第一篇：美國概況(unit 3_4_6_7_8)

UNIT 3

1.What is an American? Comment on the answer to the question by Crevecoeur?

(1)American is either a European or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country.He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds

The American is a new man, who acts upon new principles.He must therefore entertain new ideas and form new opinions...this is an American.(2)According to Crevecoeur, The American in those days had the mixed blood of Europeans or their descendants without taking into consideration other nationalities such as American Indians and blacks.But today, the picture of an American is more complex.1.What is an American?

He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country.He is an American, who leaving behind him his entire ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds....Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world....The American is a new man, who acts new principles;he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions.2.How did modern development in Europe influence the settlement of North American colonies?

Some new and powerful social forces began to emerge which led to the awakening of Europe and the discovery of America.The first new force was the development of capitalism, and it produced the bourgeois class and the working class.The second major force was Renaissance, which was marked by a changing outlook on life.The third influential force was Religious Reformation, a religious reform movement that started form Germany.3.What was the unique American phenomenon? How did it come into being? Do you think it still exists in today's American society?

on the one hand, the English and other Europeans went to North American for seeking freedom.But on the other hand, these very white people who were seeking and fighting for their own freedom deprived black Africans of their freedom

The two events combined constituted a unique American.First one is that on July, 30, 1619, the first meeting of an elected legislature took place in North American.The second one is a Dutch ship brought in over 20 Negroes, who were acted as servants for years.Yes, I do.4.In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?

The Puritans believed that governments should enforce God's morality.They strictly punished drunks, adulterers, violators of the Sabbath and other religious believers different from themselves.Roger Williams, one of the Puritans who protested that the state should not interfere with religion, was driven out of Massachusetts.In 1635, he set up Rhode Island colony, which guaranteed religious freedom and the separation of church and state.The Puritans also have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans.The American values such as individualism, hard work, and respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs.4.In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?

(1).Today, Puritans are no longer in existence.But their legacies are still felt in American society and culture.For example, the Puritans hoped to build “a city upon hill” an ideal community.Since that time, Americans have viewed their country as a great experiment, a worthy model for other nations.This sense of mission has been very strong in the minds of many Americans.(2).The Puritans also have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans.The American values such as individualism, hard work, and respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs.Unit 4

2.What is a federal system? What are some of the major differences between a federal system and a confederation?

The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central government.A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central authority and its constituent parts, with some rights reserved to each.The Constitution also called for the election of a national leader, or president.It provided that federal laws would be made only by a Congress made up of

representatives elected by the people.It also provided for a national court system headed by a Supreme Court.3.What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S.government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?

If Congress proposes a law that the president thinks is unwise, the president can veto it.That means the proposal does not become law.Congress can enact the law despite the president's views only if two-thirds of the members of both houses vote in favor of it.If Congress passes a law which is then challenged in the courts as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional and therefore no longer in effect.The president has the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice.The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official.In this way the Congress can prevent the president from making unwise appointments.3.What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S.government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?

(A)1.--the legislative branch is made up of elected representatives from all of the states and is the only branch that can make federal laws, levy federal taxes and declare war or put foreign treaties into effect.It consists of a Congress that is divided into the House of Representative and the Senate.The House of Representatives has 435 members who serve two-year terms.The Senate comprises 100 lawmakers who serve six-year terms.Each state, regardless of population, has two senators.2.--the executive branch is the president, who is elected to a four-year term.A president can be elected to only two terms according to an amendment passed in 1951.The president can appoint federal judges as vacancies occur.He is the commander in chief of the armed forces.The president has other broad authorities in running the government departments and handling foreign relations.3.--the judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court with a chief justice and 8 associate justices.The Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution and other cases which do not arise out of individual states.The Supreme Court has the judicial review power, the power determining whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution.(B)1.If Congress proposes a law that the president thinks is unwise, the president can veto it.2.If Congress passes a law which is then challenged in the courts as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional and therefore no longer in effect.3.The president has the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice.The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official.In this way the Congress can prevent the president from making unwise appointments.4．What is the Bill of Rights? Do you think that it was necessary to write the Bill of Rights explicitly into the U.S.Constitution?

The Bill of Rights: the first 10 amendments, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were added within two years of the adoption of the U.S.Constitution.These amendments remain intact today, as they were written two centuries ago.The first guarantees freedom of worship, speech and press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs.The Bill of Rights and subsequent constitutional amendments guarantee the American people the fullest possible opportunity to enjoy fundamental human rights.UNIT 6

2.What is the relationship between government and religion in America?

In some ways, the government supports all religions.Religious groups do not pay taxes in the United States.But government does not pay ministers' salaries or require any belief—not even a belief in God—as a condition of holding public office.Oaths are administered, but those who, like Quakers, object to them, can make a solemn affirmation, or declaration, instead

4.What are some of the features in religion that are particularly American? What are some of the major differences between American religion and religion in Europe?

First of all, Americans with different religions live together under the same law.Secondly, the religious beliefs of Americans continue to be strong with social progress.In Europe, scientific and economic advance and rising material prosperity have accompanied by a decline in religious observance in the US, this has not happened.Thirdly, in the United States every church is a completely independent organization, and

concerned with its own finance and its own building.There has been little concentration on doctrine or religious argument such as in European history,Unit 7

5.Why did Mark Twain win so many readers both at home and abroad?

Mark Twain was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast.He grew up in a small town on the banks of the Mississippi River and received only a basic public school education.He began working in a printer’s jobs in the Midwest and the West.Twin was a new voice, an original genius, a man of the people.And he quickly won readers.UNIT 8

1.What is the goal of education in the United States? Discuss the similarities and differences in Great Britain, the United States and China concerning the goals of education.The goal is—and has been since the early decades of the republic—to achieve universal literacy and to provide individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to promote both their own individual welfare as well as that of the general public.Though this goal has not yet been fully achieved, it remains an ideal toward which the American educational system is directed.The progress which has been made is notable both for its scope and for the educational methods which have been developed in the process of achieving it.3.What are the major characteristics of education in America?

(1)Different education laws for different states.(2)Several levels of schooling：Elementary Schooling，Secondary Schooling and High Schooling.(3)Curricula for students: there is no national curriculum in the United States.(3)Compulsory education for all students.(4)Equal education opportunities for minority groups.(5)Strong demand for higher education.(6)The complex system of higher education.Some states play a strong role in the selection of learning material for their students.Schools were asked not only to teach this new information, but to help students ask their own questions about it.The “inquiry” method of learning, focusing on solving problems rather than memorizing facts, became popular.3.What are the major characteristics of education in America?

1.About 85% of American students attend public schools(schools supported by American taxpayers).The other 15% attend private schools, for which their families choose to pay special attendance fees.Four out of five private schools in the United States are run by churches, synagogues or other religious groups.In such schools, religious teachings are a part of the curriculum.2.Each of the 50 states in the United States has its own laws regulating education.From state to state, some laws are similar;others are not.Education in the United States was to remain in the hands of state and local governments.3.Americans have a strong tendency to educate their children about major public concerns—problems such as environmental pollution, nuclear issues, neighborhood crime and drugs.

第二篇：概況試題-美國

1、Puritanism

Puritans were those who followed the doctrine of John Calvin and wanted to purify the Church of England.They believe that human beings were predestined by God before they were born.Some were God's chosen people while others were damned to hell.No church nor good works could save people.The sign of being God's elect was the success in his work or the prosperity in his calling.They also argued that everyone must read the Bible in order to find God's will and establish a direct contact with God.These beliefs had great impact on American culture.2.the American Revolution

Between 1689 and 1815, france and Britain fought Seven Years’ war, and North American was drawn into everyone of them.Britain’s victory led directly to a conflict with its American colonies.The British government argued that Britain had spent large sums of money to defend their American colonies in those wars, and that the colonists therefore should pay a part of those expenses.So the british government began to charge new taxes.But the colonists refused to obey the british laws and cry” no taxation without representation”.On April 19,1775,the first shot was fired when 700 British soldiers went to capture a colonial arms depot in a small town of Concord near Boston.The American War of Independence began.And the war came to an end in 1781 with the victory of north american.The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 and Britian had to recognize the independence of the United States.A new nation was thus born.3.the Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was mainly drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Congress on July 4,1776,when the people of 13 English colonials in North America were fighting for their freedom and independence from the British colonial rule.The document declared that all men were equal and that they were entitled to have some unalienable rights such as life,liberty and the pursuit of happiness.It also explained the philosophy of government:the powers of governments came from the consent of the governed and the purpose of governments were to secure the rights mentioned above.The theory of politics and the guiding principles of the American Revolution mainly came from John Locke.4.American Constitution

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America.The Constitution is the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the relationship of the federal government with the states, citizens, and all people within the United States.The Constitution creates the three branches of the national government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress;an executive branch led by the President;and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court.The Constitution specifies the powers and duties of each branch.The Constitution reserves all unenumerated powers to the respective states and the people, thereby establishing the federal system of government.5.checks and balances

When Americans talk about their three-part national government, they often refer to what they call its system of “checks and balances”.This system works in many ways to keep serious mistakes from being made by legislative branch or executive branch or judicial branch.6.Federalism

Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States.American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism.In “Federalist No.46,” James Madison asserted that the states and national government “are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers.” Alexander Hamilton, writing in “Federalist No.28,” suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: “If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress.”

7.the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights consists of the first 10 amendments which were added to the Constitution in 1791.The Bill of Rights was passed to guarantee freedom and individual rights such as freedom of speech,the right to assemble in public places,the right to own weapons and so on.8.Political parties in the US

Political parties are organized groups of people who share a set of ideas about how the US should be governed and who work together to have members of their group elected in order to influence the governing of the country.today ,the US has two major political parties.one in the Democratic Party,which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson's party,formed before 1800.the symbol of the party is the donkey.the other is the Republican Party,which was formed in the 1850s,and its symbol is the elephant.9、the roots of affluence in America

No single factor is responsible for the success of American business and industry.Bountiful resources,the geographical size of the country and population trends have all contributed to these success.Religious,social and political traditions;the institutional structures of government and business;and the courage,hard work and determination of countless entrepreners and workers have also played a part.10.American industrial revolution

After independence, America was principally an agricultural country.The industrial revolution in England brought many changes to American industry between 1776 and 1860.One key development was the introduction of the factory system.A second development was the “American system” of mass production.A third development was the application of new technologies to industrial task.A fourth development was the emergence of new forms of business organization—the bank and the corporation.11.Civil Rights Movement

The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980.In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance.In some situations it was accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion.The process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not fully achieve their goals although, the efforts of these movements did lead to improvements in the legal rights of previously oppressed groups of people.12.Martin luther King

Martin Luther King, Jr.(January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968)was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.King is often presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism.A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, serving as its first president.King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.There, he expanded American values to include the vision of a color blind society, and established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.13.Counterculture

In the wake of the Free Speech Movement and the New Left,there appeared a phenomenon that historians called the “counterculture.”the counterculture rejected capitalism and other American principles.they had morals different from those taught by their parents.some groups of youth tried to construct different ways of life.among the most famous were the hippies.they sought new experience through dropping out,and drug taking.but it was music,rock music in particular,that became the chief vehicle for the counter cultural assault on the traditional American society.the counterculture exerted a great influence upon people's attitudes toward social morals,marriage,career and success.14、Hippies

The hippies called themselves “the love generation.” Hippiness became their only goal in life.Their music was different from any other music, and the words they sang sounded rebellious to older people.Small groups of youth lived together in cities like San Francisco,turning their lives into one big party.They wore long hair,strange and colorful clothes and many of them used drugs.They went in huge numbers to rock music concerts, and tyey made very interesting news on TV.15.Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

第三篇：美國概況習題

美國概況

Part One Geography

Chapter IIPopulation

Exercises

? New York is the largest state in the US.(T/F)

? Why is the U.S.A.called “Melting Pot”?

Answers

? F(Alaska)

? Because the U.S.A.is country where there are many different races, and these races mixed and assimilated after they

immigrated into this country “Melting Pot” just signifies this mixture and assimilation.Chapter VReligion in the U.S.A.Exercises

? The popular American belief is___

A.part-time working

B.self-made man

C.manual labor

D.being extravagant

? The largest religious group in America is___

A.Roman CatholicsB.Protestants

C.OrthodistsD.Presbyterians

?the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

Answers

? BB

?the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

People are proud of doing everything by themselves.Most of the American families seldom hire people to do housework though they are rich.They try to do what they can do, such as housework, gardening and they enjoy doing them.Part twoHistory

Chapter IColonization of North America

Exercises

? The history of the U.S.is generally agreed to have begun in the year of ____

A.1620B.1607C.1776D.1492

? The turning point of the War of Independence was the Battle of ___in 1777.A.YorktownB.Saratoga

C.Bunker HillD.Lexington

? Lexington Fire was the ___of American War of Independence

A.turning pointB.endingC.causeD.prelude

Answers

BBD

Chapter IVThe American Civil War(1861-1865)

Exercises

? Abraham Lincoln

? In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important measures.One

was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.Homework

? Why was there the New Deal program? What was it? And how did it aid the recovery of the American economy? ? What important measures did Abraham Lincoln take during the Civil War? How do you evaluate them?

Chapter VThe U.S.Imperialism and the First World War

Exercises

? The first imperialist war took place between theU.S.and ___in 1898.A.BritainB.FranceC.SpainD.Mexico

? The “Big Stick” Policy was advanced by President___.A.Theodore RooseveltB.Franklin Roosevelt

C.William MckinleyD.Thomas Woodrow Wilson

? President Franklin D.Roosevelt proposed a well-knownpolicy called___ to save the economic situation.A.the Open Door PolicyB.the New Deal

C.Good Neighbor PolicyD.the “Big Stick”

AnswersCAB

PartTheresociallife

Chapter IIICustoms and Traditions

Exercises

? Easter:

Easter falls on the first Sunday after the full moon, in March or in April.It commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus.The custom of dying eggs is very popular among children.The main meat on Easter Sunday are lamb and ham.? Thanksgiving Day:

It falls on the fourth Thursday of November.It is a holiday on which God is thanked for the crops which have been safely gathered.? Abraham Lincoln

? In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important

measures.One was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.

第四篇：美國棉花生產概況

美國棉花生產概況

1.植棉簡史：目前世界上栽培面積最大的陸地棉品種就發源在美國邊界附近。公元前500年，美國西南部的祖尼(Zuni)和霍皮(Hopi)地區的印第安人在舉行宗教儀式時就開始使用棉花。1536年得克薩斯和路易斯安那州就種植了棉花；1607年開始引種陸地棉，在當時的作品中發現了弗吉尼亞移民最早栽培棉花的痕跡，隨后棉花栽培逐漸發展；1784年美國的原棉從查爾斯頓(南卡羅來納州)出發海運到英國的利物浦；1785年后引種海島棉。1793年美國惠特尼(Whitney)發明了鋸齒軋花機后，美國的棉花生產得以迅速擴大，并開始更認真地從墨西哥引種進行培育。從19世紀初到1925年左右，美國的許多州擴種了棉花，形成了“棉花帶”，棉花面積達1600萬公頃，總產皮棉1700萬包，占世界棉花產量的60％，達到高峰。同時，各地建立了許多棉花紡織廠；1801年建立了第一座棉籽榨油廠；1879年因新法煉油技術的成功使棉籽油更受消費者歡迎，也促進了此業的飛速發展，當時，美國棉籽油產量25000噸,到1963年達到創歷史的906000噸，棉籽餅產量達到2500萬噸。

2.棉區分布：美國是世界產棉大國，也是棉花的主要出口國。目前，東起大西洋西岸，西到太平洋東岸，橫貫美國南部的17個州均可植棉，統稱“棉花帶”，此帶北界與緯度37°線、無霜期200天線基本相符。只在密西西比河流域和土質肥沃，植棉收益較高的弗吉尼亞州南部，以及加利福尼亞州的圣華金河谷地棉區稍北越過此界，達北緯38.2°。棉區多屬河流沖積平原，土壤多為砂壤土或黑鈣土，土質肥沃，氣候溫暖，自然條件比較適宜于棉花生產。美國棉花帶劃分為四個棉區：(1)西部棉區：包括加利福尼亞、亞利桑那和新墨西哥三個州。干旱少雨，棉田全部實行灌溉。棉花收獲面積約占全國的18％，總產占全國棉花產量30％。皮棉單產50-99公斤。(2)西南棉區：又稱高原棉區，包括得克薩斯、俄克拉何馬和堪薩斯州三個州。海拔1500－3500米，屬半干旱地區。棉花收獲面積約占全國棉田44％，總產占全國棉花產量29％。(3)中南棉區：又稱密西西比三角洲棉區，包括密西西比、路易斯安那、阿肯色、田納西、密蘇里五個州、靠自然降雨植棉。年降雨量800-1000毫米。棉花收獲面積約占全國的30%，總產占32％，皮棉折合畝產為48公斤左右。(4)東部地區：包括南卡羅來納、北卡羅來納、佐治亞、亞拉巴馬、佛羅里達、弗吉尼亞六個州。年降雨量1000-1500毫米，靠自然降雨植棉。棉田收獲面積約占全國的8％，皮棉單產45公斤左右，總產占全國的9％。我們所考察的得克薩斯州是全美國棉花產量最大的州，年種植面積達550萬英畝，產值達15.6億美元，總產約占全美的三分之一。位于得克薩斯州西北部的拉伯克（LUBBOCK）地區，地勢平坦，氣候適宜，棉花連片種植面積達350多萬英畝（2124萬畝），號稱是世界上最大的陸地棉區；加利福尼亞州種植面積排名第二，年植棉面積達130萬英畝，產值達9億美元。美國棉花品種以陸地棉為主，美洲比馬棉（長絨棉）為輔。例如，1995年全國棉花種植總面積達1600.6萬英畝，其中陸地棉面積為1579.5萬英畝，美洲比馬棉為21.1萬英畝，1995年棉花總產量為86.51億磅，其中陸地棉為84.78億磅，美洲比馬棉為1.73億磅，1995年棉花總產值達65.51億美元，其中陸地棉63.30億美元，美洲比馬棉為2.21億美元，棉花出口占世界的21%。

3.棉花種植面積和產量：美國棉花種植面積，從1945-1953年一直穩定在13000萬畝左右，50年代后逐步減少；1967年減少到4854萬畝；1969年開始回升達6711萬畝；1981年棉田收獲面積達8401萬畝； 1982年棉田又減少到5908萬畝； 1983年棉田繼續下降到4460萬畝； 1987年開始回升；1991年棉田收獲面積達到7867萬畝，皮棉單產48.73公斤，總產達7670萬擔，年末庫存1612萬擔。到1998年，美國棉花的收獲面積達到6677萬畝，總產約300萬噸，平均畝產為45公斤左右。目前，有35000個農戶從事棉花生產。

4.棉花生產的特點：美國棉花生產的主要特點是：(1)機械化程度高。美國人少地多，農業人口占2%，為了節省勞力，只有實行機械化。從整地、播種、灌溉、施肥、植保到收獲，全部采用大型植棉機具作業，質量好，效率高，成本低。種一畝棉花投工約為3個工時(約合0.4個工作日)，用工量是全世界最少的。(2)全面推廣棉花優良品種。每個地區推廣的棉花優良品種應由區試委員會和美國農業部共同討論確定，種子生產商品化，并由種子公司統一供應。目前，有60%的品種為轉基因抗蟲棉；(3)棉花生產規模大規范化程度高。一個植棉方或圓型灌區就有幾百英畝，一個農場主就經營2000英畝左右的棉田。棉田平整，起垅種植，采用大型噴灌，虹吸灌溉和中心灌溉系統，科學施肥，棉桿還田，病蟲害綜合防治，棉田化除無雜草，棉株長勢均衡，化學脫葉，一次性機械收獲；(4)綜合技術服務全面、系統。出租農業機械，出售棉花良種、化肥、農藥，運輸、建筑、修理、水利、農業工程以及棉花加工等都有專業公司、工廠為植棉農場服務。在植棉技術上也有技術研究與推廣中心給予科學指導和服務；(5)國家對棉花生產實行扶持和保護政策，并制定每磅皮棉50美分的最低保護價，棉農每年的植棉收入低于一定數額時，國家也要給予一定的補貼，以鼓勵棉農種植棉花。

5.皮棉價格和原棉外銷

美棉出口市場主要面向亞洲、大洋洲、歐洲、非洲與中東地區。其中亞洲和歐洲是美棉出口的最大市場。70-80年代進口量較大的買方國家為日本、朝鮮、中國(包括臺灣、香港)、印度尼西亞、泰國、德國、意大利、加拿大。90年代以來，進口量較大的買方國家仍為亞洲幾國：中國(包括臺灣、香港)、日本、朝鮮、印度尼西亞、泰國，其次為埃及、墨西哥、意大利、加拿大、德國等。

第五篇：美國工業設計發展概況

美國工業設計發展的背景和概況

正當歐洲各國進行現代主義設計的探索與試驗的時候，美國人則基于商業競爭要求，全力以赴地開始了為企業服務的工業設計運動，在美國，這場運動并沒有多少學究味道，也沒有什么知識分子的理想主義成份，可以說，從一開始起，美國的設計運動就沾滿了實用主義的商業氣息。美國芝加哥建筑派的領導人物之一一路易斯（Louis Suliivan）曾經在1907 年總結設計的原則時說：設計應該遵循“形式追隨功能”的宗旨。美國人雖然提出這條原則，但是在美國競爭激烈的商業市場上，設計所遵循的其實是“形式追隨市場”，對于企業來說，最重要的并不是設計能否給社會帶來益處，或者對于整個人民的生活有所改善，設計唯一的要點是能夠促進銷售。因此，約束美國早期工業設計發展的力量不是知識分子的理想主義，也不是社會民主主義，而是十足的商業競爭。市場競爭機制在發展美國設計中起到了決定性的作用。這正是為什么歐洲各國對美國的設計以為不足掛齒的地方。

雖然市場競爭充滿了金錢的味道，缺乏歐洲現代主義設計的那種學究味，也缺乏充滿了理想、充滿了試驗的設計運動和設計集團，但是，市場機制本身卻不可否定地具有非常驚人的供求關系調節功能。也就是經濟學家亞當·史密斯（Adam Smith）所說的看不見的手的市場經濟神奇功能。市場機制決定了需要什么，不需要什么，為了符合市場需求，企業不得不提供不同的產品、包裝，利用各種各樣的廣告來促進銷售，這種背景使美國的設計得到比歐洲更加具體、范圍更加廣泛的發展。而這種發展與市場是密切相連的，與大批量生產是密切相聯的。美國早在20 世紀20 年代已經是世界上工業化程度最高的國家之一了。1933 年，在經濟大危機過去后，羅斯福實行經濟宏觀改革的新政（New Deal）之后，美國經濟進入高速發展階段，特別是歷經第二次世界大戰的發展，美國成為世界最強大的經濟大國，具有強大的生產力和龐大的國內市場，在開始成熟的國際市場上擁有很大的占有率，憑借著這種經濟力量，美國的設計也得到高速的發展，美國的設計教育也因而得到發展。憑籍著這種強大的國家經濟實力，美國人雖然沒有多少類似包豪斯式的學院探索，但是，美國卻幾乎是輕而易舉地把歐洲人奮斗了20 年的這個設計理想在企業中、在市場上變成了現實，到包豪斯1933 年被希特勒封閉，大部分包豪斯原來的教員和學生移民到美國，他們發現了設計和設計教育試驗的最佳土壤原來不是歐洲，而是美國。歐洲的觀念和美國的市場結合，終于在戰后造成轟轟烈烈的國際主義設計運動。

美國現代設計的發展是非常不平衡的：雖然美國現代建筑市場需求量極大，高層建筑在19 世紀末和20 世紀初成為各個主要城市的建筑中心，也出現過像弗蘭克這樣的建筑大師，但是，一直到30 年代末期，美國也還沒有形成一個能夠與德國、俄國相比的現代建筑設計運動。這種情況一直到30 年代末，當包豪斯的主要領導人物都移民來到美國以后，才出現了巨大的變化，因此，戰后美國發起的國際主義建筑運動，其實與德國現代主義有不可分割的千絲萬縷的聯系。美國的工業產品設計比世界上任何一個國家都發展得迅速和成熟。雖然德國的彼得·貝倫斯早在1907 年就開始為德國電器公司設計家用電器，但是，德國的工業產品設計直到第二次世界大戰爆發前夕，依然是遠遠落后于美國，這個現象的原因可能與國家的經濟情況、經濟政策的重點、設計界和企業界對設計的基本立場和原則分不開。美國的平面設計則從開始就具有自己的特點，它的發展與廣告等促銷活動密切關聯，因而，發展得非常迅速，戰爭期間雖然也如同歐洲一樣，出現了為政治服務的平面設計運動―政治宣傳畫，但是，主流一直是商業的。在各種設計范疇中，美國顯得最為突出的是工業產品設計，或者說是工業設計。

如果說德國人對于設計的最大貢獻是建立了現代設計的理論和教育體系，進行了大量的試驗，把社會利益當作設計教育和設計本身目的，那么，美國對于世界設計的最重要的貢獻就是發展了工業設計，并且把工業設計職業化。由于美國的工業發達、經濟成熟，美國是世界上第一個把工業設計變成一門獨立職業的國家。而這個職業化的過程早在20 世紀20 年代末期已經開始在美國的紐 1 約、芝加哥等地開始出現了

美國工業的一個重要的發展刺激因素是第一次世界大戰。戰爭對于軍需用品和武器的需求大幅度增加，因而刺激了美國的工業發展。戰后，美國的工業進入一個高速的發展階段。1918 年戰爭結束后，美國戰時工業立即迅速轉向消費品工業的生產，消費品的生產無論從產量或者質量來說，都是當時世界空前的。美國工業開始進人大批量生產階段，科學管理、流水生產線等等新的管理和生產方法都開始被引人和采用。標準化和理性式的制度規范化是這次工業生產改革的中心。企業家盡量設法降低生產成本，提高產量，以達到創造更高利潤的目的。另一方面，為了促進市場的銷售，廣告、企業形象、商標等種種促銷手段也開始被廣泛采用，市場競爭日益激烈。

1927 年前后，美國的經濟出現衰退的跡象。越來越多的小企業由于市場競爭失敗而破產，而這種經濟衰退的惡劣發展情況，在1929 年的華爾街股票市場崩潰時達到頂點，美國全國進入一次空前的經濟大危機。危機延續了3 年之久，一直到1933 年羅斯福總統上臺，大規模采用“新政”的經濟改革政策，改變美國以往政府對于宏觀經濟放任自流的基本立場，轉為大規模的從金融、投資、稅收、社會福利等等方面進行干預，由國家投資進行各種大規模的基本經濟建設項目，用以工代販的基本原則來促進就業，通過聯邦儲備系統對市場貨幣供應量的宏觀調節來控制經濟發展。這樣，美國經濟才重新出現復興的跡象。危機期間，企業為了生存，采用的競爭手段更加激烈和強化，這是美國市場競爭技巧發展的一個重要的刺激因素，換言之，是美國現代設計的發韌點。為了適應市場需求，美國大企業，特別是汽車制造業在此時成立了汽車外型設計部門，雇用了專業的造型設計師，形成了最早的企業內部工業設計部門。另外一方面，由于市場需求日益增加，出現了一些獨立的設計事務所，根據客戶的要求從事工業產品、包裝、企業標志和企業形象等方面的設計，這些設計事務所往往與大企業有長期的合作關系，形成了活躍的設計市場活動，也出現了美國第一代的工業設計師。

美國新一代的設計師，也就是我們稱為第一代的工業設計師就是在危機的競爭當中產生的。他們與歐洲第一代現代設計師不同，歐洲第一代設計師的背景基本上都是建筑師，同時他們都有堅實的高等專業教育基礎，大部分是建筑專業畢業的，并且有長期的建筑設計經驗。比如德國的彼得·貝倫斯、沃爾特·格羅佩斯、米斯·凡德洛、芬蘭的阿爾瓦·阿圖、荷蘭的烏德、比利時的亨利·凡德·威爾德、奧地利的約瑟夫·霍夫曼等等。美國的第一代工業設計師的專業背景也參差不齊，不少人甚至沒有正式的高等教育背景。他們設計的對象也比較繁雜，自從他們設立工業設計事務所以來，他們可以說從汽水瓶到火車頭都設計，對干歐洲人來說，這樣龐雜的設計方向簡直是不可思議的。而他們的設計方法也非常不一樣，往往比歐洲設計時間短、效率高、缺乏認真的社會因素思考，而長于市場競爭。這些設計師都有非常特殊的設計表現能力，他們的設計預想圖都畫得比歐洲的同行漂亮，也講究商業談判的技術，因為他們的目的是做設計生意，而不是研究設計的社會功能。他們都沒有什么理論和設計哲學，也不象他們的歐洲同行有那么多的著作，但是他們都設計了數量驚人的產品、包裝、企業形象，從設計的實用性來說，他們比他們的歐洲同行發達得多，靈活得多，而從設計觀念來說，他們又顯得淺薄。無論他們與歐洲設計的差別有多么大，但是，通過他們的努力，工業設計卻終于成為市場促銷、市場競爭的一個重要組成部分從而被美國市場、美國企業界接受，這是一個非常重要的成就。從此以后，工業設計就在美國生根了。因此，可以說，真正把工業設計扎扎實實地扎人工業企業界的，是美國的第一代工業設計師們。

專業背景和教育背景的不同造成設計發展趨向不同，這是美國與歐洲設計的一個非常大的區別。與歐洲第一代工業產品設計師的建筑設計背景完全不同，美國第一代的工業設計師不少人的專業背景是廣告業、商業藝術、櫥窗設計和其它展示設計行業，甚至是舞臺設計。這種背景使他們在設計上與他們的歐洲同事有很大區別：建筑師比較強調設計的社會效應、設計對于大環境可能造成的影響、現代設計對于民族傳統的繼承性和發展性，以及設計本身的社會含義。他們對于設計師本身的文化和教育素質的要求，對于嚴格的設計教學體系的建立非常重視，因為，沒有這樣的素質和這樣的教育體系，是不可能培養出真正有責任感、有高度文化品味的建筑家的。而主要從事展示、2 促銷工作的設計師則比較講究短期的市場促銷效果，對干建筑設計師一向強調的那些社會因素比較淡漠。因為展示設計的目的是促進銷售，設計的產品具有積極的市場沖擊性，但是同時也具有短暫的、用畢即拋的特點，而并非制造出比較永恒的產品，建設起一個起碼可以屹立百年的建筑物，因此，美國的工業設計師們對于設計形式造成的商業效果有明確的迫求，對設計的觀念，它會造成的社會影響作用則考慮不多。這種特征是由他們的職業背景造成的，原因是這些行業使他們對于商業競爭有比較切身的體會和認識。這些行業還有另外一個日后成為工業設計的重要特點：集團式的工作和嫻熟的商業談判習慣。商業設計需要一組人的同心協力，因而，他們都習慣于集體工作，習慣于與客戶打交道，習慣于與市場專家、市場調查人員聯系，對于形成工業設計來說，這是非常重要的一個特征。而這種特征在設計教育上的反映，就是對于表達技法的重視和對于設計觀念的淡漠，美國設計教育目前依然具有非常鮮明的重技法、重表現技術和輕視觀念的特征。

美國是世界最大的經濟強國，設計高度發達。80年代，由于美國經濟結構的改變，特別是制造業的衰退和服務行業的日益強大，使設計業也發生了很大的改變，工業設計逐步變成綜合設計，而不僅僅是針對產品的設計，這在本書第一章中有詳細的論述。而平面設計則因為媒介的轉變，日益發展為多元媒體設計，這種趨勢目前依然在進一步發展。

美國設計是世界設計當中的一個非常具有影響力、但是又非常獨特的組成部分。美國是一個由移民組成的新國家，沒有長期的發展歷史，同時又沒有所謂單一的民族傳統，但是具有資本主義世界各國當中最快的經濟發展速度，是目前世界上獨一無二的超級經濟強國，擁有巨大的國內市場，它的經濟實力又使它具有相當巨大的國際市場占有率。因此，形成許多與歐洲其它國家設計發展所不同的特點。

特點之一是美國設計一向主張多元風格，反對設計上的單一風格壟斷。美國人對于單一設計風格的厭惡是非常強烈的。歐洲設計經常是單一性的，比如德國設計、荷蘭設計等等，這種設計上的統一性特征，或者英文稱為的monotheism，是美國人最不能忍受的，因為美國是一個多民族組成的國家，從人口組成上已經具有多元特征，用同樣的風格去適應多元的民族組成，可以說根本沒有可能。美國設計上的反單一主義，是一個舉世聞名的特征，美國的建筑設計、產品設計、平面設計、服裝設計等等，總是雜七雜八，什么風格都有，體現了這個國家多民族的特征。由于美國是由移民組成的國家，因此沒有一種特別的民族特征是可以成為國家的基本設計風格依據的，折衷主義于是就成為十分普遍的設計動機。

另外一個顯著的特征，是美國人的幽默性。對于一個拿傳統和嚴肅的規范開玩笑的特點，這種特征特別容易從美國的平面設計上看出來。比如交通標志設計，在歐洲與日本都嚴格到幾近冷酷的地步，不許停車的標志，往往都是一個P 字（英語停的首寫字母），加上一個紅色的橫叉，沒有任何討價還價的余地。而美國雖然也用同樣的標志，但是，往往還會加上一些令人高興的官方椰榆，比如從新澤西州穿過哈德遜河的“荷蘭人隧道”，因為交通極其繁忙，全線不許停車，因而設有不許停車的標志，第一個是標準的有紅叉的P 字標記，第二個標記則是一句話：“我們是講真的！”，很快就有第三個標記，也是一句話：“想都不要想在這里停車！”(Don ' t Even Think or Parking Here!）。這種幽默的交通標記，全世界大約只有美國人會用，看到這些標記之后，大家都會會心一笑，而遵守規則。類似的平面設計例子，比比皆是，難以一一列舉，筆者在美國近10 年，經常看這些標志或者設計而捧腹，實在是很開心的。比如美國人的活潑、天真、好動、非權威化，造成美國人對于平面標準和設計符號的高度輕視，美國的平面設計是世界上最為活潑和趣味的一種，這與嚴肅的歐洲風格來比，和浪漫的法國風格來比，都具有很大的差別。美國人喜歡用文字做游戲，紐約設計家米爾頓·格拉斯（Milton Glass）設計的“我愛紐約！”就是一個非常典型的例子，以一個心型圖案代表愛字，生動又有特點，這個設計現在已經傳遍世界各地，被以各種方式轉用。美國廣告設計的幽默是世界著名的，他們天性樂觀，經常開玩笑，這種性格自然從設計上表現出來，成為他們設計的一個特征。美國人常常說：如果都可以達到功能目的，為什么要那么嚴肅？這種民族 3 心態，是他們設計風格形成的一個重要基礎。

美國同時又是一個高度民主的國家，國家的中心組成是中產階級，因而，美國人對于法國設計上那種為權貴服務為中心的精英主義（elitism）也有非常強烈的反感，他們認為設計應該是為大眾的，是人人可以共享的。反精英主義構成美國設計觀念的另外一個特點。

美國的設計是外國設計的綜合體現，各國的設計運動都在美國的設計上有所體現。比如德國包豪斯設計影響美國整個建筑與設計教育體系、戰后的瑞士國際主義平面設計影響美國全國的設計風格等等，都是很好的例子。但是，卻沒有任何一種風格能夠完全征服美國，美國的借鑒是折衷的、調侃的、戲謔的、歡樂的、自我為中心的。

美國設計的另外一個重要的特征是高度商業化。德國人的現代主義運動在很大程度上是一個社會運動，設計家們都具有強烈的社會責任感和使命感；美國的現代主義大師們則基本集中于市場競爭，如何通過設計使企業取得市場競爭的勝利是他們的主要關心，因而，在某種程度上，美國設計沒有歐洲那么觀念化、哲學化、理論化，而趨于實用化、商業化。它也不象意大利設計那樣個人化，原因是美國的大批量工業生產不能承擔個人化設計帶來的小批量生產的萎縮結果。

美國人自己并不把自己的設計看得多么了不起，他們出版的書籍著作、雜志期刊上的論文，大篇幅的主要是介紹歐洲、日本的設計，而對于自己的設計，除了建筑之外，很少提及，這與歐洲各國、日本對于自己的設計的自豪態度形成非常強烈的對比。而歐洲人在討論現代設計運動時也明顯地貶低美國人，英國出版的各種討論設計史的著作當中，美國人的貢獻好像除了流線型風格之外，一無所有。

如果我們要綜合美國設計特征，我以為特征是如下幾個方面：

實用主義

折衷主義

商業主義

多元化

非精英主義

平面設計上的幽默性

對于世界流行風格的隨波逐流特點

美國的現代設計應該說是有幾個完全不同的發展線索。其一是美國的汽車設計，這是從通用汽車公司1923 年開始擔任總裁的F ·斯隆開始發展出來的一套體系，目的主要是通過汽車外型的改觀來達到市場促銷的目的，因此稱為式樣化（Styling), 這種設計的目的是所謂的“有計劃的廢止制度”(Planned obsolescence)，利用改變外型來達到產品老化目的，促進銷售。美國的這個體系從汽車設計開始，以后影響到其它的方面，形成現代設計的一個重要的組成部分。

第二條線索是從德國包豪斯體系演變出來的現代建筑設計體系。第二次世界大戰期間，包豪斯的主要領導人物都紛紛移民美國，從而把歐洲的現代主義帶到美國，經過美國的高等院校設計教育，特別是建筑設計教育，而形成戰后的國際主義風格，影響世界。關于這點，我們在討論國際主義風格時進行詳細的探討。

第三條發展線索是工業產品設計。雖然德國等國很早就開始了現代工業產品的設計，但是，美國是真正把工業設計變成一個職業的國家。

以上三條線索是平行發展的，互相之間雖然有所影響，但是各自具有本身的獨立性，這是美國設計的非常重要的特色。只有象美國這樣的歷史短暫、移民組成的國家，才可能發展出設計上的這種多元并存的特征。

美國的平面設計具有上述的幽默、自由特色，而美國的工業設計卻更多地受到工業生產的限制，因此沒有平面設計那么自由。受到市場因素過多的影響，美國工業設計過于重視以有計劃的廢止制度為中心的設計方式，講究流行風格對于銷售的刺激，而美國國民對于設計的意識水平是西方國家中比較低的，這幾個方面的因素使美國的工業設計在世界發達國家中相對水平比較低下。

美國國民設計意識和設計品味的低下的主要原因，是沒有一個意識與品味的引導因素。歐洲各國具有悠久的歷史傳統，權貴階級、特別是皇室和貴族對于設計的追求，造成社會和國民設計的品味標準，雖然大眾不可能享有那些昂貴的產品，但是起碼他們知道什么是高品味的設計，有一個追求的目標。而美國自從立國以來就沒有過一個社會的權貴階級存在，也沒有過貴族社會，因此，難以形成一個影響品味和設計意識的核心。美國人講究生活方便，不再乎產品式樣的品味，因而造成美國有大量高水平的發明創造，而缺乏高水平的工業設計。美國的產品方便、安全、耐用、合理，但是難看，是很典型的。問題不在于設計水平，首先是社會根本沒有強烈的對于設計的要求，所有的要求都集中在功能和價格上，美國消費者對干除功能與價格之外的造型因素的要求是非常低的。這種背景，造成美國設計上的高度發達的功能主義、實用主義和價格考慮，而唯獨缺乏高品味的、高水準的外型設計，包括美國人最引以自豪的汽車設計，也是經常出現嘩眾取寵、虛張聲勢的趨向，缺乏歐洲或者日本汽車那種三易其稿、九朽一罷的設計上的精心思考和推敲。

典型的例子之一是亨利·德萊弗斯設計事務所設計的“寶利來”即時照相機（Polaroid), 從這種只有美國生產的照相機的觀念上，就可以看出美國人追求方便的習慣。為了達到高度方便的功能、為了達到簡單的性能要求，這種照相機在設計上不顧整體性外型，把各種各樣的功能構件都附加上，外型缺乏統一、完整性，這在歐洲或者日本都是不能想象的設計上的缺點，而美國人卻行若無事，已經使用這個設計好多年了。

從另外一個方面來看，美國是一個經濟高度發達的移民國家，社會結構復雜、種族結構復雜、經濟結構復雜，造成美國設計上極大的多元化狀況，可以說世界上任何一種主要的設計風格和設計方式在美國都存在，世界上大多數重要的設計家都在美國有自己的市場。美國人一方面不在乎設計精細，而對于各種各樣的設計也有最大的寬容度，設計的兼收并蓄式的多元化是美國工業設計的另外一個顯著特點。

美國的設計受到平面設計影響很大，因為平面設計具有很高的娛樂性，非常符合美國人的性格，其中一個很大的特點，就是對于語言的興趣。美國人在平面設計上經常以語言為中心發展，特別是幽默性的發展，看看美國重要的知識分子雜志《紐約客》（New Yorker）上的漫畫就可以了解美國人如何重視語言在設計上的作用。《紐約時報》（New York Times）藝術主編斯蒂芬·赫勒（steven Helier）曾經說：他們（指美國人）喜歡游戲語言文字，因為他們的傳統就是玩語言文字游戲的。美國的平面設計具有兩個最重要的中心：紐約和加利福尼亞。前者是美國現代平面設計的發源地，其積極的商業風格和幽默特點，影響了美國平面設計的總體發展；后者則代表了美國設計上最自由、最前衛的特征，同時也是最早采用新手段、包括電腦設計在內的地區，在80 年代末和90 年代以來對于美國的影響特別大。加利福尼亞不但是美國設計師的集中地區，同時也是世界最杰出的設計家集中的地區，許多世界著名的設計家都來加州設立自己的設計事務所或者從事自由撰稿設計業務，對于豐富此地的設計和增強設計理論起到很大作用。這不但體現在平面設計上，在工業設計和建筑設計上也是如此，美國目前大部分重要的工業設計事務所、建筑設計事務所都在加利福尼亞州有自己的設計部門，世界主要的汽車公司，包括歐洲的八大汽車廠、日本的八大汽車公司、美國的三大汽車公司的設計總部都設在洛杉磯附近，就是一個很好的例子。