第一篇：美國文學史簡述

A Short Summary of the History of American Literature

In American Literature, Colonial and Revolutionary period, American Romanticism, The Realistic Period and American Modernism are the four important periods.During 17C and 18C is the American colonial and Revolutionary Period.Puritanism is the main school of this period, which is the practices and belief of puritans.The American puritans accept the doctrine and practice of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God.But due to the grim struggle for living in the new continent, they become more and more practical.American Puritanism is so much a part of the national atmosphere rather than a set of tenets.Jonathan Edwards was one of the great writers of the Puritanism, his works include The Freedom of the Will, The Nature of True Virtue and so on.Philip Freneau is “a poet of the American Revolution” and “the father of American Poetry”.The Rising Glory of American and The Wild Honey Suckle are his famous works.Puritanism gradually declined at the end of 18C.As a result of the impact of European Literary Romanticism, there rapidly came into being the rise of romanticism in American.The American romanticism flourished from 1815 to 1865, which advocated importance to individual dignity and value, and they shared some characteristics— moral enthusiasm, individuality and intuitive perception.Transcendentalism, which appeared after 1830, marked the maturity of American Romanticism and the first Renaissance in the American literary history.It laid emphasis on spirit, individual and nature.Washington Irving is a writer of this period, who has been called “the father of American Literature”.He wins the international fame for The Sketch Book, which marked the beginning of American Romanticism.Ralph Waldo Emerson is the New England Transcendentalist.Nature, his famous work, is regarded as the “manifesto of American Transcendentalism”.American industrialization was one of the important factors of the development of American Realistic Literature, which was the beginning of what Mark Twain called “The Gilded Age” from 1865 to 1914.American Realism came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism.It turned from an emphasis on the faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived.It expresses the common place and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.A realistic writer is more objective than subjective, more descriptive than symbolic.Realists looked for truth in any place.William Dean Howells is the champion of realism.He writes about the rising middle class and the way they live.The Rise of Silas Lapham, his masterpiece, is a fine example of the American realism.Mark Twain is a great literary artist and social critic.He writes about the story of the low class and is famous for his colloquial style and localism.The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn is his famous fiction, which has been regarded as one of the greatest books of western literature and western civilization.After the WWI, some young writers wondered pointlessly and restlessly, while at the same time they were called the “Lost Generation”.Then, there came into being the modernism from 1914 to 1945, it is used to show the literary art possessing outstanding characteristics in conception, feeling, form and style after the WWI.It means cutting off history and a sense of despair and loss.It refused to accept the traditional ideological influences.F.Scott Fitzgerald is widely regarded as one of the 20th century’s greatest writers.This Side of Paradise is his first novel, it became immensely popular for the simple reason that it caught the tone of the age.Ernest Hemingway is the famous writer of this period.He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for The Old Man and the Sea.A Farewell to Arms is his masterpiece in which the author deals with the war directly.This is what I want to say about the history of American literature.

第二篇：美國文學史名詞解釋

It were flourishing from the beginning of 17th to the middle period of 18th.They stressed predestination, original sin, total depravity, and limited atonement from God?s grace.They went to America to prove that they were God?s chosen people who would enjoy God?s blessings on earth and in Heaven.Finally, they built a way of life that stressed hard work, thrift, piety, and sobriety.Both doctrinaire and an opportunist.Its Influence on literary were as follows:（影響）(1)American Literature is based on a myth------the Biblical myth of the Garden of Eden.(2)The American Puritan?s metaphorical made of perception----symbolism.The representatives were Edwards(The Freedom of the Will), Franklin(On the Art of Self-improvement), Crevecoeur(Letters from an American Farmer).代表作家及代表作：Captain John SmithTrue Relation of Virginia(1608)

Anne Bradstreet“To My Dear and Loving Husband”

Benjamin Franklin:The Autobiography of Benjamin FranklinRomanticism was a complex artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution.Elements of Romanticism

1.Frontier: vast expanse, freedom, no geographic limitations.2.Optimism: greater than in Europe because of the presence of frontier.不要這么多，我就刪掉了3、4、5條。。

Romantic Attitude

1.Appeals to imagination;use of the “willing suspension of disbelief.”

2.Stress on emotion rather than reason;optimism, geniality.3.Subjectivity: in form and meaning.Characteristics of Romanticism:

a.Romanticism was a rebellion against the objectivity of rationalism.(subjectivity)

b.For romantics, the feelings, intuitions and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.c.They emphasized individualism, placing the individual against the group, against authority.d.The affirmed the inner life of the self, and wanted to be free to develop and express his own inner thoughts.e.Typical literary forms of romanticism include ballad, lyric, sentimental comedy, problem novel, historical novel ,gothic romance, metrical romance, sonnet.Representatives:

? New England Poets: William Cullen Bryant;Henry Wadsworth Longfellow;

? Writers: James Fenimaore Cooper, Washington Irving“The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Grayon”

? 浪漫主義的影響： The romantic exaltation of the individual suited the nation?s revolutionary heritage and its

frontier egalitarianism.As a philosophical and literary movement, transcendentalism flourished in New England from 1830s to the Civil War.Its doctrines found their greatest literary advocates in Emerson who published ?Nature? in 1836 which represented a new way of intellectual thinking in America and presented?The Universe is composed of Nature and the Soul, Spirit is present everywhere.? and romantic idealism on Puritan soil as well as Thoreau.Emerson?s Nature has been called the “Manifesto of American Transcendentalism”.As a philosophy, transcendentalism was neither logical nor systematical.It exalted feeling over reason, individual expression over the restraints of law and custom.Yet transcendentalism was a powerful expression of the intellectual mood of the age.What is Transcendentalism?

In the realm of art and literature it meant the shattering of pseudo-classic rules and forms in favor of a spirit of freedom, the creation of works filled with the new passion for nature and common humanity and incarnating a fresh sense of the wonder, promise, and romance of life.Major Concepts(main ideas)

1, ?transcend ere?: to rise above, to pass beyond the limits

2, Believe people could learn things both from the outside world by means of the 5 senses and from the inner world by intuition.3, It placed spirit first and matter second

4, It took nature as symbolic of spirit or God.5, It emphasized the significance of the individual

6, Religion was an emotional communication between an individual soul and the universal ?oversoul?.Major writers and Literary Works

Ralph Waldo Emerson(1803----1882)Self-Reliance

Henry David Thoreau(1817----1862)Walden

超驗主義的影響：it could exercise a healthy and restorative influence on the human mind.The natural implication that things in nature tended to become symbolic, and the physical world was a symbol of the spiritual.This in turn added to the1

tradition of literary symbolism in American literature.the ideas it represented have remained a strong influence on great American writers from the days of Hawthorne and Whitman to the present.——latter half of the nineteenth century

American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end.The Age of Realism came into existence.It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism.Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived.It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.Major Features:

1）Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes are represented in a straightforward or mother-of-fact manner.2）Open ending(means real life is complex and cannot be fully understood)

3）Focuses on the lives of the common people

4）Emphasize objectivity

Representatives:

Howells, Henry James

代表作：William Dean HowellsThe Rise of Silas Lapham

Henry James“The American”、“Daisy Miller”、“ in the Portrait of a Lady”

現實主義影響：Realism was a reaction against Romanticism and paved the way to Modernism。

thlocal colorism is a type of writing that was popular in the late 19(1860s—1870s).Local Color Fiction:

Local colorism as a trend became dominant in American literature in the late 1860s and early 1870.The frontier humorists who had been popular with their “tall tales” before the Civil War paved the way for local color fiction.Basic Features

Local color fiction presents a locale which is distinguished form the outside world.Local color fiction describes the exotic and the picturesque.It describes things that are not common in other regions.Local color fiction also attempts to show things as they as they are.Local color fiction glorifies the past.(nostalgic about the past)

Local color fiction stresses the influence of setting on character.Masters：

Mark Twain（筆名）

Samuel Langhorne Clemens

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

6.American naturalism

American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, and like realism, it had come from Europe.Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century.Background:

In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe.In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features:

Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment

The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives:

The pessimism and deterministic ideas of naturalism pervaded the works of such American writers as Stephen Crane,Crane?s is the first American naturalism work.Norris?s McTeague is the manifesto of American naturalism.Dreiser?s is the work in which naturalism attained maturity.These writers? detailed description of the lives of the downtrodden and the abnormal, their frank threatment of human passion and sexuality, and their portrayal of men and women overwhelmed by blind forces of nature still exert a powerful influence on modern writers.Influence:

Although naturalist literature described the world with sometimes brutal realism, it sometimes also aimed at bettering the world through social reform.This combination of grim reality and desire for improvements is typical of America as it moved into the twentieth century.A poetic movement of England and the U.S.that flourished from 1909 to 1917.The movement insists on the creation of images in poetry by “the direct treatment of the thing” and the economy of wording.“poetic techniques to record exactly the momentary impressions”

Major features:

---it was one of the most essential technique of writing poetry in modern period.---with a spirit of revolt against conventions, imagism was anti—romantic and anti-victorian

---In a sense, imagism was equivalent to naturalism in fiction

---it produced free verse without imposing a rhythmical pattern.---Imagism tried to record objective observations of an object or a situation without interpretation or comment by the poet.---it produced free verse without imposing a rhythmical pattern.---Imagism tried to record objective observations of an object or a situation without interpretation or comment by the poet.The most outstanding figures:

Ezra Pound Amy Lowell Hilda Doolittle

The form of free verse(Ezra Loomis Pound)

影響：.its influence

1)the imagist theories call for brief language, describing the precise picture in as few words as possible.This new way of poetry composition has a lasting influence in the 20th century poetry.2)the second lasting influence of Imagism is the form of free verse.There are no metrical rules.There are apparent indiscriminate line breaks, which reflects the discontinuity of life itself.That is art of the poem.The poet uses the length of the lines and the strange groupings of words to show how life itself can be broken up into somehow meaningless clustersFree verse was originated by a group of French poets of the late 19th century.Poetry that is based on the irregular rhythmic cadence(韻律)of the recurrence, with variations, of phrases, images, and syntactical(依照句法的)patterns rather than the conventional use of meter（音步）.Rhyme may or may not be present in it, but when it is , it is used with great freedom.Their purpose was to free themselves from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate instead the free rhymes of nature period.Walt Whitman?s leaves of grass is perhaps the most notable example.thIt has since been used Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and other major American poets of the 20 century.Walt Whiteman?s Leaves of Grass is, perhaps , the most notable example.9.The Lost Generation is a group of expatriate American writers residing primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s.The group was given its name by the American writer Gertrude Stein, who used “a lost generation” to refer to expatriate Americans bitter about their World War I experiences and disillusioned with American society.Hemingway later used the phrase as an epigraph for his novel The Sun Also Rises.It consisted of many influential American writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F.Scott Fitzgerald, William Carlos Williams and Archibald MacLeish.The lost generation is a term first used by Stein to describe the post-war I generation of American writers: men and women haunted by a sense of betrayal and emptiness brought about by the destructiveness of the war.2>full of youthful idealism, these individuals sought the meaning of life, drank excessively, had love affairs and created some of the finest American literature to date.3>the three best-known representatives of lost generation are F.Scott Fitzgerald, Hemingway and John dos Passos.10.The Hemingway hero is an average man of decidedly masculine tastes, sensitive and intelligent, a man of action, and one of few words.That is an individualist keeping emotions under control, stoic and self-disciplined in a dreadful place.These people are usually spiritual strong, people of certain skills, and most of them encounter death many times.The heroes in his book are all have something in common which Hemingway values: they have seen the cold world and for one cause or another, they boldly and courageously face the reality;whatever the result is, they are ready to live with grace under pressure.The Hemingway code hero has an indestructible spirit for his optimistic view of life, though he is pessimistic that is Hemingway.Ernest Hemingway?s “iceberg theory” suggests that the writer include in the text only a small portion of what he knows, leaving about ninety percent of the content a mystery that grows beneath the surface of the writing.If a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about he may omit things that will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them.The dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water.A good writer does not need to reveal every detail of a character or action

The Jazz Age describes the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the years between World War I and World War II.Particularly in North America.With the rise of the great depression, the values of this age saw much decline.Perhapsthe most representative literary work of the age is American writer Fitzgerald?s The Great Gatsby.Highlighting what some describe as the decadence and hedonism, as well as the growth of individualism.Fitzgerald is largely credited with coining the term” Jazz Age”.

第三篇：美國文學史梗概

美國文學史梗概

一、殖民地時代和美國建國初期

最早來自這片新大陸的歐洲移民主要是定居在新英格蘭的清教徒和馬薩諸塞的羅馬天主教徒，二者雖然在教義上有很多不同之處，但他們都信奉加爾文主義：人生在世只是為了受苦受難，而他們唯一的希望是爭做上帝的“選民”，死后進天國，相信“原罪”。這時的文學作品也主要反映了這些思想，和歐洲文學一脈相承。

代表作家：考頓·馬瑟，喬納森·愛德華茲，安妮·布拉茲特里特，愛德華·泰勒。

二、18世紀獨立戰爭勝利后，美國經濟社會進入穩步發展時期

這一時期是啟蒙主義文學運動的時期，主要文學指導思想是“自然神論（”Deism），強調理性，認為“宇宙的運動始于上帝”；自然萬物是“神的體現”，人生在世，不再是受苦受難以換取來世的新生，而是要消滅種族、性別和信仰的不平等，建立自己的“人間樂園”。

主要特點：作家多是美國獨立戰爭的積極擁護者和參加者；文學指導思想除了自然神論之外還有“唯理主義”和“新古典主義”，18世紀末還開始萌發了“早期浪漫主義”；文學種類主要有歷史、日記和政論，也有詩歌，諷刺小品和勸人向善的故事，18世紀末還產生了話劇。

啟蒙運動中出現大量優秀的散文作品，并多出自開國元勛之手，如本杰明·富蘭克林，托馬斯·潘恩，以及托馬斯·杰斐遜。

三、19世紀南北戰爭時期

這一時期的文學先后發展了浪漫主義，現實主義和自然主義。

浪漫主義：18世紀70年代－19世紀30年代是浪漫主義發展的初期，南北戰爭前30年（1830－1860）為極盛時期，南北戰爭后10年逐漸衰微并向現實主義過度。浪漫主義注重“想象”、“激情”和“個性解放”，認為人本質是善良的，鏟除邪惡和拯救人類的手段是拋棄一切傳統束縛，摧毀一切陳規陋習而回歸到“自然的原始狀態中去。超驗主義是其一分支，強調“天人合一”，認為上帝、人類和自然都是“超靈”的組成部分。

代表作家及作品：愛默生《自然》，索羅《瓦爾登湖》，霍桑《紅字》，麥爾維爾《白鯨》，惠特曼《草葉集》。

現實主義：是美國政治、經濟發展的必然產物，西部開拓運動、工業化、科學技術的進步都促進了其發展。現實主義的作家一般為實用主義和民主主義的信徒，他們追求和反映的是具有顯而易見效果并被經驗證實了的相對真理，他們創作題

材的是普通人平常事，是中產階級藝術的最高表現。

豪威爾斯是現實主義的奠基人，他發現了馬克·吐溫，鼓勵和幫助了亨利·詹姆斯，影響了自然主義作家弗蘭·克諾里斯和斯蒂芬·克萊恩。

自然主義：是現實主義的發展和繼續，是現實主義與19世紀科學所強調的“分析法”和“因果律”互相結合的產物，有時被稱為“悲觀的現實主義”，認為人是一種軟弱無能的動物，被置于機械化的世界匯總而成為這一世界中難以駕御的幾種勢力（包括環境、自然、遺傳等）的犧牲品

其里程碑是：19世紀70、80年代左拉的小說的出版，90年代克萊恩的《紅色英勇徽章》，1900年德萊塞《嘉莉妹妹》，1912年《金融家》，1925年《美國的悲劇》。

四、20世紀美國文學經歷了兩次世界大戰，跨越了三個時代

a)斯文時代（1880－1914，The Genteel Age）：這是一個跨世紀的，美國經濟繁榮的時代。此時的美國文學與歐洲文學之間有著某種曖昧關系，本質上是歐洲式的和美國的小歐洲新英格蘭式的。此時以西奧多·羅斯福為代表的民族主義在文學上有著強烈的反映，人們還念念不忘美國與歐洲的文化聯系與差異。

b)爵士時代（1918－1929, The Jazz Age）：一戰后，產生了一代不受約束，幻想破滅了和玩世不恭的年青人，被格特魯德·斯坦因稱為“迷惘的一代”。

c)經濟蕭條時代（1929－1941，The Depression Era）：20年代的玩世不恭的態度在此時轉化為一種憤憤不平的悲觀主義，30年代美國文學轉向了“社會抗議文學”，“心理之學”和追求人的精神世界。

美國文學先后經歷了現代主義，和后現代主義思潮：

現代主義：一戰后到50年代，是一場自覺地反傳統的文學藝術運動，表現無意識的荒謬心態，如斯坦因，喬伊斯的小說，運用意識流的手法，如福克納的《喧嘩與騷動》和《我彌留之際》；在組織構架上偏愛用神話，如艾略特的《荒原》，龐德的《詩章》，喬伊斯的《尤利西斯》；風格上以“意象”為主，語言上主張簡潔、準確；題材上主要反映一戰參與者的生活、思想、感情和前途命運，如多斯珀索斯的《三個士兵》，海明威的《太陽照樣升起》，《永別了，武器》，描寫了精神崩潰與幻想破滅的一代人。

邪惡是這是文學的主要題材之一，艾略特、弗羅斯特、奧尼爾、卡明斯、埃利森的作品中都有體現。

后現代主義：在二戰后，納粹極權主義大屠殺、原子彈、自然環境的破壞、世界人口過剩和饑荒造成西方人的精神摧殘與危機，作家繼續進行現代主義反傳統的文藝實驗，而且企圖與當時業已形成規范的現代主義文藝形式決裂。后現代主義

主張否定社會秩序，表現支離破碎的世界，認為文藝批評就是現象學形式的理論。此時，美國黑人文學，猶太文學，南方文學，反戰文學和女權主義文學競相發展。

小說家托馬斯·品欽，詩人西爾維亞·普萊斯，戲劇家艾瑪穆·阿米里·巴拉卡為典型的后現代主義作家。

索爾·貝婁，艾倫·金斯伯格，拉爾夫·埃里森，田納西·威廉斯，阿瑟·密勒和愛德華·阿爾比是從現代主義向后現代主義過渡的著名作家。

20世紀美國文學的兩個特征：

1.現代主義作家一般是反對傳統觀念而提倡“個人主義”的或者說他們打破了美國社會、道德和文學的常規。

2.現代作家潛心探索一種真正屬于美國人民的寫作手法和語言風格，他們試圖以純美國的方式進行創作。

第四篇：美國文學史論文

以《乞力馬扎羅山的雪》為例淺談海明威作品的悲觀主義

2009級英語專業 黃娜

從《老人與海》,《太陽照樣升起》,《永別了，武器》到《喪鐘為誰而鳴》,我都能隱隱約約的感覺到海明威在作品中透露出的悲觀。

在幫助海明威獲得羅貝爾文學獎的《老人與海》中，海明威極力地把圣地亞哥塑造成一個百折不撓、堅強不屈、敢于面對暴力和死亡的“硬漢子”形象，但是圣地亞哥最終還是沒有獲得大馬哈魚，仍然是悲劇的。又例如海明威在1940年發表了以西班牙內戰為背景的反法西斯主義的長篇小說《喪鐘為誰而鳴》。作品描寫了主人公美國青年喬頓，他志愿參加西班牙人民的反法西斯斗爭，奉命在一支山區游擊隊的配合下，在指定時間炸毀一座具有戰略意義的橋梁。這本來是英雄史詩般的行為，讀者大多盼望這樣一個偉大的英雄能夠高唱凱歌回到祖國，受到英雄般的待遇，人民需要英雄。但是小說的結果又是悲觀的。喬頓雖然成功完成了任務，炸毀了橋梁，但他自己也身負重傷，在敵強我弱的情況下阻擊敵人，毋庸置疑等待他只有死亡，結局僑頓確實死了。

這樣的情節在海明威的作品中很多。但是筆者今天重點談談在《乞力馬扎羅山的雪》中海明威這種悲觀主義。

1.故事中透露著對死亡的悲觀。首先聲明我是個樂觀主義者。雖然小

時候這種價值觀的作文，老師一般會發回重寫。因為這和歌頌美好的生活的主題嚴重不搭調。為什么說故事透露出對死亡的悲觀呢？這部《乞力馬扎羅的雪》是海明威晚年的一部短篇小說。故事大致上是對于一個臨死前的人的精彩描述。主要講述一個作家哈里去非洲狩獵,途中汽車拋錨,皮膚被刺劃破,染上壞疽病。他和他的妻子在等待一架飛機來把他送到醫院治療。故事圍繞“死亡”和“即將死亡”來寫,但根本的主題是哈里回到過去,從過去走到現在的歷程回顧。哈里熱愛這個世界,他有很多經歷,跟不同女人的經歷,以及自己所從事的不同職業的經歷,他都想寫下來但卻沒來得及寫,他最終沒有能達到心中的目標,死前,他悔恨至極。雖然故事說的是哈里，但是可以看出也體現了作者真實情況的反應。他和故事主人公有很多相似之處。例如都是作家，都經歷了不同的女人，也都是喜愛狩獵，敢于冒險。但是在面對死亡的時候都充滿了恐懼。道出了所有人與生俱來的害怕死亡的事實。

2.文章開始就體現了對生活的悲觀。生活本來可以很美好的。可是《乞力馬扎羅的雪》一開篇就把獵隊的所有人送入到絕境，小說的主人公哈里的壞疽危及生命，煩躁不安的他認為自己就要死了，而且是由于一點點的小小的疏忽釀成此悲劇。他覺得這樣悄無聲息的，毫無價值的死太冤了。這種故事情節的設計固然增加了故事的可看性，但是把生活描述太過于坎坷和悲劇。

3.對人的描寫過于悲觀和狹隘。人本來是偉大的，我喜歡正面描寫的人，堂堂正正，光明磊落。死而后已的形象。但是在故事中哈里由于害怕死亡，所以他恨不得毀掉一切以換取自己的生存，無法容忍別人還在健康的活著，他不停的找機會和海倫吵架，用各種各樣的難聽的、攻擊性的話去刺激她，把自己遭受的一切不行強加在她的身上，而其實這種內心的憤怒與發泄又都源于內心的對于死的恐懼，死亡的憂懼擾得他五內俱焚。他想以寫作掩飾心靈驚顫，想借酒澆滅精神痛苦，想以往日的榮耀抵平今日的失誤，其實這些都沒有用，只是更加使得自己遭受著百般的折磨，墜入毀滅自己的深淵。不可否認，任何一個垂死的人，都同哈里一樣，知道死亡近在咫尺的時候，有著無法抗拒的恐懼和對人世間的留戀。

4.把死亡描寫的過于恐懼。恐懼來源于人的內心。雖然我們都知道：無論我們如何抗爭，作為生命、希望，只有死亡具有終結一切的意義。但是只要我們活著，能做些有意義的事情，死亡就不可怕。故事中哈里等待死亡一步步逼近的時候，他懼怕的過分敏感，毛骨悚然，不禁讓人覺得心疼他，可是死神不管你是否愿意或者是如何掙扎，怎奈恐懼，終將如期降臨在哈里的身上。哈里這樣去對待死亡是完全沒有意義的。

5.反映了海明威的世界觀的局限。從全文的思想意義上看，里面的人物都帶有一定的悲觀主義色彩。主人公哈里，是寫作生涯取得一定成就之后在奢靡中迷失自己的人。但作為一個作家的警覺，他意識到了自己的迷失。他企圖回到非洲，那個曾經給過他歷練的地方，找回自己。但其實他明白，過去的自己，再也找不回了。傷口生壞疽而死不是真正的原因，“哀大莫過于心死”，但好在，死的時候他已清醒認識了自己，認識了人生。

悲觀主義也許就是海明威想要表現的思想之一，也是海明威獨具風格的藝術形式。若干年以后，以硬漢形象著稱的海明威把雙筒獵槍塞進自己的嘴里但求一死，也許海明威早在許多年前就借哈里的相同身份體驗了美麗而殘酷的死亡。并以這樣的方式詮釋了其悲觀主義。

第五篇：美國人力資源管理簡述

美國人力資源管理

1.美國人力資源管理模式的特點：

(1)人力資源配置上,美國企業對勞動力市場依賴很強。

員工流動性很大，企業員工隊伍不穩定。

(2)人力資源管理上,美國企業高度專業化和制度化。

企業的職業分工極為細膩,以詳細職業分工為基礎的制度化管理。

(3)人力資源使用上,美國企業重視能力,快速提拔。

美國公司管理階層注重個人表現，較多地偏重于以個人為中心，強調個人的價值。

(4)員工薪酬管理上,美國主要采取員工工資水平的市場化決定機制。

員工追求高額的工資，企業謀求最大的利潤，企業依據勞動力再生產費用和勞動力市場的供求關系及供求平衡狀況,來擬定各類人員的工資水平。

(5)企業培訓側重于技術和管理。技術和管理的“硬技能”是美國企業培訓的主要側點。全美有97％的企業為員工制定了培訓計劃，另外選送5％的員工接受正規的大學教育。

(6)激勵方式上,美國強調物質刺激。

美國企業多使用外部激勵因素,認為員工工作的動機就是為了獲取物質報酬,企業可以不向員工說明此項工作的意義,但必須說明此項工作的操作規程,員工可以不理解工作本身的價值,但必須把工作完成好才能獲取相應的報酬,員工得到認為合理的報酬后,就不應該再有其他要求。

2.美國人力資源管理模式的內容：

其制度化、規范化的程度很高，強調制度管人，缺乏以人為中心的勞動價值觀，其管理模式屬于管理技術型。企業的提拔政策、工資政策、注重效率的績效報酬管理等都能夠充分調動人的積極性,有利于挖掘人的潛力,激發他們的創造性。

3.美國人力資源管理模式的弊端：

美國企業重視短期評估、快速提拔、高獎勵的管理方式導致公司員工嚴重的短期行為,許多年輕人工作不到一年就更換了5～6次工作,年輕人不斷地更換工作,打亂了公司的長期培訓計劃,使得企業因為員工流動太頻繁,流失率高而不愿意在員工身上進行大量投資。影響了公司發展戰略和經營效率。同時,任意的就業政策也給許多員工帶來了嚴重的不安全感,降低了他們對企業的忠誠度,企業歸屬感差。勞資對抗、決策權的過度集中導致員工缺乏高度責任心和自覺性,難以對市場做出敏捷的反應。以個人為基礎、高度專業化的美國模式會導致員工自我協調能力下降、員工知識與技能過于狹窄的弊端。不利于員工全面能力的提高,也帶來了過于看重個人和局部利益而忽視整體利益的局限。

中美合作 1005111529 虞曉雷