，一般都做成庭園的形式，疊山多因姿態(tài)嶙峋、皴折繁密的英石包鑲，很有水云流暢的形象，沿海也有用珊瑚石堆疊假山的，建筑物通透開敞，以裝飾的細(xì)木雕工和套色玻璃畫風(fēng)長。由于氣候溫暖，觀賞植物的品種繁多，園林中幾乎一年四季都是花團(tuán)錦簇，綠陰蔥郁。

西方園林起源可以上溯到古埃及和古希臘，18、19世紀(jì)的西方園林可以說是勒諾特風(fēng)格和英國風(fēng)格這兩大主流并行

(轉(zhuǎn)自“)