第一篇:雙語教學輔助資料
《免疫學導論》(于善謙等編,高等教育出版社)
雙語教學輔助資料
Auxiliary Material of Bilingual Teaching
for Introduction to Immunology
蚌埠醫學院免疫學教研室
Department of Immunology, Bengbu Medical College
Feb.to Jun.2006
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1-1 Origination and development of Immunology 1-2 Essential points of concepts of immunology
CHATPTER TWO ANTIGEN 2-1 Basic concept and types of antigen 2-2 The molecular base of antigen 2-3 The immunological features of antigen 2-4 Invasive and infectious antigens
CHAPTER THREE ANTIBODIES 3-1 Structures and classes of immunoglobulins 3-2 The gene of immunoglobulins 3-3 Synthesis and secretion of immunoglobulins
CHAPTER FOUR COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
4-1 Composition and physiochemical properties of complement system 4-2 Complement activation 4-3 The control of complement reaction and biological effect of complements 4-4 Biosynthesis of complement and complement deficiency
CHAPTER FIVE CELLS, TISSUES AND ORGANS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM 5-1 The structure and function of organs and lymphoid tissue and organs 5-2 The cells in immune system
CHAPTER SIX MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX
6-1 Structure and function of major histocompatibility antigen 6-2 Gene structure and genetics of major histocompatibilty complex 6-3 The Principle and application of detection for MHC
CHAPTER SEVEN ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY REACTION AND ITS APPLICATION 7-1 Antibody preparations
7-2 The principle of antigen-antibody reaction 7-3 Common techniques in immuno-analysis
CHAPTER EITHT CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE
8-1 Basic concept for immune response 8-2 The basic process of immune response, 8-3 Cell apoptosis and immunity
CHAPTER NINE IMMUNE REGULATION 9-1 The regulation of antigen and antibody in the
immune response
9-2 The regulatory effect of immune cells in
immune response
9-3 Interleukins and Immune regulation 9-4 Immune tolerance
CHAPTER TEN HYPERSENSITIVITY 10-1 Type I Hypersensitivity
10-2 Type II Hypersensitivity(Cytotoxic
Hypersensitivity)
10-3 Type III Hypersensitivity(Immune complex
hypersensitivity)
10-4 Type IV Hypersensitivity(Delayed Type
Hypersensitivity)
CHAPTER ELEVEN ABNORMAL IMMUNE
RESPONSES
11-1 Auto immune response 11-2 Transplantation Immunology 11-3 Anti-tumor Immunology 11-4 Immunologic deficiency
CHAPTER TWELVE THE EVOLUTION OF
IMMUNE SYSTEM
12-1 The immunity of invertebrate animals 12-2 The immune evolution of vertebrate animals CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION(緒言)
1-1
Origination and development of 1-2
Essential points of concepts of Immunology immunology 1-1-1 Infection and immunity of 1-2-1 Innate immunity and acquired diseases immunity
1-1-2 Foundation and development of 1-2-2 Immune response the discipline of Immunology 1-2-3 Immunology and practically 1-1-3 Recent development of applications Immunology 1-2-4 Branches of Immunology and their development
The term “IMMUNITY”, originally, and might still be considered by people, means the ability of host to resistance to infectious disease.However, the modern concept of immunity is conferring the host the specific function to recognize and neutralize and/or eliminate foreign materials or substances(biological or non-biological, and even sometime self tissue components)to maintain the homeostasis of host internal environment.Immunity includes innate immunity and acquired immunity, the former is inherent, very quick, and non-specific respond to invasive pathogens;whereas the latter is acquired and adapted after birth of host, and induced specific respond to foreign material(infectious or noninfectious).The Immunology is a study to focusing on how of host to recognition of self and non-self, and how of the response to foreign material(Antigen)and
1-1 Origination and development of Immunology 1-1-1 Infection of and immunity to diseases Fetal epidemic disease, smallpox(variola), dead rate by smallpox 30-40%;killed millions of peoples in this globe before nineteenth century.From Song Dynasty Chinese doctor invested a technique called variolation(人痘接種法)to prevent children from smallpox
1798, an young doctor in England, Jenner, created a new method, vaccination(牛痘接種法), to prevent the children from smallpox, and finally, by using this very effective technique, the smallpox, a fatal epidemic disease has been eliminated in the world, stated by the WHO in 1979.orbility smallpox, measles(, thypho, cholera(傷寒),anthrax 鼠疫 鼠疫,瘧疾malaria 1-1-2 Foundation and development of the discipline of Immunology
(1)1.Foundation of immunology
(1)Louis Pasteur, was a famous biochemist in France in 19th century, contributed his lots of effort to immunization to prevent animal and human from several serious diseases(cholera霍亂, anthrax炭疽, rabies(狂犬病)---vaccination---active immunization
(2).Development of experimental immunology
1-1-3 Recent development of I mmunology(1).Humoral immunology,(2).Cellular immunology
1-2 Essential points of concepts of immunology 1-2-1 Innate immunity and acquired immunity
1-2-2 immune response
1-2-3 Immunology and practically applications
1-2-4 Branches of Immunology and their development
Basic concept or definition for the term “IMMUNITY”, originally, and usually still be considered by common people, means the ability of host to resistance to infectious disease.However, at present, the modern concept of immunity, is conferring the host specific functions to recognize and final neutralize and/or eliminate foreign materials or substances(biological or non-biological, and even sometime self)to maintain the homeostasis of host internal environment.Immunity include innate immunity and acquired immunity, the former is inherent, very quick, and non-specific respond to invasive pathogens;whereas the latter is acquired and adapted after birth of host, and induced specific respond to foreign material(infectious or noninfectious).The Immunology is a study to focusing on how of host to recognition of self and non-self, and how of the response to foreign material(Antigen)and
1-1 Origination and development of Immunology 1-1-1 Infection of and immunity to diseases
Fetal epidemic disease, smallpox(variola), dead rate by smallpox 30-40%;From Song Dynasty Chinese doctor invested a technique called variolation(人痘接種法)to prevent children from smallpox
1798, an young doctor in England, Jenner, created a new method, vaccination(牛痘接種法), to prevent the children from smallpox, and finally, by using this very effective technique, the smallpox, a fatal epidemic disease has been eliminated in the world, stated by the WHO in 1979.orbility smallpox, measles(, thypho, cholera(傷寒)霍亂,anthrax炭疽 鼠疫 鼠疫,瘧疾malaria
1-1-2 Foundation and development of the discipline of Immunology
1-1-3 Recent development of Immunology
1-2 Essential points of concepts of immunology 1-2-1 Innate immunity and acquired immunity
1-2-2 immune response
1-2-3 Immunology and practically applications
1-2-4 Branches of Immunology and their development
CHATPTER TWO ANTIGEN(抗原)
2-1 Basic concept and types of antigen 2-1-1 antigen and immunogen 2-1-2 classes/types of antigen
2-2 The molecular base of antigen 2-2-1 chemical features of antigen 2-2-2 antigen determinants
2-3 The immunological features of antigen 2-3-1 The exogenicity of antigen 2-3-2 The relation of immunogenecity
2-1 Basic concept and types of antigen 2-1-1 antigen and immunogen
2-1-2 classes/types of antigen
2-2 The molecular base of antigen 2-2-1 chemical features of antigen
2-2-2 antigen determinants
to individual and immunization manner
2-3-3 The specificity of antigen and
immuno-predominance of antigen
2-3-4 The immunologic feature of
hapten
2-4 Invasive and infectious antigens 2-4-1 Bacteria 2-4-2 Fungi 2-4-3 virus
2-3 The immunological features of antigen 2-3-1 The exogenicity of antigen
2-3-2 The relation of immunogenecity to individual and immunization manner
2-3-3 The specificity of antigen and immuno-predominance of antigen
2-3-4 The immunologic feature of hapten
2-4 Invasive and infectious antigens 2-4-1 Bacteria
2-4-2 Fungi
2-4-3 Virus CHAPTER THREE ANTIBODIES(抗體)
3-1 Structures and classes of Immunoglobulins 3-1-1 The basic structure of antibodies 3-1-2 Classes and types of immunoglobulins 3-2 The gene of immunoglobulins 3-2-1 The gene structures of immunoglobulins 3-2-2 Rearrangement and expression
of immunoglobulin genes
3-2-3 The diversity of
immunoglobulin genes
3-3 Synthesis and secretion of
immunoglobulin
3-3-1 Humoral immune response and
the production of antibodies
3-3-2 Expression, assemble and
secretion of immunoglobulin 3-1 Structures and classes of Immunoglobulins 3-1-1 The basic structure of antibodies
3-1-2 Classes and types of immunoglobulins
3-2 The gene of immunoglobulins 3-2-1 The gene structures of immunoglobulins
3-2-2 Rearrangement and expression of immunoglobulin genes
3-2-3 The diversity of immunoglobulin genes
3-3 Synthesis and secretion of immunoglobulin 3-3-1 Humoral immune response and the production of antibodies
3-3-2 Expression, assemble and secretion of immunoglobulin CHAPTER FOUR COMPLEMENT SYSTEM(補體系統)
4-1 Composition and physiochemical properties of complement system 4-1-1 Nomenclature of complement components 4-1-2 The physiochemical properties of complement components 4-2
Complement activation 4-2-1 The Classical pathway of complement activation 4-2-2 The lectin pathway of complement activation 4-2-3 The alternative pathway of complement activation.4-2-4 Membrane lysing complex formation in late phase of complement activation 4-2-5 Comparison of three pathways
in complement activation
4-3 The control of complement
reaction and biological effect of complements
4-3-1 Regulating protein of
complement activation in serum
4-3-2 Regulate protein on the surface
of cell membrane
4-3-3 Complement receptors 4-3-4 The biological function of
complement protein
4-4
Biosynthesis of complement and
complement deficiency
4-4-1 The gene of complements
4-4-2 The biosynthesis of complement 4-4-3 Complement deficiency and
complement deficient diseases 4-1 Composition and physiochemical properties of complement system 4-1-1 Nomenclature of complement components
4-1-2 The physiochemical properties of complement components
4-2 Complement activation
4-2-1 The Classical pathway of complement activation
4-2-2 The lectin pathway of complement activation
4-2-3 The alternative pathway of complement activation.4-2-4 Membrane lysing complex formation in late phase of complement activation
4-2-5 Comparison of three pathways in complement activation
4-3 The control of complement reaction and biological effect of complements
4-3-1 Regulating protein of complement activation in serum
4-3-2 Regulate protein on the surface of cell membrane
4-3-3 Complement receptors
4-3-4 The biological function of complement protein
4-4 Biosynthesis of complement and complement deficiency 4-4-1 The gene of complements
4-4-2 The biosynthesis of complement
4-4-3 Complement deficiency and complement deficient diseases
CHAPTER FIVE CELLS, TISSUES AND ORGANS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
(免疫系統的細胞、組織和器官)
5-1 The structure and functions of organs and lymphoid tissue and organs 5-1-1 The composition and function of primary lymphoid tissues and organs 5-1-2 The composition and function of secondary lymphoid tissues and organs 5-1-3 Lymphocyte re-circulation
5-2
The cells in immune system 5-2-1 B cells 5-2-2 T cells
5-2-3 Natural killer cells and natural
suppressor cells
5-2-4 phagocytes, granulocytes and
mast cells
5-2-5 Langerhans cells and dendritic
cells
5-1 The structure and function of organs and lymphoid tissue and organs 5-1-1 The composition and function of primary lymphoid tissues and organs
5-1-2 The composition and function of secondary lymphoid tissues and organs
5-1-3 Lymphocyte re-circulation
5-2 The cells in immune system
5-2-1 B cells
5-2-2 T cells
5-2-3 Natural killer cells and natural suppressor cells
5-2-4 phagocytes, granulocytes and mast cells
5-2-5 Langerhans cells and dendritic cells
CHAPTER SIX MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX
(主要組織相容性復合體)
6-1 Structure and function of major histocompatibility antigen 6-1-1 Class I major histocompatibility complex(MHC-I)molecules 6-1-2 Class II major histocompatibility complex(MHC-II)molecules 6-1-3 The structural base of combination of peptide and MHC molecule
6-2 Gene structure and genetics of major histocompatibility complex 6-2-1 Inheritance and polymorphism of MHC 6-2-2 The gene structure of mouse MHC(H-2)
6-2-3 The gene structure of human
MHC(HLA complex)
6-2-4 Discovery and nomenclature of
HLA
6-3 The Principle and application of
detection for MHC
6-3-1 Detection of Class I HLA
antigen
6-3-2 Detection of Class II HLA
antigen
6-3-3 Phenotyping of HLA gene 6-3-4 Applications of detection of
HLA
6-1 Structure and function of major histocompatibility antigen 6-1-1 Class I major histocompatibility complex(MHC-I)molecules
6-1-2 Class II major histocompatibility complex(MHC-II)molecules
6-1-3 The structural base of combination of peptide and MHC molecule
6-2 Gene structure and genetics of major histocompatibility complex 6-2-1 Inheritance and polymorphism of MHC
6-2-2 The gene structure of mouse MHC(H-2)
6-2-3 The gene structure of human MHC(HLA complex)
6-2-4 Discovery and nomenclature of HLA
6-3 The Principle and application of detection for MHC 6-3-1 Detection of Class I HLA antigen
6-3-2 Detection of Class II HLA antigen
6-3-3 Phenotyping of HLA gene
6-3-4 Applications of detection of HLA
CHAPTER SEVEN ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY REACTION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
(抗原-抗體反應及其應用)
7-1 Antibody preparations 7-2-2 The reaction of antibody to 7-1-1 Antiserum preparation mono valent antigen 7-1-2 The preparation of monoclonal 7-2-3 The reaction of antibody to antibody polyvalent antigen 7-1-3 The preparation of gene
engineering antibody 7-3 Common techniques in 7-1-4 The preparation of catalytic immune-analysis antibody 7-3-1 immune precipitation 7-3-2 immune labeling 7-2 The principle of antigen-antibody 7-3-3 In site immune-analysis reaction 7-3-4 Other applications for 7-2-1 Thermodynamics and dynamics antigen-antibody reaction of antigen-antibody reaction
7-1 Antibody preparations 7-1-1 Antiserum preparation
7-1-2 The preparation of monoclonal antibody
7-1-3 The preparation of gene engineering antibody
7-1-4 The preparation of catalytic antibody
7-2 The principle of antigen-antibody reaction 7-2-1 Thermodynamics and dynamics of antigen-antibody reaction
7-2-2 The reaction of antibody to monovalent antigen
7-2-3 The reaction of antibody to polyvalent antigen
7-3 Common techniques in immuno-analysis 7-3-1 immunoprecipitation
7-3-2 immune labeling
7-3-3 In site immuno-analysis
7-3-4 Other applications for antigen-antibody reaction
CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE
(細胞介導的免疫應答)
8-1 Basic concept for immune response 8-1-1 Non-specificity and specificity of immune response 8-1-2 Active immunity, passive immunity and adoptive immunity 8-1-3 Anergy
8-2
The basic process of immune response, 8-2-1 Antigen presenting cells
8-1 Basic concept for immune response 8-1-1 Non-specificity and specificity of immune response
8-1-2 Active immunity, passive immunity and adoptive immunity
8-1-3 Anergy
8-2 The basic process of immune response, 8-2-1 Antigen presenting cells
8-2-2 T cell activation
8-2-2 T cell activation
8-2-3 Exogenous antigen induced
immune response
8-2-4 Endogenous antigen induced
immune response
8-3
Cell apoptosis and immunity 8-3-1 The features of cell apoptosis 8-3-2 Detection of cell apoptosis 8-3-3 Effect of cell apoptosis on the
immune response
8-2-3 Exogenous antigen induced immune response
8-2-4 Endogenous antigen induced immune response
8-3 Cell apoptosis and immunity 8-3-1 The features of cell apoptosis
8-3-2 Detection of cell apoptosis
8-3-3 Effect of cell apoptosis on the immune response
CHAPTER NINE IMMUNE REGULATION(免疫調節)
9-1 The regulation of antigen and antibody in the immune response 9-1-1 The antigen regulation 9-1-2 The antibody regulation 9-1-3 The regulatory effect of idiotype-anti-idiotype antibodies
9-2 The regulatory effect of immune cells in immune response 9-2-1 Immune regulation of T cells 9-2-2 Immune regulation of other immune cells
9-3 Interleukins and Immune
regulation
9-3-1 The catalog of cytokines 9-3-2 Interleukins
9-3-3 Other cytokines produced by T
cells
9-4
Immune tolerance
9-4-1 Discovery of the immune
tolerance
9-4-2 Foundation requirement and
induction pathway of immune tolerance
9-4-3 The mechanism for Immune
tolerance
9-1 The regulation of antigen and antibody in the immune response 9-1-1 The antigen regulation
9-1-2 The antibody regulation
9-1-3 The regulatory effect of idiotype anti-idiotype antibodies
9-2 The regulatory effect of immune cells in immune response 9-2-1 Immune regulation of T cells
9-2-2 Immune regulation of other immune cells
9-3 Interleukins and Immunoregulation 9-3-1 The catalog of cytokines
9-3-2 Interleukins
9-3-3 Other cytokines produced by T cells
9-4
Immune tolerance
9-4-1 Discovery of the immune tolerance
9-4-2 Foundation requirement and induction pathway of immune tolerance
9-4-3 The mechanism for Immune tolerance
CHAPTER TEN HYPERSENSITIVITY(超敏反應)
10-1
Type I Hypersensitivity
10-1-1 The pathogenic mechanism of Type I hypersensitivity 10-1-2 Allergen in Type I Hypersensitivity 10-1-3 IgE and receptor for IgE 10-1-4 Common diseases induced by Type I Hypersensitivity
10-2 Type II Hypersensitivity(Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity)10-2-1 Injury mechanism of Type II Hypersensitivity 10-2-2 Type II Hypersensitivity and diseases
10-3 Type III Hypersensitivity 10-1 Type I Hypersensitivity
10-1-1 The pathogenic mechanism of Type I hypersensitivity
10-1-2 Allergen in Type I Hypersensitivity
10-1-3 IgE and receptor for IgE
10-1-4 Common diseases induced by Type I Hypersensitivity
10-2 Type II Hypersensitivity(Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity)
(Immune complex hypersensitivity)
10-3-1.The pathogenic causes of Type
III hypersensitivity
10-3-2 Common immune complex
diseases
10-4 Type IV Hypersensitivity
(Delayed Type Hypersensitivity)
10-4-1 Delayed Type Hypersensitivity 10-4-2 Intercellular reaction in delayed
type hypersensitivity
10-4-3
Common Type IV
hypersensitivity diseases
10-2-1 Injury mechanism of Type II Hypersensitivity
10-2-2 Type II Hypersensitivity and diseases
10-3 Type III Hypersensitivity(Immune complex hypersensitivity)10-3-1.The pathogenic causes of Type III hypersensitivity
10-3-2 Common immune complex diseases
10-4 Type IV Hypersensitivity(Delayed Type Hypersensitivity)10-4-1 Delayed Type Hypersensitivity
10-4-2 Intercellular reaction in delayed type hypersensitivity
10-4-3 Common Type IV hypersensitivity diseases
CHAPTER ELEVEN ABNORMAL IMMUNE RESPONSES
(異常免疫應答)
11-1 Auto immune response
11-1-1 The causes of auto immune response 11-1-2 Autoimmune diseases
11-2 Transplantation Immunology 11-2-1 Type of transplantation and immune response in allograft 11-2-2 Transplant antigen and transplant immunity 11-2-3 The approaches to reduce rejection of transplant
11-1 Auto immune response
11-1-1 The causes of auto immune response
11-1-2 Autoimmune diseases
11-2 Transplantation Immunology 11-2-1 Type of transplantation and immune response in allograft
11-2-2 Transplant antigen and transplant immunity
11-2-3 The approaches to reduce rejection of transplant
11-3 Anti-tumor Immunology 11-3-1 Tumor antigen
11-3-2 Host immune response to
tumor
11-3-3 Surveillance of and escape
from immunity to tumor
11-3-4 The therapeutic strategies in
immunity to tumor
11-4
Immunologic deficiency 11-4-1 Inherent immune deficiency 11-4-2 Acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome
11-3 Anti-tumor Immunology 11-3-1 Tumor antigen
11-3-2 Host immune response to tumor
11-3-3 Surveillance of and escape from immunity to tumor
11-3-4 The therapeutic strategies in immunity to tumor
11-4 Immunologic deficiency 11-4-1 Inherent immune deficiency
11-4-2 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome CHAPTER TWELVE THE EVOLUTION OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
(免疫系統的進化)
12-1 The immunity of invertebrate animals
12-1-1 Immune cells and their
defense ability 12-1-2 The functions of soluble immune factors in humoral fluid 12-1-3 Transplant immunity and MHC like functions
12-2
The immune evolution of
vertebrate animals
12-2-1 The lymphoid tissues in
primary vertebrate animals
12-2-2 Comparison of lymphotissue
evolution between
invertebrates and vertebrates
12-2-3 The evolutions of lymphocytes
and immune molecules in vertebrates 12-1 The immunity of invertebrate animals 12-1-1 Immune cells and their defense ability
12-1-2 The functions of soluble immune factors in humoral fluid
12-1-3 Transplant immunity and MHC like functions
12-2 The immune evolution of vertebrate animals 12-2-1 The lymphoid tissues in primary vertebrate animals
12-2-2 Comparison of lymphotissue evolution between invertebrates and vertebrates
12-2-3 The evolutions of lymphocytes and immune molecules in vertebrates
第二篇:雙語學習資料
雙語學習每周一句內容
漢語:你好嗎?
維吾爾語讀音:牙合西木斯子 ?
漢語:我很好。
維吾爾語讀音:那哈衣提牙合西。
漢語:您在哪里工作? 維吾爾語讀音:乃代 伊西萊斯孜?
漢語:我在巴州發改委工作。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 歐布拉斯提利克 塔熱克亞提 伊斯拉哈提木提提達 伊西萊曼。
漢語:您找我有什么事?
維語讀音:米尼 尼麥 衣西 比蘭 衣孜代普 開勒地英孜?
漢語:您叫什么名字?
維吾爾語讀音: 衣斯明厄孜 尼麥 ?
漢語: 您的電話號碼是多少?
維吾爾語讀音:鐵里佛尼 挪木扔額子 看恰?
漢語:請坐!維吾爾語讀音:歐魯土容!
漢語: 請喝茶!維吾爾語讀音:恰伊 依青!
漢語:謝謝!
闊
維吾爾語讀音:熱合麥提!
漢語:再見!
維吾爾語讀音:哈伊爾 后西!漢語:您找誰 ?
維吾爾語讀音: 開木尼 衣孜代斯孜? 漢語: 這是我的名片。
維吾爾語讀音:布 米能 衣斯木 喀爾塔木。
漢語:我們派車去接您。
維吾爾語讀音:斯孜尼 阿勒格力 馬西納 艾外提米孜。
漢語: 您到哪兒去? 維吾爾語讀音:乃該 巴日斯孜?
漢語:你工作忙嗎?
維吾爾語讀音:依西英額孜 阿了迪熱西木?
漢語:我來幫你。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 亞爾達目 克來。
漢語:我在寫工作總結。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 合孜麥提 胡拉斯斯 業子瓦提曼。
漢語:我們在開會
維吾爾語讀音:比孜 依跟 額其瓦提米茲。
漢語:我們在搞支部活動。
維吾爾語讀音:比孜 亞其卡 帕阿力依提 克力瓦提米茲。
漢語:今天下午,我們打掃衛生。
維吾爾語讀音:布棍 去西提因可因 塔孜力克 克力米茲。
漢語:我請假。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 若合賽特 索熱伊曼。
漢語:我在休假。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 阿熱木 額力瓦提曼。漢語:我上班了。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 伊西嘎 去西特木。
漢語:我下班了。
維吾爾語讀音:曼 伊西特尼 去西特木。漢語:祝你節日快樂!
維吾爾語讀音:巴衣日米英厄孜噶 木巴熱克 博勒松!
漢語:您何時來的?
維吾爾語讀音:喀強 開勒地英厄孜? 漢語: 請別見怪。
維吾爾語讀音:艾衣普開 博衣日芒。
漢語:祝你平安!維吾爾語讀音:阿曼 布龍!
漢語:祝您身體健康!
維吾爾語讀音:特尼英厄孜嘎 薩拉麥提里克 提來衣曼!
第三篇:_材料力學雙語教學學習資料3
材料力學雙語教學學習資料3
主講教師:陳曉峰
第七章應力和應變分析 強度理論
Chapter SevenStress and Strainprincipal stresses are not equal to zero.二向應力狀態:一個主應力為零的應力狀AnalysisStrength Theories
§7–1應力狀態概述
§7–1Concepts of the State of Stress
1.一點的應力狀態:過一點有無數的截面,這一點的各個截面上應力情況的集合,稱為這點的應力狀態。
state of stress at a point: There are countless sections through a point.The gathering of
stresses in all sections is called the state of stress at this point.2.單元體:構件內的點的代表物,是包圍被研究點的無限小的幾何體,常用的是正六面體。
Element: Delegate of a point in the member.It is an infinitesimalgeometricbody envelopingthe studied point.In common use it is a correctitudecubicbody.3.主單元體:各側面上剪應力均為零的單元體。
principalelement :The element in which the shearing stresses in side planes are all zero.4.主平面:剪應力為零的截面。
Principal Planes:The planes on which the shearing stresses are zero.5.主應力:主平面上的正應力。
principal stresses: Normal stresses acting on the principle planes.6.主應力排列規定;按代數值大小 ?1??2??3Convention of the order for three principal stresses: In magnitudeof the algebraicvalue.7.三向應力狀態:三個主應力都不為零的應力狀態。
state of the triaxial stress(three dimensional state of stress):State of stress that all the three
態。
state of the biaxial stress(plane state of stress): state of stress that one principal stress is equal to zero.單向應力狀態:一個主應力不為零的應力狀態
state of the uniaxial stress(unidirectional state of stress):state of stress that one principal stress is not equal to zero.§7–2 二向應力狀態分析——解析法 §7–2 Analysis of the State of Plane Stress—
AnalyticalMethod
1.任意斜截面上的應力:stresses acting in arbitraryinclined plane
2.正負規定:?? 截面外法線同向為正;
??繞研究對象順時針轉為正;
?逆時針為正。
Sign Stipulate:?? is positive if its direction is the same with one of the external normal line of the section;??is positive if it make the element rotate clockwise; A
counterclockwise angle ? is considered to be positive.§7–3 二向應力狀態分析——圖解法 §7–3 Analysis of the State of Plane Stress—
GraphicalMethod
1.應力圓 :stress circle
2.單元體與應力圓的對應關系:
Corresponding relation between the element and stress circle
(1)?面上的應力(? ?,? ?)?應力圓上一點(? ?,? ?)
(2)?面的法線 ? 應力圓的半徑
(3)兩面夾角?? 兩半徑夾角2? ;且轉向一致。
(1)stress(? ?,? ?)in ? plane?a point(? ?,? ?)on the stress circumference
(2)normal line of ? plane?radius of the stress circle(3)angle ? between two sections?angle 2? between two radiuses;And the direction of rotation is the same.§7–10強度理論概述
§7–10Concepts of Strength Theories1.材料的破壞形式:⑴ 屈服 ⑵ 斷裂 :types of failure of materials:⑴ yield⑵ rupture
2.強度理論:是關于“構件發生強度失效起因”的假說。
theories of strength:some assumptions about the cause of the strength failure of materials.§7–11四種常用強度理論
§7–11 Four Common Used Strength Theories 1.最大拉應力(第一強度)理論:
認為構件的斷裂是由最大拉應力引起的。當最大拉應力達到單向拉伸的強度極限時,構件就斷了。
theory of the maximum tensile stress(the first strength theory):
This theory considers the main cause of rupture to be the maximum tensile stress.The member will rupture as the maximum tensile stress reaches the strength limit in axial tension.2.最大伸長線應變(第二強度)理論:
認為構件的斷裂是由最大伸長線應變引起的。當最大伸長線應變達到單向拉伸試驗下的極限應變時,構件就斷了
Theory of the maximum tensile strain(the second strength theory):
This theory considers the main cause of rupture to be the maximum tensile strain.The member will rupture as the maximum tensile strain reaches the limit strain in axial tension3.最大剪應力(第三強度)理論:
認為構件的屈服是由最大剪應力引起的。當最大剪應力達到單向拉伸試驗的極限剪應力時,構件就破壞了。
Theory of the maximum shearing stress(the third strength theory):
This theory considers the main cause of rupture to be the maximum shearing stress.The member will rupture as the maximum shearing stress reaches the limit shearing stress in axial tension.4.畸變能密度(第四強度)理論:
認為構件的屈服是由形狀改變比能引起的。當形狀改變比能達到單向拉伸試驗屈服時的形狀改變比能時,構件就破壞了。
Theory of the distortionalenergy density(the fourth strength theory):
This theory considers the main cause of yield to be the distortional strain energy.The member will rupture as the distortional strain energy reaches the distortional strain energy of yield in axial tension
5.相當應力:equivalentstress 6.斷裂準則:criterionof rupture屈服準則:criterion of yield
第八章組合變形
Chapter Eight Composite Deformation
§8–1組合變形和疊加原理 §8–1Composite Deformation and
Superposition Principle
1.疊加原理的步驟:
The steps for principle of superposition
①外力分析:外力向形心簡化并沿形心主慣性軸分解
Analysis of external forces:External forces are reduced along the centroidof section and resolved along principal axes of inertia.②內力分析:求每個外力分量對應的內力方程和內力圖,確定危險面。
Analysis of internal forces:Determine the internal force equation and its diagram corresponding to each external force component and the critical section.③應力分析:畫危險面應力分布圖,疊加,建立危險點的強度條件。Analysis of stresses:Plot the distribution diagram of the stress in the critical section,do the superposition of the stresses and establish the strength condition of the critical point.平均應力。
Critical stress : average stress in the cross section §8–2拉伸(或壓縮)與彎曲的組合of the compressive column in the critical state.§8–2Composite Deformation of Tension
(or Compression)and Bending 2.柔度(或長細比):flexibility
(or slenderness ratio)§8–4扭轉與彎曲的組合§8–4 Combination of Torsion and Bending大柔度桿的臨界應力由歐拉公式來求;小 柔度桿的臨界應力就是它的屈服極限;中柔度
桿的臨界應力由經驗公式來求第九章壓桿穩定
The critical stress of the large flexibility column Chapter NineStabilization
is calculated by Euler’s formula.of Compressive Columns
The critical stress of small flexibility column is
its yield limit.§9–1壓桿穩定性的概念
The critical stress of the middle flexibility §9–1 Concepts of Stability of
column may be determined by the empirical Compressed Columns
formula.1.失穩:loss of stability
2.穩定與不穩定平衡:
stable and instable equilibrium§9–5壓桿的穩定校核3.臨界壓力: critical pressure§9–5Stability Check of Compressed Column1.穩定安全因數:safety coefficient of stability §9–2兩端鉸支細長壓桿的臨界壓力 2.穩定條件:stability condition§9–2 Critical Pressure of The SlenderCompressed Column With Two Hinged Ends §9–6提高壓桿穩定性的措施1.歐拉公式:Euler’s formula §9–6 Method to Improve Stability of 2.理想壓桿:材料絕對理想;軸線絕對直;壓Compressed Column力絕對沿軸線作用。1.選擇合理的截面形狀:choose reasonable Ideal compressive column: the material is section of the column: absolutelyideal;the axis is 2.改變壓桿的約束條件:change constraint
condition of the column absolutely straight;the compressive force is
absolutely along the axis of the column.3.合理選擇材料: choose reasonable material.§9–3其它支座條件下細長壓桿的臨界壓力 第十章 動載荷 §9–3Critical Pressure of The Slender Compressed Chapter TenDynamic Load
Column With Other End Conditions
§10–1 概述 1.?長度系數(約束系數):length coefficient
(or constraint coefficient)§10–1Introduction
2.兩端鉸支: two hinged ends 1.靜載荷:static loads
The loads don’t change with time(or change 3.一端固定另端自由:
one fixed end and one free end very stably and slowly)and acceleration of each
member is zero or may be neglected4.兩端固定: two fixed ends
5.一端固定另端鉸支:2.動載荷:dynamic loadsone fixed end and one hinged end The loads change sharply with time and thevelocity of the member changes obviously
§9–4歐拉公式的適用范圍經驗公式
§9–4Application Range of Euler’s Formula §9–2動靜法的應用Empirical Formula§9–2 Application of The Method of 1.臨界應力: 壓桿處于臨界狀態時橫截面上的Kinetic Statics
1.慣性力:inertiaforce
2.動荷系數:dynamic load coefficient
3.達朗伯原理:處于不平衡狀態的物體,存在慣性力,慣性力的方向與加速度方向相反,慣性力的數值等于加速度與質量的乘積。只要在物體上加上慣性力,就可以把動力學問題在形式上作為靜力學問題來處理,這就是動靜法。D’Alembert’s principle: There is inertial force on the body in unequilibrium.The direction of the inertial force is opposite to the acceleration of the body and the magnitude of the inertial force is the product of the mass and the acceleration of the body.After the inertial force is applied on the body the dynamic problem may be dealt with the static problem in form, which is called the method of kinetic statics.Exercise 1: The state of stress at a point as shown.(unit:Mpa),try to determine the three principal stresses.(either by analytical method or by graphical method).And compute the
equivalent stress of the fourth strength theory.Exercise 4:A hollow circular shaft is shown in the figure.Its inside diameter is d=24mm and its outside diameter is D=30mm.The diameters of pulley B and D are respectively D1=400mm and D2=600mm,P1=600N,[?]=100MPa.Try to check the strength of the shaft with the third strength theory.Exercise 5: A compressed rod produces the bending deformation due to the loss of stability.A beam produces the bending deformation due to the action of transverse forces.What are the differences of the two in nature?
Exercise 2: A circular rod made of cast iron is subjected to the loads T=7kNm, P=50kN as shown in the figure.Its diameter is d=0.1m, [?]=40MPa.Try to check the strength of the rod according to the theory of the first strength.Exercise 3: The cross-section area of the
square-section rod is reduced half at the section mn.Try to determine the maximum tensile stress at the section mn due to the axial force P.
第四篇:《駱駝祥子》輔助閱讀資料
《駱駝祥子》 舊北京人力車夫的辛酸故事(老舍)
好勝、要強的祥子憑著力氣拉車掙錢,指望自己能買一輛漂亮的洋車,不再受拴車人的氣,做一個“自由的洋車夫”。他早出晚歸,忍饑受凍,風里雨里整整拼了3年,終于攢足了100元,買了一輛新車。
20年代的北京,軍閥混戰,兵荒馬亂,祥子為了生存,還是起早貪黑地拉車,一天,他拉著車剛出西直門就被幾個抓夫的大兵連人帶車給抓走了。在隊伍逃走時,祥子痛心地看到自己的洋車拉著炮彈滾到山澗里去了……
大兵們逃散了,祥子意外地揀了亂軍留下的三匹駱駝。他賣了駱駝,又回到了車廠,幻想著再買輛洋車。大家傳說祥子賣了30匹駱駝,發了大財,給他取了個綽號叫“駱駝祥子”。
人和車廠廠主劉四的女兒虎妞,三十七八歲了還沒嫁人。車廠里的大事小事全憑她一人操持,她為人潑辣,沒人敢惹。她愛上了比自己小10多歲、老實巴交的祥子,拉他到屋里喝酒,祥子被灌醉后不能自持,被虎妞給纏住了。
事后,祥子又羞又悔又恨,為擺脫虎妞,他來到一位具有民主思想的大學教授曹先生家拉包月車。曹家人待他非常和藹,主仆相處十分融洽。祥子把掙的錢都攢在悶葫蘆罐里,一心還想買輛車。不料,虎妞找上門來,硬說有了身孕,一定要和祥子成親。這時,一個跟蹤曹先生的偵緝隊員(孫偵探)來到下房,把祥子辛辛苦苦攢的錢全搶走了。連遭厄運的祥子只好離開曹家,又回到人和車廠,地痞流氓出身的劉四,認定祥子高攀虎妞,是惦記他那60多輛洋車,認為女兒嫁給一個車夫是丟他的臉,揚言寧肯放火把車廠燒了,也不讓他們得到便宜。
虎妞表示非嫁給祥子不可,祥子只得和虎妞成了親。劉四賣掉了車廠,人也無影無蹤了。祥子婚后住在窮苦人生活的大雜院里,街坊二強子也是拉車的,他為了一家人活命竟逼女兒小福子賣身為娼,祥子對小福子的遭遇充滿了同情。
不久,虎妞難產而死,小福子心中早已隱藏著對祥子的感情,可是窮困卻不能使他們結合。祥子對小福子說:“你等著,等我混好了就來接你!”然而,生活的煎熬,使小福子再不能等待了。當對未來充滿希望的祥子去接她時,只見到樹權上掛著她上吊的繩套。
好勝心強的祥子在絕望中走向毀滅,終于被那吃人的社會吞沒了
典型情節:《在烈日和暴雨下》突出了祥子在烈日下、暴雨中拉車的情景,細膩逼真,令人感同身受,烘托出祥子拉車生活的艱辛和遭遇的悲慘。
精彩片斷:①怒辭楊宅(第五節)②曹家遇險(第十節)③晦暗的地獄(第十六節)④最后的絕望(第二十二、二十三節)
主要人物形象:①祥子:勤勞正直、誠實善良、純潔憨厚、堅強健壯的車夫,狹隘孤立的個人奮斗思想和殘酷腐敗的黑暗社會使他墮落為吃喝嫖賭、懶惰狡猾、骯臟猥瑣、自私麻木的行尸走肉。②虎妞管理車廠工人:具有二重性,一是有著自己追求幸福的愿望,對祥子有真誠的一面,另一是剝削者的意識已滲透她的靈魂之中,她想控制祥子,是家中的占有者、支配者,大膽潑辣而有點變態。③車主劉四:殘忍霸道。
主要藝術特色:①獨特的北京市民文化的表現者與批判者。②善于描寫老北京風土習俗、民情世俗。③語言俗白凝練。④獨特的諷刺藝術。⑤善于調動各種手法塑造人物,既有人物肖像描寫,又有人物 心理刻畫;同時善于通過環境描寫來烘托人物形象。
閱讀感受:①通過祥子的變化,無情地批判了這個黑暗的社會;②小說為我們展示了一幅怵目驚心的,具有濃郁的老北京風情的人物畫與世態畫;③善于調動各種手法塑造人物形象,具有強烈的藝術感染力;④創造性地運用北京市民的口語,使通俗樸素的語言文字變得生動新鮮,活潑有力,充滿了民族風格和地方特色。
老舍的長篇小說《駱駝祥子》每章節題目
第一節
他頭不是很大,圓眼,肉鼻子,兩條眉很短很粗,頭上永遠剃得發亮,腮上沒有多余的肉,脖子可是幾乎與頭一樣粗,臉上永遠紅撲撲的,特別亮的是顴骨與右耳之間一塊不小的傷疤——他是本文主人公()——小時候在樹下睡覺,被()啃了一口。
整整的()年,他湊足了()塊錢。花了其中的()元錢,買下了一輛新車,這一年他()歲。他把買車的這一天當作自己的生日。他的理想是也可以開個()。
第二節
戰爭的消息與謠言幾乎每年隨著春麥一塊兒長,()與()可以算作北方人的希望與憂懼的象征。
每逢戰爭一來,最著慌的是()們。
因為兩塊錢的誘惑,祥子和光頭的矮子拉車到了()門,卻連人帶車都被十來個兵給捉了去。遠外傳來了()聲,軍營里亂了起來,他決定趁此機會跑。
第三節
祥子從兵營里逃走,順手牽走了()只(),并且睡了一宿。
天亮時,他來到一個村子里,以()塊很亮的現洋,兩個棒子面餅子,外加一件破(),把它賣給一位老者。
第四節
祥子病倒,在一小店躺了()天,在說()和()時道出了他與駱駝的關系,他被叫做()。
祥子向原來租車的()車廠走去。車廠的老板()年輕的時候干過一切能干的壞事。他租金貴,但可以讓員工住。女兒叫虎妞。祥子回到車廠受到了()的款待。祥子把()元錢交給他們管,希望攢滿后再買車。
第五節
為了買車,他的行為很多同伴不理解,他選擇了一個包月服務,對像是()。可只過了()天,他就受不了奴才般的支使。
打牌完了,()撩袍拖帶的渾身找錢,預備著代會客人的車資,客人謙讓了兩句,她便仿佛要拼命的喊:這是怎么了,老妹子,到了我這兒,還沒這個車錢嗎!老妹子,坐上啦。他到這時候,才摸出來一毛錢。祥子看得清楚,她的手有點哆嗦。這是描寫誰?寫出了一個怎樣的她?
第六節
回到車場,他被虎妞給(),糊里糊涂上了她的床。他無比的羞愧難過,決定離開劉四和虎妞他們,結果碰到老主顧()先生。
第七節
曹先生不看低祥子,他是個有時候(),有時候也作些別的事的一個中等人物。他自居為()者,同時也是個唯美主義者。
祥子有一天晚間,不小心把曹先生摔傷了。他很內疚,但曹家的女仆()卻告訴祥子曹先生可好了,沒有責怪他。她是個三十二三歲的()。
第八節
高媽教祥子如何攢錢,說穿了就是去郵局辦個(),把錢存進去。
第九節
在曹家過得還順利,這時()來找祥子。她說自己(),這讓祥子蒙住了。
在外面一起走的時候,她說,趕到年前的()日,這一天是老頭子的(),你得來一趟。她并且把祥子存放的30多塊錢還給祥子。祥子可為難了,吃不下睡不香。
第十節
有一次在等曹先生和朋友去看()時,在茶館里碰到因餓暈倒的(),他有一個小孫子叫(),是個十二三歲的孩子。他曾是一個有車的車夫,可情況卻至此,大家都來幫著給他和孩子點吃的。祥子從他們看到了自己。
第十一節
可祥子卻仍然想攢錢買車,于是他天天看著自己那個()。
()那天下午,祥子發現有個騎()的人在跟蹤他,連()也怕他,原來是(緝)隊的。但最終祥子到家時準備報信時,被他抓住了。他姓()。他用槍威脅祥子用錢買命,把祥子所存的一點錢全部搶走。
第十二節
祥子第二次買車愿望又破滅,他很痛苦。他叫高媽通知曹先生快走。然后他碰到隔壁王家的車夫(),他人挺可愛的,還叫祥子抽()牌子的煙。祥子說起曹先生的事,曹先生有個叫()的學生。因為曹先生要求嚴格,于是()把曹先生到()部去告發他。
第十三節
曹先生離開了北京,祥子只好回到()車場,虎妞很高興。沒辦法寄人籬下,為了劉四爺的生日,祥子忙碌著。
劉四爺為了自己的生日,對車夫們做了很多要求,大家都有怒氣,找不到出路,全撒在()身上。
第十四節
劉四爺生日那天很熱鬧,祥子遭到大家調侃,老好人祥子差點和一個車夫()。劉四爺感覺凄涼難過,因為他沒(),因此把氣全撒在()身上。
第十五節
虎妞在()一個大雜院里租了房子。請()先生寫了幾個喜字。初(),虎妞在沒有任何親朋的祝賀下,把自己嫁出去了。她告訴祥子她并沒有真懷孕,而是把一個()褲腰上。這讓祥子氣死了。他想自己拉車,虎妞共帶了()百來塊錢,要祥子和她去向劉四道歉,祥子不肯。
第十六節
就是在這樣一個雜院租房內,()是唯一的有吃有穿不用著急得意的人。
虎妞一直想讓祥子去找劉四爺,可祥子不愿意,堅決要自力其食。有一次,祥子路過西安門大街,發現原來的車場名字改叫為()
第十七節
原來是劉四爺把車場給賣掉自己去游玩了,這讓()最動了心傷了心。虎妞決定把私房錢拿出一百給祥子買車。賣主是雜院里的(),他正要賣車。他在去年夏天把女兒小福子賣給了一個隨時可能調遣的()。
小福子回來了,她只有十九歲,此時她的()已經死了,是被她的爸爸喝醉后打死的。虎妞,一向不答理院中的人,可是她把()當成了朋友。一是因為她長得有點模樣,二是因為她有件像樣的(),三是因為她見過一些世面。
家貧最終導致小福子的父親逼著她去賣身,()不但不安慰小福子,反而愿意幫助她,提供錢打扮借給她地方。
第十八節
這年夏天,虎妞這次是真的(),她更加不愿動。這年夏天,烈日暴雨下的()這次也生病了。
第十九節
這一病就是一個多月,()也會時常看看,這讓()很不爽,開始為難她。
虎妞要生孩子了,祥子花大價錢請從德勝門外請來()——頂著一位蝦蟆大仙。可最終虎妞因()而死。
第二十節
虎妞死了,祥子把車也賣了。()對祥子表達了好感。可祥子因養不起她們一家人而選擇離開。快到立秋,他又拉上了包月,顧客是一位姓()的先生。
第二十一節
祥子這回又受到()的引誘,結果,他撒不出尿來了,得了一身臟病。從此祥子變得沒有那股正氣了。不再要強,甚至成為警察眼中頭等的()。冬天到了他拉了一位顧客往東城去,沒想到他竟是()。
第二十二節
祥子沒有出路,只好去找他的老主顧()先生。他甚至想和()結合,開始新的生活。受到指點后,祥子去找她,可沒消息。
第二十三節
祥子在大街上走,遇見()的祖父。知道()被迫賣身屈辱而死半年多了,到西直門一打聽,知道她吊樹而死。祥子崩潰了,也不想去老主顧了,從此更加沉淪不像樣。
第二十四節
這一年有這樣的新聞,說是要槍斃一個叫()的新聞。可這是因為()為了六十塊錢享受而把他給出賣告密的。
我們的舊北京的人力車夫()已經放縱到給人家辦紅白事里打雜維持生計,從此徹底走向墮落。這都是可惡的社會——它不讓好人老實人有出路。
第五篇:多媒體輔助教學
多媒體輔助教學
在農村初中物理教學中的作用
成都市同安初級中學校
廖明芳
隨著教育改革的不斷深入發展,隨著基礎教育逐步實現從應試教育向素質教育的轉軌,單純靠傳統的教師粉筆加黑板的“板上談兵”的模式已不能適應現代化教育的需要,學校教育正在探索、尋求新的課堂教學模式。同時,伴隨著計算機科學技術的高速發展,一門新興的技術——多媒體計算機輔助教學(Computer Assisted Instruction簡稱CAI)就應運而生。
多媒體是將多種媒體——包括文本、圖片、動畫、視頻、和聲音組合成一個大包。它是互動的,用戶通過選擇和控制成為其中一員。多媒體計算機能制作高保真聲音、三維圖像、真實如照片的圖片、電影片段和動畫。它既是強有力的教學工具,又能提供重要的商業服務,在家庭娛樂中還帶給你愉悅享受。
正確利用多媒體輔助教學使課堂生動形象,學生普遍感興趣,讓學生在活潑輕松的氣氛中學習,知識接受快,課堂效益好。正確使用多媒體,還能彌補實驗的不足,增加學生的視覺體驗;變抽象為直觀,便于學生思考。利用多媒體輔助教學,還能實現資源共享,拓寬視野,縮小學校之間、教師之間的差距。在物理教學中,主要體現在創設意境、突破難點、模擬實驗和演示整合四個方面。
在計算機輔助教學大行其道的環境下,我們要看到自己的實際情況:我們成都各周邊區市縣大部分初中學校為農村學校,農村初中學校的教育有著和城市初中學校不同的特點,給教育教學也帶來了一些和城市學校的不同之處,多媒體課件在教學中的應用也有著和城市學校不同的特點。
農村中學的特點
1、學校
我國教育的難點在農村,農村教育的難點在初中,農村初中學校信息閉塞,條件落后及學習資料有限等現狀,農村初中學校辦學條件較城市較差,包括教學環境、教學設施等方面都存在一定的差距。
為適應現代教學,近些年許多農村初級中學都配置了多媒體教學設備,修建了專門的多媒體教室,但在實際教學中,受多媒體設備數量少、會使用的教師不多等多種因素影響,卻很少投入使用。如我校多媒體教室一個,29個班,平時作會議室,教師賽課、上研究課才用。
2、教師。
農村物理教師本身的素質參差不齊,技能、技巧、設計能力不太強,再加上新教材剛剛起步,廣大教師駕馭新教材的能力和經驗不足,教師的實驗操作能力相對較低,不善于進行實驗教學,不善于進行創新,不善于設計實驗,學生的動手能力得不到鍛煉和培養,教師仍然使用老傳統的教學方法來進行教學。
3、學生
雖然實施義務教育法20多年了,但農村初中學生家庭成員的文化層次普遍較低,多數父母由于文化水平低,對孩子缺乏正確的輔導,造成學生基礎較差、知識脫節,思維相對不是很活躍。這些學生和城市學生相比,上網的機會較少,見識不是很廣,獲取知識和信息的渠道較單一,許多城市學生認為是“生活常識”或者很容易通過各種媒體了解到的知識點,農村學生還覺得不可思議。但農村學生更加樸實,對新鮮事物容易表現出濃厚的興趣,能夠提高他們的學習積極性,同時他們也更能接受新鮮事物。我們在教學中,如果抓住這些特點,合理利用,因材施教,就能取得較好的教學效果。
4、實驗設備
物理是一門以實驗為基礎的學科,物理教學中包含大量實驗內容,農村學校的教學設施往往很難保證這些實驗的順利完成。條件好一些的農村學校,演示實驗設備器材基本齊全,能夠開齊大部分演示實驗,學生實驗則很難全部完成;條件差一些的農村學校,演示實驗都不能得到保證,更不用說學生實驗了。
教學中,遇到這些問題時,少數老師不得已只能講實驗,盡力把實驗描述清楚;更為甚者,個別老師嫌做實驗麻煩,加上有些實驗現象不明顯,便有“做實驗不如講實驗”、“講實驗不如背實驗”的荒謬說法。大部分有責任心的老師只能夠通過一些土方法做實驗,或者干脆“板上談兵”。土方法做實驗,實驗現象不明顯,甚至還帶有一些干擾項;“板上談兵”更是不合實際,對學生本來就相對較差的抽象思維能力是一種考驗。
許多農村初中學校現有實驗室不夠,物理、化學、生物三門學科共用一個實驗室的現象還較為普遍,實驗教學中會相互干擾,影響教學效果;實驗器材與新教材不配套,新教材探究實驗大量增多,但學校的實驗器材少無法開展探究實驗,教師就只能選擇性地做演示實驗。
教學中如何利用多媒體輔助教學
針對農村中學實驗能力不足,在物理教學上效果較差的實際,要推廣多媒體輔助教學,不能好高騖遠,妄想將多媒體輔助教學的優點發揮得淋漓盡致。目前主要應將多媒體用于改進實驗,合理使用多媒體輔助教學,將彌補一些土方法實驗的缺陷,加深學生的感性認識,提高他們的學習積極性,達到較好的教學效果。
在教學中,用多媒體彌補實驗的不足,具體體現在以下幾方面:
1、動態、微觀和宏觀的無法做出來的實驗
在這一方面,農村學校和城市學校一樣,都存在沒法做出這樣的實驗的問題。但城市學生見識相對較廣,來自家庭、社會方面的獲取知識的途徑也更多,有些知識點對他們來說比較容易理解,教師在教學中只需要點到即可,但對許多農村學生,他們會覺得很難理解、不可思議。
如在講解液體內部的壓強這一部分內容時,要讓學生理解液體中不同深度壓強不同,由于學生沒有感性認識,理解起來有一定難度。盡管相關的實驗可以做,我們的演示實驗一般都是用一只在不同高度開孔的量筒,裝上一定量的水,讓學生看量筒底部的孔流出的水噴射得較遠,量筒頂部的噴射得較近,由此可看出不同液柱高度產生的壓強不同。但本實驗中,量筒容量有限,實驗過程很快結束,許多學生還沒能看清楚,印象不深。而拓展到深水處的壓強,舉出潛水艇之類的例子,城市學生也許很容易理解,但對農村學生而言,對這些事物的了解僅僅停留在名稱上面,沒有感性認識,理解起來比較困難。在以前的教學中,一些優生也只是停留在可以算出液體內部壓強的數據,而對其真實含義不甚了了。
在學校配備了多媒體教室之后,我結合這一實際,制作并使用了“液體內部壓強”的課件,將不易觀察的量筒實驗用圖形的形式表現出來,可以讓它長時間地停留在在投影畫面上,結合理論給學生作細致講解,當他們腦海里形成認識之后,再做這一演示實驗,盡管實驗過程很短,同學們都能一目了然地看清實驗現象,理解實驗原理,并且留下深刻的印象。再利用視頻片段“龍宮借寶”,對當中的淺海魚類不能游往深海加以講解,制作深海魚類又到淺海的結果動畫,進一步加深了學生們對液體內部壓強和深度有關的理解,同時通過液體內部壓強對生物機體影響的認識,得到了關于壓強的感性認識。課件中,還通過模擬我校不能做的帕斯卡桶實驗,使學生對液體內部壓強有了更深刻的認識。
再如,將光的直線傳播時,講到了日月食。我們地處中緯度地區,加上成都平原陰雨天較多,即使遇上日月食現象,我們的學生也很難看見,沒有感性認識;該物理現象又過于宏觀,無法在實驗室中向學生展示。教學中,我使用網上下載的日食動畫,利用慢鏡頭,邊講解邊演示,學生就更容易弄懂其中的知識點,探索到大自然中的奧妙,提高學習物理的興趣。
一些過于危險而沒法在實驗室完成的物理現象,也可以使用多媒體,加深學生的印象,提高教學效果。如高壓電觸電、核裂變核聚變的威力等,通過向學生播放一些相關的動畫、視頻,就能達到較好的教學效果。
2、學校條件不足無法開設的實驗
由于農村學校實驗設備相對簡陋,有些學生實驗甚至演示實驗都無法開設。如果用一些土方法進行演示,往往效果不明顯,有時甚至誤導學生。對這樣的實驗,如果使用多媒體輔助教學,較容易取得較好的教學效果。
如在浮力教學中,涉及的浮冰問題,對城市學校來說很容易做,而一些條件差的農村學校,做起來則有很大的困難,如果在講授這些內容時,制作相應的課件,就能變抽象為形象,結合分子運動的知識加以講解,使枯燥的的課堂生動起來,易于學生接受。
教學中,我設計制作了“浮冰問題”多媒體課件,通過動畫模擬實驗,使學生對簡單的浮冰問題和較復雜的“冰包物”浮冰問題都有了直觀印象,結合對本實驗的理論分析演示,使該問題在學生大腦里刻下深深的烙印,取得了單純的黑板加粉筆教學難以達到的教學效果。
有些物理新知識點通過和學生已掌握的舊知識點對比,更容易接受并且印象更深刻,如教材在處理電流的形成時,將之和水流形成對比起來,非常生動和形象。而這一讓學生很容易接受新知識的小實驗,許多農村初級中學卻沒法完成,難點在加抽水機使兩邊容器有恒定的水壓上。我只做了“電壓”的多媒體課件,用動畫將該實驗形象地模擬出來,再配上相關的練習,教學中學生普遍感覺印象深刻。
合理利用多媒體虛擬實驗室,也能彌補很多由于實驗條件不足帶來的困難。如:使用“中學電路虛擬實驗室”,能完成初中物理教學中大部分電學實驗,加上適當講解引導,很大程度上能解決由于設備問題帶來的實驗不能開設的教學難題。
3、物理知識在生活中的應用部分
物理知識在許多科學技術領域、日常生活中都能得到廣泛的應用,了解這些情況,有利于學生更好地吸收所學知識點。但由于農村學校和學生條件有限,使學生們不能很好地了解這些應用,不能很直觀地接受這些知識。
如在講授“連通器”部分內容時,連通器在生活中的應用有過路涵洞、船閘等,但在許多農村,過路涵洞現在也極為少見,船閘更是無從談起。城市學校、學生教學條件和生活條件都較好,他們可以通過實驗、參觀等方法讓學生形成感性認識,從而輕松地接受其中的物理知識點;對大部分像我區這樣的內陸農村學生,連小船都很少見,更不用說船閘了。針對這一實際,我制作了簡單的動畫“船閘”,生動地演示了輪船通過船閘的過程和船閘的工作原理,通過課堂應用,所有學生都能輕松接受這部分知識。多媒體輔助教學的不足
運用多媒體輔助教學,可以激活學生思維,活躍課堂氣氛,擴大學生參與度。但凡事都有個“度”,多媒體輔助教學也不例外。在現實中,城市課堂上出現了大量錯誤的認識。農村初級中學由于在多媒體輔助教學方面起步較晚,大多數學校這方面的問題還不明顯,但也要防微杜漸。現將多媒體輔助教學的不足簡單列舉如下:
1、盲目追求多媒體的表現形式,忽略了它僅僅是一種輔助手段的本質。
不少人認為要算得上現代教學,就一定要用課件來輔助教學。甚至在一些評優課中,有的評委還存在“沒有電教手段就不予以考慮”的思想。還有的教師認為電腦演示實驗,模擬的現象更精確,更直觀生動,而且模擬實驗的結果一定準確,學生由此得出的結論一定科學,可以避免學習過程中走彎路??因此就可以不做或少做實驗而用計算機來取代實驗。物理學科最鮮明的特點是以實驗為基礎,實驗室能做的實驗,我認為就不宜再用多媒體的模擬來替代,否則就失去了學生自己參與實驗去探究、去體會的機會。戴爾的“經驗之塔”理論認為,人們學習知識,一是通過自己直接經驗獲得,即注重過程而獲得的經歷;二是通過間接經驗獲得。這說明,如果學生能夠自己直接動手,親自體驗,就不必用多媒體來模擬展示。
2、過分追求“短、平、快”,忽略學生思維所需要的時間停頓。由于多媒體技術的出現,讓板書時間、實驗時間大大縮短,節省了時間必然會增大容量,信息延伸,有些教師忽視了學生的接受能力,其連接的內容多、信息量大,在教學中卻不一定是件好事。由于課堂容量大了,老師都會不自覺地增加內容,其實其中很多信息都游離在教學目標之外,成為脫離實際的無用信息,既分散了學生的注意力,有浪費了學生寶貴的時間。這就使課堂教學成了變種的填鴨式教學,這是一種穿著漂亮外衣的高級的填鴨式教學。
為了避免學生在高亮度的大屏幕前,不知所云;避免由于容量大,節奏快,再加上沒有給學生停頓思考時間,造成學生記憶中暫留的時間太短,刺激不夠強烈,印象不夠清晰,導致的教學效果不好,在運用多媒體輔助教學中,要避免將教學內容全部由計算機包辦代替,留給學生實驗時間和消化知識的時間。
學好物理最關鍵的是“理解”二字,物理學習必須通過過程思維活動,來獲得對知識的“理解”。實驗證明,凡是需要展示過程的內容,能在教學中體現“思考過程”的教學活動才是最有效的。
3、過分追求材料的直觀形象,不利于學生抽象思維能力的培養。
根據認識論中“最近發展區”的教學原理,在教學中應重視思維活動的“最近發展區”,以使學生能夠達到“跳起來摘桃”的最佳學習心理。物理教學中,教師根據學生思維能力的具體情況,運用多媒體為學生提供恰當的直觀材料,幫助學生順利進行物理思維活動。但是,教學過程處理得過分直觀,過分形象,過分信賴多媒體的展示功能,會降低學生的思維水平,影響學生思維的發展,以致學生“長不大”失去了對其思維能力的全方位培養。
說到底,多媒體技術僅僅是一種工具,而工具的本身是沒有什么好壞之分的,關鍵在于使用者本人。譬如一把切菜的刀,他的本身是沒有什么是與不是的,但是如果有人用它去切菜時就認為這是一把有用的刀,反之如果有人拿他去做違法之事,那么人們就會說這不是一把好刀。多媒體課件亦如此,問題的關鍵在于奮斗在教育工作崗位第一線的教師們,應該好好的思考,如何好好的利用好這把“刀”。制作多媒體課件的常用軟件
常用的制作多媒體課件的軟件主要是PowerPoint、Flash和Authorware。
PowerPoint是Microsoft Office家族的成員,有97、2000、XP、2003、2007等版本,利用它可以靈活地制作文字、圖片、圖表、聲音、動畫和視頻等多種媒體組合成電子文稿。該軟件簡單易用,無需用戶有很深入的計算機知識和繪畫基礎,只需用PowerPoint提供的模板和向導性提示,就可制作一份精美的演示文稿。
Flash是Macromedia公司的產品,是伴隨著網絡動畫的流行而流行起來的一種平面動畫制作軟件,該軟件具有通俗易懂的特點,學起來不用掌握太復雜的編程語言。利用Flash制作出來的動畫容量小,通常1張軟盤就能裝下(盡管現在幾乎沒人用軟盤了),并且使用矢量圖,制作出來的動畫任意放大都不會失真,在需要動畫演示的教學中,應用非常廣泛。Authorware也是Macromedia公司的產品,它是一個可視化的多媒體集成環境,為設計者提供了一套符號化的設計圖標為主要的設計對象,軟件制作過程中復雜的邏輯關系可通過對各種圖標進行直觀的布局加以實現,設計者無需掌握復雜的程序設計語言既可通過設計圖標的有機組合,輕松地將圖像、文字、聲音、視頻和動畫集于一體,制作出有專業水平的多媒體課件。交互性強是該軟件的一大特點。
學習和熟練使用這些軟件需要一個過程,其實在多媒體輔助教學中,有時根本不用使用復雜的制作軟件,制作多復雜的教學課件,就能達到較好的教學效果。因為在應用多媒體輔助教學中,更多的時候是拓展學生的知識面,使之見識到平時見不到的物理知識的應用情況,增強他們對物理有用、學好物理的觀念和信心。要達到這樣的教學目的,很多時候教師們用不著制作多么高深、復雜的課件,只需要通過截取影視作品中的相關片斷、互聯網上尋找一些相關的視頻或圖片,在課堂上利用多媒體設備展示給學生,就能取得較好的教學效果。比如在“運動和靜止”教學中講到空中加油、同步衛星等的相對靜止時,簡單地展示一兩份圖片,就能讓學生得到感性認識,達到預期的教學效果。
通過應用多媒體輔助教學,在另一方面還促進了教師傳統的教學觀念的轉變,也促使教師通過各種媒介不斷學習學科的相關知識、學習計算機知識,拓展自己的知識結構,為更好地進行教學活動、提高教學質量做好知識和技能的儲備。