第一篇：中國海洋大學船舶與海洋工程材料期末考試復習的題目
第一單元
1、從原始結構上，晶體與非晶體的區別
A組成晶體的基本質點在空間有一定的排列規律，因此警惕都有規則的外形 B具有一定熔點 C各向異性
2、晶體有什么缺陷，它們對性能有什么影響
點缺陷:點缺陷的形成，主要是由于原子在各自平衡位子上做不停的熱運動的結果。空位和間隙原子的數目隨著溫度的升高而增加。此外，其他加工和處理，如塑性加工、離子轟擊等，也會增加點缺陷。
點缺陷造成晶格畸變，使材料的強度、硬度和電阻率增加以及其他力學、物理、化學性能的改變。
線缺陷: 位錯的出現使位錯線周圍造成晶格畸變，畸變程度隨離位錯線的距離增大而逐漸減小直至為零。嚴重晶格畸變的范圍約為幾個原子間距。隨著位錯密度的增高，材料的強度將會顯著增加，所以提高位錯密度是金屬強化的重要途徑之一。面缺陷:（1）在腐蝕介質中，晶界處較晶內易腐蝕。
（2）晶界面上的原子擴散速度較晶內的原子擴散速度快。（3)晶界附近硬度高，晶界對金屬的塑性變形起阻礙作用。（4）當金屬內部發生相變時，晶界處是首先形核的地方。
3、畫出立方晶格的晶向：
4、碳鋼在鍛造溫度范圍內，變形時是否會有加工硬化現象，為什么？
5、分析加工硬化現象的利與弊，如何消除和利用加工硬化 加工硬化，也稱為形變強化或冷作硬化。利用形變強化現象來提高金屬材料的強度。
冷態壓力加工使電阻有所增大；抗蝕性降低 ；尺寸精度高及表面質量好。金屬的硬度強度顯著上升，韌性塑性下降。
加工硬化通過金屬再結晶，增加中間退火工序 消除
6、鉛的變形（過冷度。）
7、金屬結晶的規律是什么？晶核的形核率和長大率受哪些因素影響
金屬的結晶過程：形核與長大的過程。形核包括自發形核和非自發形核。晶核的長大方式：枝晶成長。冷卻度越大，晶體的枝晶成長越明顯。
3晶粒大小與形核率N（晶核數/(s·cm)）和長大速度G（cm／s）有關。影響形核率和長大速度的重要因素是冷卻速度(或過冷度)和難熔雜質。
8、為什么材料一般希望獲得細晶粒
細化晶粒在提高金屬強度的同時也改善了金屬材料的韌性。
因為晶粒越小，晶界越多。晶界處的晶體排列是非常不規則的，晶面犬牙交錯，互相咬合，因而加強了金屬間的結合力。工業中常用細化晶粒的方法來提高金屬材料的機械性能，稱為細晶強化。過冷度：過冷度越大，產生的晶核越多，導致晶粒越細小。通常采用改變澆注溫度和冷卻條件的辦法來細化晶粒。
9、為什么單晶體具有各向異性，而多晶體則無各向異性
因為單晶體的物體整個物體就是一個單一結構的巨大晶粒，比如各種常溫下是固體的離子化合物，NaCl、CuSO4·5H2O、NaOH等。
而多晶體是由很多微波的晶粒構成的整體，如各種金屬，在整個物體內，這些晶粒的排列方向是雜亂無章的。
各向異性是晶格中不同方向上由于原子的排列周期性和疏密程度不同導致的結果，所以單晶體中(一個巨大晶粒)具有各向異性，而多晶體中的每一個微波的晶粒雖然有各向異性，但是由于宏觀上所有晶粒的排列的雜亂無章，導致了各個方向上的各向異性互相抵消，表現出來的結果就是各向同性。
第二單元
1、指出下列名詞的區別：置換固溶體與間隙固溶體，相組成物與組織組成物；、在固態下，合金組元間會相互溶解，形成在某一組元晶格中包含有其他組元的新相，這種新相稱為固溶體。晶格與固溶體相同的組元為固溶體的溶劑，其他組元為溶質。
根據溶質在溶劑晶格中所處的位置，可將固溶體分為置換固溶體和間隙固溶體。間隙固溶體：溶質原子在溶劑晶格中并不占據晶格結點位置，而是嵌入溶劑晶格各結點的空隙處，這樣形成的固溶體叫做間隙固溶體。
置換固溶體：溶質原子代替了一部分溶劑原子，占據了溶劑晶格結點的位置而形成的固溶體叫做置換固溶體。
相 ：合金中具有相同的物理、化學性能、并與該系統的其余部分以界面分開的物質部分。
合金組織：用金相顯微鏡觀察法，在金屬及合金內部看到的涉及各相（晶體或晶粒）大小、方向、形狀、排列狀況等組成關系和構造情況。當材料成分一定時，相同的相在不同處理條件下形成，會具有各種不同的形態（大小、方向、形狀、排列狀況等），從而構成不同的顯微組織。可見，一個相可以構成一種或一種以上的組織。
2、畫相圖
3、A、B兩組元，B熔點大于A，組成二元勻晶相圖：分析對錯：（1）組元晶格不同，大小一定相同（錯）（2）固溶體合金按勻晶相圖平衡結晶時，由于不同溫度下結晶出來的固溶體成分和剩余液相成分不相同，所以是。。（錯）
第三單元
1、何謂鐵素體、滲碳體、奧氏體、萊氏體、珠光體，它們組織結構性能形態的特點
(1)鐵素體 ：常用符號F或α表示。其溶碳能力差。鐵素體的強度差，硬度低，塑性好。
(2)奧氏體：常用符號A或γ表示。在1147℃時可溶碳2.06％。是一種硬度較低而塑性較高的固溶體。常作為各類鋼的加工狀態。奧氏體不可能全部轉變為馬氏體，總有部分殘余奧氏體存在。
(3)滲碳體 ： 碳與鐵的化合物(Fe3C)，叫滲碳體，含碳為6.67％。滲碳體的硬度高，約為800HB，極脆，塑性幾乎等于零，熔點為l227℃。
高溫鐵素體 ：以δ表示。碳在δ—Fe中的最大溶解度為0.10％，δ固溶體只存在于高溫很小的區間，對鋼鐵的性能影響不大。A1~650℃ ：珠光體，或稱普通片狀珠光體（P）650~600℃ ：細珠光體稱為索氏體(S)。
2、分析含碳為0.45%，1.0%，3%，4.7%的鐵碳合金從液態冷卻至室溫的過程，并畫出室溫下的顯微示意圖
3、根據滲碳體圖計算：（1）室溫下，含碳為0.45%的鋼中，鐵素體和珠光體各占多少（2）室溫下，含碳為1.0%的鋼中，珠光體和滲碳體各占多少（3）鐵碳合金中，二次滲碳體的最大百分含量是多少
4、積壓的碳鋼不明成分，發現組織80%鐵素體和珠光體，求碳的含量
5、奧氏體形成過程分那幾個階段?影響奧氏體過程的因素有哪些？
將共析鋼加熱到稍高于Ac1的溫度，便發生珠光體(P)向奧氏體(A)的轉變，其轉變式可寫成F 0.02 %
?
FeC
?
A 0.8 %
奧氏體的形成過程，也稱為“奧氏體化”，它是一個形核、長大、Fe 溶解和成分均勻化的過程，由以上四個階段組成。3C影響因素：
(1)加熱溫度和加熱速度(2)原始組織
(3)合金元素
6、簡述加熱溫度和保溫時間對鋼的奧氏體晶粒尺寸及其冷卻后的組織和性能的影響
奧氏體形成過程結束后，如繼續提高加熱溫度或在當前溫度下保溫更長時間，將會發生奧氏體晶粒長大的現象。
奧氏體實際晶粒大小，對冷卻后鋼的組織和性能有很大的影響。奧氏體晶粒過大，會使冷卻后的鋼材強度、塑性和韌性下降，尤其是塑性和韌性下降更為顯著。
在熱處理時，為了控制奧氏體晶粒大小，應合理選擇鋼件材料并嚴格控制加熱溫度和保溫時間。
7、畫圖
8、退火、正火、淬火、回火的目的是什么？加熱溫度范圍和冷卻方法如何選擇，各應用在什么場合，熱處理后形成的組織是什么？
退火是將鋼加熱到預定溫度，保溫一定時間后緩慢冷卻(通常隨爐冷卻)，獲得接近于平衡組織的熱處理工藝。
目的：(1)降低硬度，改善切削加工性。
(2)消除殘余應力，穩定尺寸，減少變形與開裂傾向。(3)細化晶粒，調整組織，消除組織缺陷。
完全退火 是將鋼加熱到Ac3以上20—30℃，保溫一定時間后隨爐冷卻到500 ℃以下，再出爐空冷的熱處理工藝。使熱加工過程中造成的粗大不均勻組織均勻細化，降低硬度，提高塑性，改善加工性能，消除內應力。適用于亞共析鋼和鑄件、鍛件及焊接件。
球化退火 是將鋼加熱到Ac1以上l0~30℃，保溫較長時間后以極其緩慢的速度冷卻到600 ℃以下，再出爐空冷的熱處理工藝。適用于共析和過共析鋼及合金工具鋼。滲碳體球化，降低材料硬度，改削切削加工性，并可減小最終淬火變形和開裂，為以后的熱處理作準備，適用于共析和過共析鋼及合金工具鋼。
正火 是將鋼加熱到Ac3，(亞共析鋼)或Accm(共析和過共析鋼)以上30～50℃，保溫適當時間后在靜止空氣中冷卻的熱處理工藝。目的：
(1)對普通碳素鋼、低合金鋼和力學性能要求不高的結構件，可作為最終熱處理。(2)對低碳素鋼用來調整硬度，避免切削加工中“粘刀”現象，改善切削加工性。(3)對共析、過共析鋼用來消除網狀二次滲碳體，為球化退火作好組織上的準備。
淬火 是將鋼加熱到Ac3或Ac1以上30~50℃，經過保溫后在冷卻介質中迅速冷卻的熱處理工藝。
淬火可以使鋼件獲得馬氏體和貝氏體組織，以提高鋼的力學性能，并為調質處理做好組織準備。
淬火是強化鋼件的最主要的而且是最常用的熱處理方法。
回火 就是把經過淬火的零件重新加熱到低于Ac1的某一溫度，適當保溫后，冷卻到室溫的熱處理工藝。回火目的
(1)消除或降低內應力，降低脆性。防止變形和開裂。
(2)穩定組織，穩定尺寸和形狀，保證零件使用精度和性能。
(3)通過不同回火方法，來調整零件的強度、硬度，獲得所需要的韌性和塑性。
1．低溫回火
回火溫度范圍為150~250℃，回火組織是回火馬氏體，硬度為58~64HRC。低溫回火的主要目的是降低鋼的淬火應力和減少脆性，并保持其高硬度和高耐磨性，適用于刃具、量具、模具、滾動軸承及滲碳、表面淬火的零件。
2．中溫回火
回火溫度范圍為350~500℃，回火組織是回火屈氏體，硬度為35~45HRC。中溫回火的目的是獲得高的彈性極限和屈服強度，并具有一定的韌性和抗疲勞能力。適應于各種彈簧和鍛模等。
3．高溫回火
回火溫度范圍為500~650℃，回火組織是回火索氏體，硬度為25~35HRC。高溫回火的目的是獲得較高強度的同時，還有較好的塑性和韌性。廣泛適應于處理各種重要的零件，特別是受交變載荷和沖擊作用力的連桿、曲軸、齒輪和機床主軸等。也常作為精密零件和模具、量具的預備熱處理，以獲得均勻組織、減小淬火變形，為后續的表面淬火、滲氮等作好組織準備。生產中常把淬火和高溫回火相結合的熱處理方法稱為調質處理。
9、為什么要進行表面淬火，常用的表面淬火的方法有哪些？和化學熱處理有什么異同？
表面淬火方法是將淬火零件表層金屬迅速加熱至相變溫度以上，而心部未被加熱，然后迅速冷卻，使零件表層獲得馬氏體而心部仍為原始組織的“外硬內韌”狀態。含碳量在0.40％~0.50％為宜。
為了保證心部較好的塑性和韌性，在表面淬火前應進行正火或調質處理。表面淬火目前應用較多的是感應加熱淬火法和火焰加熱淬火法。
鋼的化學熱處理是將金屬或合金工件置于一定溫度的活性介質中保溫，使一種或幾種元素滲入表層，以改變其化學成分、組織和性能的熱處理工藝。
10、淬透性、淬硬層深度、淬硬性的概念，影響淬透性的因素有哪些？ 淬透性是指淬硬層的深度，淬透性：鋼的臨界冷卻速度－合金元素。淬硬性是指鋼淬火時的硬化能力，用淬成M可能得到的最高硬度表示，取決于M中的C%.淬硬性好，淬透性不一定好 淬透性好，淬硬性不一定好
淬透層深度：由工件表面→半馬氏體點(50%M)的深度
鋼的淬透性——指鋼材被淬透的能力，或者說鋼的淬透性是指表征鋼材淬火時獲得馬氏體的能力的特性。
淬透性系指淬火時獲得馬氏體難易程度。它主要和鋼的過冷奧氏體的穩定性有關，或者說與鋼的臨界淬火冷卻速度有關，可硬性指淬成馬氏體可能得到的硬度，因此它主要和鋼中含碳量有關。
影響鋼的淬透性主要是 鋼的臨界冷卻速度，臨界冷卻速度越小，鋼的淬透性越大。（鋼的化學成分、奧氏體晶粒度、奧氏體化溫度、第二相及其分布）
影響臨界冷卻速度的原因主要是：(1)鋼的含碳量(2)合金元素(除Co外，多數元素使Vc↓)(3)鋼中未溶物質→促進A分解→Vc↑。此外，工件的截面尺寸和淬火的冷卻速度也影響了鋼的淬硬層深度，第四單元
1、為什么比較重要的大截面的結構零件如重型運輸機械和礦山機器的軸類，大型發電機轉子等都必須用合金鋼制造？與碳鋼比較，合金鋼有何優缺點？
答： 碳鋼制成的零件尺寸不能太大，否則淬不透，出現內外性能不均，對于一些大型的機械零件，（要求內外性能均勻），就不能采用碳鋼制作，比較重要的大截面的結構零件如重型運輸機械和礦山機器的軸類，大型發電機轉子等都必須用合金鋼制造。(1)如上所述合金鋼的淬透性高(2)合金鋼回火抗力高
碳鋼淬火后，只有經低溫回火才能保持高硬度，若其回火溫度超過200℃，其硬度就顯著下降。即回火抗力差，不能在較高的溫度下保持高硬度，因此對于要求耐磨，切削速度較高，刃部受熱超過200℃的刀具就不能采用碳鋼制作而采用合金鋼來制作。(3)合金鋼能滿足一些特殊性能的要求
如耐熱性、耐腐蝕性、耐低溫性（低溫下高韌性）。
選擇下列零件的熱處理方法，并編寫簡明的工藝路線（各零件均選用鍛造毛坯，并且鋼材具有足夠的淬透性）：
（1）某機床變速箱齒輪（模數m=4），要求齒面耐磨，心部強度和韌性要求不高，材料選用45鋼；
（2）某機床主軸，要求有良好的綜合機械性能，軸徑部分要求耐磨（HRC 50-55），材料選用45鋼； 答：（1）下料→鍛造→正火→粗加工→精加工→局部表面淬火+低溫回火→精磨→成品（2）下料→鍛造→正火→粗加工→調質→精加工→局部表面淬火+低溫回火→精磨→成品
3、某型號柴油機的凸輪軸，要求凸輪表面有高的硬度（HRC>50），而心部具有良好的韌性（Ak>40J），原采用45鋼調質處理再在凸輪表面進行高頻淬火，最后低溫回火，現因工廠庫存的45鋼已用完，只剩15鋼，擬用15鋼代替。試說明：（1）原45鋼各熱處理工序的作用；
（2）改用15鋼后，應按原熱處理工序進行能否滿足性能要求？為什么？
（3）改用15鋼后，為達到所要求的性能，在心部強度足夠的前提下采用何種熱處理工藝？ 答：（1）正火處理可細化組織，調整硬度，改善切削加工性；調質處理可獲得高的綜合機械性能和疲勞強度；局部表面淬火及低溫回火可獲得局部高硬度和耐磨性。
（2）不能。改用15鋼后按原熱處理工序會造成心部較軟，表面硬，會造成表面脫落。（3）滲碳。
4、有一個為10mm的杠類元件，受中等拉壓荷載作用，要求零件沿截面性能均勻一致，供選材料有：16Mn、45、40Cr、T12（1）選擇合適的材料（2）編制簡明的工藝路線（3）說明各個熱處理工序的作用
5、拖拉機的變速齒輪材料：20CrMnTi，要求材料硬度：58-64HRC，分析說明采用什么熱處理工藝，才能達到這要求 滲碳 淬火+低溫回火
6、有一塊凹模，材料為Cr12MoV,因材料下錯，下成T12A，分析：（1）如果按Cr12MoV進行預備熱處理和最終熱處理，凹模會產生哪些缺陷（2）如果按Cr12MoV進行預備熱處理，而最終熱處理按T12A進行，凹模會產生哪些缺陷
（1）Cr12MoV預備熱處理（正火+球化退火）Cr12MoV最終熱處理（淬火+低溫回火）
7、說明電化學腐蝕的原理是什么？
8、擬用T10制造形狀簡單的車刀，工藝路線為： 鍛造—熱處理—機加工—熱處理—磨加工
? 試寫出各熱處理工序的名稱并指出各熱處理工序的作用； ? 指出最終熱處理后的顯微組織及大致硬度； ? 制定最終熱處理工藝規定（溫度、冷卻介質）
答：（1）工藝路線為：鍛造—退火—機加工—淬火后低溫回火—磨加工。退火處理可細化組織，調整硬度，改善切削加工性；淬火及低溫回火可獲得高硬度和耐磨性以及去除內應力。
（2）終熱處理后的顯微組織為回火馬氏體，大致的硬度60HRC。
（3）T10車刀的淬火溫度為780℃左右，冷卻介質為水；回火溫度為150℃～250℃。
第二篇：船舶與海洋工程材料期末考試的題目
第一單元
1、從原始結構上，晶體與非晶體的區別
A組成晶體的基本質點在空間有一定的排列規律，因此警惕都有規則的外形 B具有一定熔點 C各向異性
2、晶體有什么缺陷，它們對性能有什么影響
點缺陷:點缺陷的形成，主要是由于原子在各自平衡位子上做不停的熱運動的結果。空位和間隙原子的數目隨著溫度的升高而增加。此外，其他加工和處理，如塑性加工、離子轟擊等，也會增加點缺陷。
點缺陷造成晶格畸變，使材料的強度、硬度和電阻率增加以及其他力學、物理、化學性能的改變。
線缺陷: 位錯的出現使位錯線周圍造成晶格畸變，畸變程度隨離位錯線的距離增大而逐漸減小直至為零。嚴重晶格畸變的范圍約為幾個原子間距。隨著位錯密度的增高，材料的強度將會顯著增加，所以提高位錯密度是金屬強化的重要途徑之一。面缺陷:（1）在腐蝕介質中，晶界處較晶內易腐蝕。
（2）晶界面上的原子擴散速度較晶內的原子擴散速度快。（3)晶界附近硬度高，晶界對金屬的塑性變形起阻礙作用。（4）當金屬內部發生相變時，晶界處是首先形核的地方。
3、畫出立方晶格的晶向：
4、碳鋼在鍛造溫度范圍內，變形時是否會有加工硬化現象，為什么？
5、分析加工硬化現象的利與弊，如何消除和利用加工硬化 加工硬化，也稱為形變強化或冷作硬化。利用形變強化現象來提高金屬材料的強度。
冷態壓力加工使電阻有所增大；抗蝕性降低 ；尺寸精度高及表面質量好。金屬的硬度強度顯著上升，韌性塑性下降。
加工硬化通過金屬再結晶，增加中間退火工序 消除
6、鉛的變形（過冷度。）
7、金屬結晶的規律是什么？晶核的形核率和長大率受哪些因素影響
金屬的結晶過程：形核與長大的過程。形核包括自發形核和非自發形核。晶核的長大方式：枝晶成長。冷卻度越大，晶體的枝晶成長越明顯。
3晶粒大小與形核率N（晶核數/(s·cm)）和長大速度G（cm／s）有關。影響形核率和長大速度的重要因素是冷卻速度(或過冷度)和難熔雜質。
8、為什么材料一般希望獲得細晶粒
細化晶粒在提高金屬強度的同時也改善了金屬材料的韌性。
因為晶粒越小，晶界越多。晶界處的晶體排列是非常不規則的，晶面犬牙交錯，互相咬合，因而加強了金屬間的結合力。工業中常用細化晶粒的方法來提高金屬材料的機械性能，稱為細晶強化。過冷度：過冷度越大，產生的晶核越多，導致晶粒越細小。通常采用改變澆注溫度和冷卻條件的辦法來細化晶粒。
9、為什么單晶體具有各向異性，而多晶體則無各向異性
因為單晶體的物體整個物體就是一個單一結構的巨大晶粒，比如各種常溫下是固體的離子化合物，NaCl、CuSO4·5H2O、NaOH等。
而多晶體是由很多微波的晶粒構成的整體，如各種金屬，在整個物體內，這些晶粒的排列方向是雜亂無章的。
各向異性是晶格中不同方向上由于原子的排列周期性和疏密程度不同導致的結果，所以單晶體中(一個巨大晶粒)具有各向異性，而多晶體中的每一個微波的晶粒雖然有各向異性，但是由于宏觀上所有晶粒的排列的雜亂無章，導致了各個方向上的各向異性互相抵消，表現出來的結果就是各向同性。
第二單元
1、指出下列名詞的區別：置換固溶體與間隙固溶體，相組成物與組織組成物；、在固態下，合金組元間會相互溶解，形成在某一組元晶格中包含有其他組元的新相，這種新相稱為固溶體。晶格與固溶體相同的組元為固溶體的溶劑，其他組元為溶質。
根據溶質在溶劑晶格中所處的位置，可將固溶體分為置換固溶體和間隙固溶體。間隙固溶體：溶質原子在溶劑晶格中并不占據晶格結點位置，而是嵌入溶劑晶格各結點的空隙處，這樣形成的固溶體叫做間隙固溶體。
置換固溶體：溶質原子代替了一部分溶劑原子，占據了溶劑晶格結點的位置而形成的固溶體叫做置換固溶體。
相 ：合金中具有相同的物理、化學性能、并與該系統的其余部分以界面分開的物質部分。
合金組織：用金相顯微鏡觀察法，在金屬及合金內部看到的涉及各相（晶體或晶粒）大小、方向、形狀、排列狀況等組成關系和構造情況。當材料成分一定時，相同的相在不同處理條件下形成，會具有各種不同的形態（大小、方向、形狀、排列狀況等），從而構成不同的顯微組織。可見，一個相可以構成一種或一種以上的組織。
2、畫相圖
3、A、B兩組元，B熔點大于A，組成二元勻晶相圖：分析對錯：（1）組元晶格不同，大小一定相同（錯）（2）固溶體合金按勻晶相圖平衡結晶時，由于不同溫度下結晶出來的固溶體成分和剩余液相成分不相同，所以是。。（錯）
第三單元
1、何謂鐵素體、滲碳體、奧氏體、萊氏體、珠光體，它們組織結構性能形態的特點
(1)鐵素體 ：常用符號F或α表示。其溶碳能力差。鐵素體的強度差，硬度低，塑性好。
(2)奧氏體：常用符號A或γ表示。在1147℃時可溶碳2.06％。是一種硬度較低而塑性較高的固溶體。常作為各類鋼的加工狀態。奧氏體不可能全部轉變為馬氏體，總有部分殘余奧氏體存在。
(3)滲碳體 ： 碳與鐵的化合物(Fe3C)，叫滲碳體，含碳為6.67％。滲碳體的硬度高，約為800HB，極脆，塑性幾乎等于零，熔點為l227℃。
高溫鐵素體 ：以δ表示。碳在δ—Fe中的最大溶解度為0.10％，δ固溶體只存在于高溫很小的區間，對鋼鐵的性能影響不大。A1~650℃ ：珠光體，或稱普通片狀珠光體（P）650~600℃ ：細珠光體稱為索氏體(S)。
2、分析含碳為0.45%，1.0%，3%，4.7%的鐵碳合金從液態冷卻至室溫的過程，并畫出室溫下的顯微示意圖
3、根據滲碳體圖計算：（1）室溫下，含碳為0.45%的鋼中，鐵素體和珠光體各占多少（2）室溫下，含碳為1.0%的鋼中，珠光體和滲碳體各占多少（3）鐵碳合金中，二次滲碳體的最大百分含量是多少
4、積壓的碳鋼不明成分，發現組織80%鐵素體和珠光體，求碳的含量
5、奧氏體形成過程分那幾個階段?影響奧氏體過程的因素有哪些？
將共析鋼加熱到稍高于Ac1的溫度，便發生珠光體(P)向奧氏體(A)的轉變，其轉變式可寫成F 0.02 %
?
FeC
?
A 0.8 %
奧氏體的形成過程，也稱為“奧氏體化”，它是一個形核、長大、Fe 溶解和成分均勻化的過程，由以上四個階段組成。3C影響因素：
(1)加熱溫度和加熱速度(2)原始組織
(3)合金元素
6、簡述加熱溫度和保溫時間對鋼的奧氏體晶粒尺寸及其冷卻后的組織和性能的影響
奧氏體形成過程結束后，如繼續提高加熱溫度或在當前溫度下保溫更長時間，將會發生奧氏體晶粒長大的現象。
奧氏體實際晶粒大小，對冷卻后鋼的組織和性能有很大的影響。奧氏體晶粒過大，會使冷卻后的鋼材強度、塑性和韌性下降，尤其是塑性和韌性下降更為顯著。
在熱處理時，為了控制奧氏體晶粒大小，應合理選擇鋼件材料并嚴格控制加熱溫度和保溫時間。
7、畫圖
8、退火、正火、淬火、回火的目的是什么？加熱溫度范圍和冷卻方法如何選擇，各應用在什么場合，熱處理后形成的組織是什么？
退火是將鋼加熱到預定溫度，保溫一定時間后緩慢冷卻(通常隨爐冷卻)，獲得接近于平衡組織的熱處理工藝。
目的：(1)降低硬度，改善切削加工性。
(2)消除殘余應力，穩定尺寸，減少變形與開裂傾向。(3)細化晶粒，調整組織，消除組織缺陷。
完全退火 是將鋼加熱到Ac3以上20—30℃，保溫一定時間后隨爐冷卻到500 ℃以下，再出爐空冷的熱處理工藝。使熱加工過程中造成的粗大不均勻組織均勻細化，降低硬度，提高塑性，改善加工性能，消除內應力。適用于亞共析鋼和鑄件、鍛件及焊接件。
球化退火 是將鋼加熱到Ac1以上l0~30℃，保溫較長時間后以極其緩慢的速度冷卻到600 ℃以下，再出爐空冷的熱處理工藝。適用于共析和過共析鋼及合金工具鋼。滲碳體球化，降低材料硬度，改削切削加工性，并可減小最終淬火變形和開裂，為以后的熱處理作準備，適用于共析和過共析鋼及合金工具鋼。
正火 是將鋼加熱到Ac3，(亞共析鋼)或Accm(共析和過共析鋼)以上30～50℃，保溫適當時間后在靜止空氣中冷卻的熱處理工藝。目的：
(1)對普通碳素鋼、低合金鋼和力學性能要求不高的結構件，可作為最終熱處理。(2)對低碳素鋼用來調整硬度，避免切削加工中“粘刀”現象，改善切削加工性。(3)對共析、過共析鋼用來消除網狀二次滲碳體，為球化退火作好組織上的準備。
淬火 是將鋼加熱到Ac3或Ac1以上30~50℃，經過保溫后在冷卻介質中迅速冷卻的熱處理工藝。
淬火可以使鋼件獲得馬氏體和貝氏體組織，以提高鋼的力學性能，并為調質處理做好組織準備。
淬火是強化鋼件的最主要的而且是最常用的熱處理方法。
回火 就是把經過淬火的零件重新加熱到低于Ac1的某一溫度，適當保溫后，冷卻到室溫的熱處理工藝。回火目的
(1)消除或降低內應力，降低脆性。防止變形和開裂。
(2)穩定組織，穩定尺寸和形狀，保證零件使用精度和性能。
(3)通過不同回火方法，來調整零件的強度、硬度，獲得所需要的韌性和塑性。
1．低溫回火
回火溫度范圍為150~250℃，回火組織是回火馬氏體，硬度為58~64HRC。低溫回火的主要目的是降低鋼的淬火應力和減少脆性，并保持其高硬度和高耐磨性，適用于刃具、量具、模具、滾動軸承及滲碳、表面淬火的零件。
2．中溫回火
回火溫度范圍為350~500℃，回火組織是回火屈氏體，硬度為35~45HRC。中溫回火的目的是獲得高的彈性極限和屈服強度，并具有一定的韌性和抗疲勞能力。適應于各種彈簧和鍛模等。
3．高溫回火
回火溫度范圍為500~650℃，回火組織是回火索氏體，硬度為25~35HRC。高溫回火的目的是獲得較高強度的同時，還有較好的塑性和韌性。廣泛適應于處理各種重要的零件，特別是受交變載荷和沖擊作用力的連桿、曲軸、齒輪和機床主軸等。也常作為精密零件和模具、量具的預備熱處理，以獲得均勻組織、減小淬火變形，為后續的表面淬火、滲氮等作好組織準備。生產中常把淬火和高溫回火相結合的熱處理方法稱為調質處理。
9、為什么要進行表面淬火，常用的表面淬火的方法有哪些？和化學熱處理有什么異同？
表面淬火方法是將淬火零件表層金屬迅速加熱至相變溫度以上，而心部未被加熱，然后迅速冷卻，使零件表層獲得馬氏體而心部仍為原始組織的“外硬內韌”狀態。含碳量在0.40％~0.50％為宜。
為了保證心部較好的塑性和韌性，在表面淬火前應進行正火或調質處理。表面淬火目前應用較多的是感應加熱淬火法和火焰加熱淬火法。
鋼的化學熱處理是將金屬或合金工件置于一定溫度的活性介質中保溫，使一種或幾種元素滲入表層，以改變其化學成分、組織和性能的熱處理工藝。
10、淬透性、淬硬層深度、淬硬性的概念，影響淬透性的因素有哪些？ 淬透性是指淬硬層的深度，淬透性：鋼的臨界冷卻速度－合金元素。淬硬性是指鋼淬火時的硬化能力，用淬成M可能得到的最高硬度表示，取決于M中的C%.淬硬性好，淬透性不一定好 淬透性好，淬硬性不一定好
淬透層深度：由工件表面→半馬氏體點(50%M)的深度
鋼的淬透性——指鋼材被淬透的能力，或者說鋼的淬透性是指表征鋼材淬火時獲得馬氏體的能力的特性。
淬透性系指淬火時獲得馬氏體難易程度。它主要和鋼的過冷奧氏體的穩定性有關，或者說與鋼的臨界淬火冷卻速度有關，可硬性指淬成馬氏體可能得到的硬度，因此它主要和鋼中含碳量有關。
影響鋼的淬透性主要是 鋼的臨界冷卻速度，臨界冷卻速度越小，鋼的淬透性越大。（鋼的化學成分、奧氏體晶粒度、奧氏體化溫度、第二相及其分布）
影響臨界冷卻速度的原因主要是：(1)鋼的含碳量(2)合金元素(除Co外，多數元素使Vc↓)(3)鋼中未溶物質→促進A分解→Vc↑。此外，工件的截面尺寸和淬火的冷卻速度也影響了鋼的淬硬層深度，
第三篇：船舶與海洋工程
基本介紹
隨國際形式的復雜化、國際交往與運輸的頻繁以及國內陸路交通的形勢嚴峻，船舶與海洋工程成為捍衛疆域完整以及擴大交往密度而亟待發展的學科。該專業運用物理、數學、力學、船舶與海洋工程原理的基本理論和基本知識，掌握船舶與海洋結構物的設計方法，研究船舶輪機的工作原理；具有船體制圖，應用計算機進行科研的初步能力；熟悉船舶與海洋結構物的建造法規和國內外重要船級社的規范，了解造船和海洋開發的理論前沿，新型艦船和海洋結構物的應用前景和發展動態；船舶與海洋結構物設計制造學主要從事新型船舶與海洋工程結構物，水下深潛器的設計開發，主要研究領域有：船舶與海洋工程和其它各種結構的強度、剛度、疲勞斷裂、振動及結構可靠性；海洋流體力學；船舶阻力、推進、操縱性和耐波性。中國部分研究成果已達到國際水平。輪機工程主要是研究船舶機械的原理以及應用，隨信息技術的不斷發展，雷達、遙感技術的應用，環境保護要求的提高以及對能源的更高效利用，船舶的動力裝置、船舶電器設備、輪機自動化系統等都面臨著新的技術要求與挑戰。個別院校在輪機工程專業里還設置了分支學科——輪機管理專業，以培訓能夠從事海洋船舶輪機運行管理工作，具有船舶動力裝置系統國
航、維修、保養及研究。水聲工程主要研究潛艇等船舶處于水下的船舶在水中的探測、定位以及對水中兵器的引導和對抗。中國正積極進行聲納在水中傳輸特性的研究，并在該領域取得一定的成功。
學科優勢
造船與海洋工程工業是一項周期長、資金密集、科技密集、勞動密集型傳統產業，對中國的綜合國力發展有至關重
要的影響。隨著國際形勢的復雜化、國際交往運輸的頻繁化，船舶與海洋工程成為了捍衛疆域完整以及擴大交往密度而亟待發展的學科，它是為水上交通運輸、海洋資源開發和海軍部隊提供各類裝備和進行海洋工程設計、建造的工程技術領域。雖然中國的船舶工業通過近幾年的發展取得了較大的成績，但與世界發達國家如日本、韓國等相比，仍然有很大的距離。為了縮短船舶工業發展的差距，中央主要領導吳邦國、溫家寶等對大力發展中國船舶工業做出
了重要批示，確立了中國在2015年將努力建設成為世界第一造船大國的戰略目標。根據此目標，到2015年，中國造船占到國際船舶的份額將達到35%。
在這種背景下，中國船舶工業面臨著前所未有的發展契機，也使擁有船舶與海洋工程專業的高校面臨著巨大的挑戰和千載難逢的機遇。如何適應新的形勢，培養出一批德、智、體、美全面發展的具備現代船舶與海洋工程設計、建造、研究的基本理論和基礎知識，并且基礎扎實、專業知識面廣、動手能力強、具有創新精神和實踐能力的應用型、復合型人才，這是船舶與海洋工程專業目前必須面對和要解決的重要問題。
學習形勢
船舶與海洋工程專業是培養從事船舶、水下運載器及各類海洋結構設計、研究、生產制造、檢驗及海洋開發技術經濟分析的高級工程技術人才的學科。這個專業的學生主要學習物理、數學、力學、船舶及海洋工程
原理的基本理論和基本知識；掌握船舶與海洋結構物的設計方法；具有船體制圖，應用計算機進行科研的初步能力；熟悉船舶與海洋結構物的建造法規和國內外重要船級社的規范；了解造船和海洋開發的理論前沿，新型艦船和海洋結構物的應用前景和發展動態；掌握文獻檢索、資料查詢的基本方法。其基礎課包括自然辨證法、科學社會主義理論、外語、高等工程數學、計算機圖形處理及軟件工程基礎、企業管理等；技術基礎課包括海洋結構物原理及設計、船舶原理與設計、船舶與海洋結構物強度、流體力學、海洋防腐技術、船舶與海洋結構物在波浪中的運動理論、決策理論與方法、結構可靠性原理；專業課包括工程技術經濟論證方法、企業信息管理、船舶科學與工程進展、海洋系統工程、海洋工程水池試驗技術、結構優化設計、船舶與海洋結構物現代建造方法、浮式系統等。
大學四年后學生須掌握船舶與海洋工程領域的堅實基礎理論和寬廣的專業知識，以及解決工程問題的現代化實驗研究方法和技術手段，并且具有獨立從事新產品開發設計能力、生產工藝設計及實施能力、工程管理的能力。
業務培養要求
本專業學生主要學習物理、數學、力學、船舶及海洋工程原理的基本理論和基本知識；掌握船舶與海洋結構物的設計方法；具有船體制圖，應用計算機 進行科研的初步能力；熟悉船舶與海洋結構物的建造法規和國內外重要船級社的規范；了解造船和海洋開發的理論前沿，新型艦船和海洋結構物的應用前景和發展動態；掌握文獻檢索、資料查詢的基本方法，具有一定的科學研究和實際工作能力。
主干學科
數學、力學、船舶與海洋工程
主要課程
理論力學、材料力學、流體力學、結構力學、船舶原理（靜力學、船舶阻力、船舶推進、船舶操縱等）、船體制圖、船舶材料與焊接、船舶英語、船舶結構與強度、船體振動
等
主要實踐性教學環節
包括金工實習(3周)、船廠實習(3周)、上艦實習(2 周)等，一般總共安排8周。
主要專業實驗
船模阻力實驗、螺旋槳試驗、船模自航試驗及結構實驗應力分析等
修業年限
四年
授予學位
工學學士
相近專業
輪機工程
畢業生應獲得以下幾方面的知識和能力
1．掌握船舶動力裝置、電器、液壓、氣動和機電一體化等方面的基礎知識；
2．掌握輪機工況檢測、輪機系統的保養和維修等基本技術；
3．具有操縱船舶動力裝置，覆行船舶監修、監造職責的初步能力；
4．熟悉有關海船運輸安全方面的公約和法律法規；
5．了解海洋運輸船舶的發展動態；
6．掌握文獻檢索、資料查詢的基本方法，具有初步的科學研究和實際工作能
力。
開設院校
大連海事大學 武漢理工大學 哈爾濱工業大學 哈爾濱工程大學 天津大學 大連理工大學 上海交通大學 華中科技大學 華南理工大學 河海大學 中國石油大學（華東）上海海事大學 中國海洋大學 廈門集美大學
廣東海洋大學 江蘇科技大學 重慶交通大學 大連海洋大學 山東交通學院 浙江海洋學院 青島科技大學
華中科技大學文華學院 青島遠洋船員學院 武漢船舶職業技術學院 渤海船舶職業技術學院
就業趨勢
船舶與海洋工程專業學生畢業后可簽約到船舶與海洋工程設計研究單位、海事局、國內外船級社、船舶公司、船廠、海洋石油單位、高等院校、船舶運輸管理、船舶貿易與經營、海關、海上保險和海事仲裁等部門，從事船舶與海洋結構物設計、研究、制造、檢驗、使用和管理等工作，也可到相近行業和信息產業有關單位就業。此外，還可爭取留學資格到美國、加拿大、英國、挪威、德國、日本等國留學深造。當然，也可以報考相關專業的研究生進一步深造。據各高校有關就業部門統計，船舶與海洋工程專業學生就業形勢不錯。現在很多學生喜歡選擇金融、工商管理、市場營銷、信息技術等專業，所以高校中就讀傳統的船舶與海洋工程專業者已經遠不如以前眾多，而且該專業人才退休、老化普遍存在。再加上目前開設相關專業的學校已經不多，物以稀為貴，所以船舶與海洋工程這個專業的畢業生出去后容易受到用人單位的歡迎。像重慶交通學院還是西南地區惟一開設船舶與海洋工程專業的高
校。21世紀是海洋經濟時代，人類將多方位的開發利用海洋，如海洋資源開發利用、海洋能源開發利用、海洋空間開發利用、海洋交通與通訊通道的開發利用等，本專業將會有廣闊的發展前景。
第四篇：船舶與海洋工程
船舶與海洋工程,主要課程:理論力學、材料力學、流體力學、結構力學、船舶與海洋工程原理.專業實驗:船模阻力實驗、螺旋槳試驗、船模自航試驗及結構實驗應力分析等.學制:4年,授予學位:工學學士,相近專業:輪機工程.就業前景:主要到船舶與海洋結構物設計、研究、制造、檢驗、使用和管理等部門從事技術和管理方面的工作.首先明確一點,在學科劃分上船舶與海洋工程是一級學科,下屬有船舶工程/海洋工程、輪機工程、水聲工程3個二級學科,這里的排名是中國大學船舶與海洋工程專業排名.上海交通大學
地處國際航運的中心城市的上海,中國船舶工業的老牌大學上交地理優勢極為明顯,加上上海市對人才的吸引能力,使得交大在近幾十年以來一直都穩做船舶院校老大位置.雖然近幾年大連理工憑借其臨近日韓的優勢發展壯大了不少,大工的學生在業內的認可程度也日漸提高,但是想要撼動交大的老大地位恐怕尚需時日.哈爾濱工程大學
雖然繼承了“哈軍工”大部分家當,但當老一輩的牛人漸漸老去后我們真不知道當年的哈船院在十年以后將會是個什么樣子.軍品是哈工程的強項,但是學科發展受國家政策影響較大,在市場經濟的今天,在別的學校都在拼命做項目賺錢的今天,哈工程的地位無比尷尬.另外,由于北國哈爾濱對人才的吸引力遠遠不如經濟發達的東部沿海城市,所以人才斷檔問題比較嚴重,但如今仍然有以兩位老院士為代表的老底在,排到第二也屬合情合理.武漢理工大學
武漢理工大學的造船專業可以追溯到1946年武昌海事職業技術學校造船科,1952年院系調整時造船系被調整至上海交通大學.1958年重建,1963年交通部院系調整,大連海運學院(現大連海事大學)造船系整體搬遷至武漢,與當時的武漢水運工程學院造船系合并.80年代初至90年代中期,由于長江內河航運繁忙,武漢理工(時為武漢水運工程學院)造船系顯赫一時,可以說在民品的設計和研究方面僅次于上交.一批骨干教師在當時國內的造船界極高的聲譽.如今的武漢理工大學造船專業雖然不如當年名聲那么響亮,但是在內河市場上仍然具有統治力,在高性能船舶方面特色鮮明.雖然地處內陸,但已在華南,華東設有設計研究所.如果學校能夠更加開放,管理更加有力的話,相信重現輝煌指日可待.大連理工大學
大連理工大學的造船專業在2000年以后可謂是異軍突起.如今良好的發展勢頭應該說內部是得意于學院的國際化發展戰略--學生在本科階段去日本實習,與日韓的造船高校進行了廣泛和深入的合作與交流.外部是得意于地處大連的地理位置和國際造船行業從日韓向中國轉移的大趨勢.雖然沒有交大,哈船那樣顯赫的歷史,但發展勢頭強勁,假以時日前途無量.華中科技大學
華科的造船系和別的專業相比一直都不怎么起眼,70年代建系以后鮮有什么驕傲的成績拿出手.現如今該校造船系發展偏結構比較明顯,流體這一塊繼石仲堃以后遲遲沒人接班.老師做的項目非船項目比較多,船方面的項目主要跟701所和719所合作.由于學校實力相當強,所以學生仍然比較受歡迎.其實武漢理工和華科向來互相不服,但從師資力量,學校重視程度,試驗設施等各方面來看,華科的造船稍遜一籌.天津大學
天津大學的船海系隸屬于建筑工程學院,分船舶工程和海洋工程兩個方向,也是國內為數不多的搞海洋工程比較有底蘊的院校.但是建筑工程學院更牛的在港航專業,3個院士都是港航的,來招聘的單位也是港航方面的單位.天大的造船不僅在國內造船界很少被提及,在校內也不受重視.排到第六應該也是合情合理的了.江蘇科技大學
雖然造船專業是該校的王牌專業,雖然曾經的鎮江船院也是國防科工委的院校,但是學校目前仍然是2本(可能江蘇省內是一本)至今尚無造船博士點.實力與前面幾所學校根本不在一個檔次,暫時位居末席.在上述中國大學船舶與海洋工程專業排名中,排名前四的四所學校的船舶與海洋結構物設計制造均為國家級重點學科.船舶工程主要修理建造各類船舶,海洋工程主要主要從事海上采油.就業單位主要有修造船廠(如滬東中華,外高橋等),海上運輸公司(如中國遠洋),石油公司(如中海油),海事局(需要本科或研究生應屆畢業生報考國家直屬機構-海事局公務員,限應屆畢業),船級社(一般需要有船廠經驗外語好的),高校(博士或碩士學歷).總體而言,就業基本沒大問,工資剛開始兩千至三千/月(單位地點,畢業院校,單位制度造成差異),工作兩年月工資基本在五千至七千月,且工資出現兩極分化(進船級社如ABS,DNV等月收入在萬元,很多技術好的都跳去船級社).如果想在這個領域吃香,建議小方向選擇海洋工程,學好外語,最好到可以交流地步(進船級社),這兩點做到了工作不愁,工資不愁.船舶與海洋工程專業是培養從事船舶、水下運載器及各類海洋結構設計、研究、生產制造、檢驗及海洋開發技術經濟分析的高級工程技術人才的學科。這個專業的學生主要學習物理、數學、力學、船舶及海洋工程原理的基本理論和基本知識；掌握船舶與海洋結構物的設計方法；具有船體制圖，應用計算機進行科研的初步能力；熟悉船舶與海洋結構物的建造法規和國內外重要船級社的規范；了解造船和海洋開發的理論前沿，新型艦船和海洋結構物的應用前景和發展動態；掌握文獻檢索、資料查詢的基本方法。其基礎課包括自然辨證法、科學社會主義理論、外語、高等工程數學、計算機圖形處理及軟件工程基礎、企業管理等；技術基礎課包括海洋結構物原理及設計、船舶原理與設計、船舶與海洋結構物強度、流體力學、海洋防腐技術、船舶與海洋結構物在波浪中的運動理論、決策理論與方法、結構可靠性原理；專業課包括工程技術經濟論證方法、企業信息管理、船舶科學與工程進展、海洋系統工程、海洋工程水池試驗技術、結構優化設計、船舶與海洋結構物現代建造方法、浮式系統等。
大學四年后學生須掌握船舶與海洋工程領域的堅實基礎理論和寬廣的專業知識，以及解決工程問題的現代化實驗研究方法和技術手段，并且具有獨立從事新產品開發設計能力、生產工藝設計及實施能力、工程管理的能力。
就業趨勢
船舶與海洋工程專業學生畢業后可簽約到船舶與海洋工程設計研究單位、海事局、國內外船級社、船舶公司、海洋石油單位、高等院校、船舶運輸管理、船舶貿易與經營、海關、海上保險和海事仲裁等部門，從事船舶與海洋結構物設計、研究、制造、檢驗、使用和管理等工作，也可到相近行業和信息產業有關單位就業。此外，還可爭取留學資格到美國、加拿大、英國、挪威、德國、日本等國留學深造。當然，也可以報考相關專業的研究生進一步深造。據各高校有關就業部門統計，船舶與海洋工程專業學生就業形勢不錯。現在很多學生喜歡選擇金融、工商管理、市場營銷、信息技術等專業，所以高校中就讀傳統的船舶與海洋工程專業者已經遠不如以前眾多，而且該專業人才退休、老化普遍存在。再加上目前開設相關專業的學校已經不多，物以稀為貴，所以船舶與海洋工程這個專業的畢業生出去后容易受到用人單位的歡迎。像重慶交通學院還是西南地區惟一開設船舶與海洋工程專業的高校。相關鏈接 學制：四年 授予學位：工學學士 體檢要求：色盲與色弱受限。
開設院校：中國石油大學、天津大學、大連理工大學、大連海事大學、大連水產學院、哈爾濱工程大學、上海交通大學、上海海運學院、河海大學、華東船舶工業學院、浙江海洋學院、中國海洋大學、華中科技大學、武漢理工大學、華南理工大學、廣東海洋大學、重慶交通學院等
第五篇：船舶與海洋工程專業英語
船舶與海洋工程英語
目錄
Part 1.船舶與海洋工程英語
1.The Naval Architect…………………………………………….……….….....1 2.Definitions, Principal Dimensions……………………………….….………....3 3.Merchant ship Types………………………………………………..…………10 4.Ship Design…………………………………………………………………16 5.General Arrangement……………………………………………………....…20 6.Ship Lines……………………………………………………..…………...…25 7.Ship Equilibrium, Stability and Trim………………………………………..28 8.Estimating Power Requirements………………………………………….….33 9.Ship Motions, Maneuverability………………………………………………37 10.The Function of Ship Structural Components……………………………………….....40 11.Structural Design, Ship Stresses…………………………………………………….......43 12.Classification Societies…………………………………………………...…48 13.Shipyard, Organization, Layout…………………………………..….....…..53 14.Planning, From Contract to Working Plans……………………………...….56 15.Lines Plan and Fairing, Fabrication and Assembly………………………....58 16.Launching and Outfitting…………………………………………………....61 17.Sea Trials……………………………………………………………………64 18.Marine Engines………………………………………………………………………...66 19.Marine Electrical Equipment…………………………………………..……71 20.Unattended Machinery Spaces……………………………………….……..76 21.Mobile Drilling Platforms……………………………………………………………...81 22.Examples of Offshore Structures……………………………………….…..85 23.Oceanographic Submersibles…………………………………………….…91 24.Application of Engineering Economics to Ship Design……………..……..94 25.Computer Development and the Naval Architect………………………..…98 Part2.26.船舶英語實用詞匯手冊……………………………………………………………..101 27.船舶英語縮略語…………………………………………………………………...…129
Lesson One
The Naval Architect A naval architect asked to design a ship may receive his instructions in a form ranging from such simple requirements as ―an oil tanker to carry 100 000 tons deadweight at 15 knots‖ to a fully detailed specification of precisely planned requirements.He is usually required to prepare a design for a vessel that must carry a certain weight of cargo(or number of passengers)at a specified speed with particular reference to trade requirement;high-density cargoes, such as machinery, require little hold capacity, while the reverse is true for low-density cargoes, such as grain.Deadweight is defined as weight of cargo plus fuel and consumable stores, and lightweight as the weight of the hull, including machinery and equipment.The designer must choose dimensions such that the displacement of the vessel is equal to the sum of the dead weight and the lightweight tonnages.The fineness of the hull must be appropriate to the speed.The draft------which is governed by freeboard rules------enables the depth to be determined to a first approximation.After selecting tentative values of length, breadth, depth, draft, and displacement, the designer must achieve a weight balance.He must also select a moment balance because centres of gravity in both longitudinal and vertical directions must provide satisfactory trim and stability.Additionally, he must estimate the shaft horsepower required for the specified speed;this determines the weight of machinery.The strength of the hull must be adequate for the service intended, detailed scantlings(frame dimensions and plate thicknesses)can be obtained from the rules of the classification society.These scantings determine the requisite weight of hull steel.The vessel should possess satisfactory steering characteristics, freedom from troublesome vibration, and should comply with the many varied requirements of international regulations.Possessing an attractive appearance, the ship should have the minimum net register tonnage, the factor on which harbour and other dues are based.(The gross tonnage represents the volume of all closed-in spaces above the inner bottom.The net tonnage is the gross tonnage minus certain deductible spaces that do not produce revenue.Net tonnage can therefore be regarded as a measure of the earning capacity of the ship, hence its use as a basis for harbour and docking charges.)Passenger vessels must satisfy a standard of bulkhead subdivision that will ensure adequate stability under specified conditions if the hull is pierced accidentally or through collision.Compromise plays a considerable part in producing a satisfactory design.A naval architect must be a master of approximations.If the required design closely resembles that of a ship already built for which full information is available, the designer can calculate the effects of differences between this ship and the projected ship.If, however, this information is not available, he must first produce coefficients based upon experience and, after refining them, check the results by calculation.Training
There are four major requirements for a good naval architect.The first is a clear understanding of the fundamental principles of applied science, particularly those aspects of science that have direct application to ships------mathematics, physics, mechanics, fluid mechanics, materials, structural strength, stability, resistance, and propulsion.The second is a detailed knowledge of past and present practice in shipbuilding.The third is personal experience of accepted methods in the design, construction, and operation of ships;and the fourth, and perhaps most important, is an aptitude for tackling new technical problems and of devising practical solutions.The professional training of naval architects differs widely in the various maritime countries.Unimany universities and polytechnic schools;such academic training must be supplemented by practical experience in a shipyard.Trends in design The introduction of calculating machines and computers has facilitated the complex calculations required in naval architecture and has also introduced new concepts in design.There are many combinations of length, breadth, and draft that will give a required displacement.Electronic computers make it possible to prepare series of designs for a vessel to operate in a particular service and to assess the economic returns to the shipowner for each separate design.Such a procedure is best carried out as a joint exercise by owner and builder.As ships increase in size and cost, such combined technical and economic studies can be expected to become more common.(From ―Encyclopedia Britannica‖, Vol.16, 1980)
Technical terms
1.naval architect 造船工程（設計）師 32.scantling 結構（件）尺寸
naval architecture造船（工程）學 33.frame 肋骨 2.instruction 任務書、指導書 34.classification society 船級社 3.oil tanker 油輪 35.steering 操舵、駕駛 4.deadweight 載重量 36.vibration 振動 5.knot 節 37.net register tonnage 凈登記噸位 6.specification 規格書，設計任務書 38.harbour 港口 7.vessel 船舶 39.dues 稅收 8.cargo 貨物 40.gross tonnage 總噸位 9.passenger 旅客 41.deductible space 扣除空間 10.trade 貿易 42.revenue 收入 11.machinery 機械、機器 43.docking 進塢 12.hold capacity 艙容 44.charge 費用、電荷 13.consumable store 消耗物品 45.bulkhead 艙壁 14.light weight 輕載重量、空船重量 46.subdivision分艙（隔）、細分 15.hull 船體 47.collision 碰撞 16.dimension 尺度、量綱、維（數）48.compromise 折衷、調和 17.displacement 排水量、位移、置換 49.coefficient 系數 18.tonnage 噸位 50.training 培訓 19.fineness 纖瘦度 51.fluid mechanics 流體力學 20.draft 吃水 52.structural strength 結構強度 21.breadth 船寬 53.resistance 阻力 22.freeboard 干舷 54.propulsion 推進 23.rule 規范 55.shipbuilding 造船 24.tentative 試用（暫行）的 56.aptitude（特殊）才能，適應性 25.longitudinal direction 縱向 57.maritime 航運，海運 26.vertical direction 垂向 58.polytechnical school 工藝（科技）學校 27.trim 縱傾 59.academic 學術的 28.stability 穩性 60.shipyard 造船廠 29.shaft horse power 軸馬力 61.electronic computer 電子計算機 30.strength 強度 62.owner 船主，物主 31.service 航區、服務 63.encyclop(a)edia 百科全書
Additional Terms and Expressions 1.the Chinese Society of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering(CSNAME)中國造船工程學會
the Chinese Society of Navigation中國航海學會
“Shipbuilding of China‖ 中國造船 Ship Engineering 船舶工程
“Naval 安定Merchant Ships” 艦船知識
China State Shipbuilding Corporation(CSSC)中國船舶工業總公司
China offshore Platform Engineering Corporation(COPECO)中國海洋石油平臺工程公司
Royal Institution of Naval Architects(RINA)英國皇家造船工程師學會
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers(SNAME)美國造船師與輪機工程師協會
10.Principle of naval architecture 造船原理 11.ship statics(or statics of naval
architecture)造船靜力學 12.ship dynamics 船舶動力學
13.ship resistance and propulsion 船舶阻力
和推進
14.ship rolling and pitching 船舶搖擺 15.ship manoeuvrability 船舶操縱性 16.ship construction 船舶結構
17.ship structural mechanics 船舶結構力學 18.ship strength and structural design 船舶
強度和結構設計
19.ship design 船舶設計
20.shipbuilding technology 造船工藝
21.marine(or ocean)engineering 海洋工程 2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.Note to the Text
1.range from A to B 的意思為“從A到B的范圍內”，翻譯時，根據這個基本意思可以按漢語習慣譯成中文。例：
Lathe sizes range from very little lathes with the length of the bed in several inches to very large ones turning a work many feet in length.車床有大有小，小的車床其車身只有幾英寸，大的車床能車削數英尺長的工件。
2.Such that 可以認為是such a kind/value 等的縮寫，意思為“這樣的類別/值等……以至于……”。譯成中文是，可根據具體情況加以意譯。例：
The depth of the chain locker is such that the cable is easily stowed.錨鏈艙的深度應該使錨鏈容易存儲。
Possessing an attractive appearance, the ship should have the minimum net register tonnage,the factor on which harbour and oyher dues are based.Possessing an attractive appearance現在分詞短語，用作表示條件的狀語，意譯成“船舶除有一個漂亮的外形……”。一般說，如分詞短語謂語句首，通常表示時間、條件、原因等。
The factor on which…are based中的the factor是前面the minimum net register tonnage的銅謂語，而on which…are based是定語從句，修飾the factor。
4.Electronic computers make it possible to prepare series id designs for a vessel to operate in a particular service and to assess the economic returns to the shipowner for each separate design.句中的it是形式賓語，實際賓語為不定式短語 to prepare series of designs …和to assess the economic returns …
Lesson Two
Definitions, Principal Dimensions Before studying in detail the various technical branches of naval architecture it is important to define chapters.The purpose of this chapter is to explain these terms and to familiarise the reader with them.In the first place the dimensions by which the size of a ship is measured will be considered;they are referred to as ?principal dimensions‘.The ship, like any solid body, requires three dimensions to define its size, and these are a length, a breadth and a depth.Each of these will be considered in turn.Principal dimensions Length There are various ways of defining the length of a ship, but first the length between perpendiculars will be considered.The length between perpendiculars is the distance measured parallel to the base at the level of the summer load waterline from the after perpendicular to the forward perpendicular.The after perpendicular is taken as the after side of the rudder post where there is such a post, and the forward perpendicular is the vertical line drawn through the intersection of the stem with summer load waterline.In ships where there is no rudder post the after perpendicular is taken as the line passing through the centre line of the rudder pintals.The perpendiculars and the length between perpendiculars are shown in Figure 1.The length between perpendiculars(LBP)is used for calculation purposes as will be seen later, but it will be obvious from Figure 1 that this does not represent the greatest length of the ship.For many purposes, such as the docking of a ship, it is necessary to know what the greatest length of the ship is.This length is known as the length of the extreme point at the after end to a similar point at the forward end.This can be clearly seen by referring again to Figure 1.In most ships the length overall will exceed by a considerable amount the length between perpendiculars.The excess will include the overhang of the stern and also that of the stem where the stem is raked forward.In modern ships having large bulbous bows the length overall LOA may have to be measured to the extreme point of the bulb.A third length which is often used, particularly when dealing with ship resistance, is the length on the waterline LWL.This is the distance measured on the waterline at which the ship is floating from the intersection of the stern with the waterline to the length is not a fixed quantity for a particular ship, as it will depend upon the waterline at which the ship is floating and upon the trim of the ship.This length is also shown in Figure 1.6 Breadth The mid point of the length between perpendiculars is called ?amidships‘and the ship is usually broadest at this point.The breadth is measured at this position and the breadth most commonly used is called the ?breadth moulded‘.It may be defined simply as the distance from the inside of plating on one side to a similar point on the other side measured at the broadest part of the ship.As is the case in the length between perpendiculars, the breadth moulded dose not represent the greatest breadth the breadth extreme is required(see Figure 2).In many ships the breadth extreme is the breadth moulded plus the thickness of the shell plating where the strakes of shell plating were overlapped the breadth extreme was equal to the breadth moulded plus four thicknesses of shell plating, but in the case of modern welded ships the extra breadth consists of two thicknesses of shell plating only.The breadth extreme may be much greater than this in some ships, since it is the distance from the extreme overhang on one side of the ship to a similar point on the other side.This distance would include the overhang of decks, a feature which is sometimes found in passenger ships in order to provide additional deck area.It would be measured over fenders, which are sometimes fitted to ships such as cross channel vessels which have to operate in and out of port under their own power and have fenders provided to protect the sides of the ships when coming alongside quays.Depth The third principal dimension is depth, which varies along the length of the ship but is usually measured ant amidships.This depth is known as the ?depth moulded and is measured from the underside of the plating of the deck at side amidships to the base line.It is shown in Figure 2(a).It is sometimes quoted as a ?depth moulded to upper deck‘ or ?depth moulded to second deck‘, etc.Where no deck is specified it can be taken the depth is measured to the uppermost continuous deck.In some modern ships there is a rounded gunwale as shown in Figure 2(b).In such cases the depth moulded is measured from the intersection of the deck line continued with the breadth moulded line.Other features
The three principal dimensions give a general idea of the size of a ship but there are several other features which have to be considered and which could be different in two ships having the same length, breadth and depth.The more important of these will now be defined.Sheer Sheer is the height of the deck at side above a line drawn parallel to the base and tangent to the length of the ship and is usually greatest at the ends.In modern ships the deck line at side often has a variety of shapes: it may be flat with zero sheer over some distance on either side of amidships and then rise as a straight line towards the ends;on the other hand there may be no sheer at all on the deck, which will then be parallel to the base over the entire length.In older ships the deck at side line was parabolic in profile and the sheer was quoted as its value on the forward and after perpendiculars as shown in Figure 1.So called ?standard‘ sheer was given by the formulae:
Sheer forward(in)=0.2Lft+20 Sheer aft
(in)=0.1Lft+10 These two formulae in terms of metric units would give:
Sheer forward
(cm)=1.666Lm+50.8 Sheer aft
(cm)=0.833Lm+25.4 It will be seen that the sheer forward is twice as much as the sheer aft in these standard formulae.It was often the case, however, that considerable variation was made from these standard values.Sometimes the sheer forward was increased while the sheer after was reduced.Occasionally the lowest point of the upper deck was some distance aft of amidships and sometimes departures were made from the parabolic sheer profile.The value of sheer and particularly the sheer forward was to increase the height of the deck above water(the ?height of platform‘ as it was called)and this helped to prevent water being shipped when the vessel was moving through rough sea.The reason for the abolition of sheer in some modern ships is that their depths are so great that additional height of the deck above water at the fore end is unnecessary from a seakeeping point of view.Deletion of sheer also tends to make the ship easier to construct, but on the other hand it could be said that the appearance of the ship suffers in consequence.Camber Camber or round of beam is beam is defined as the rise of the deck of the ship in going from the side to the centre as shown in Figure 3(a).The camber curve used to be parabolic but here again often nowadays straight line camber curves are used or there may be no camber at all on decks.Camber is useful on the weather deck of a ship from a drainage point of view, but this may not be very important since the ship is very rarely upright and at rest.Often, if the weather deck of a ship is cambered, the lower decks particularly in passenger ships may have no camber at all, as this makes for horizontal decks in accommodation which is an advantage.Camber is usually stated as its value on the moulded breadth of the ship and standard camber was taken as one-fiftieth of the breadth.The camber on the deck diminishes towards the ends of the ship as the deck breadths become smaller.Bilge radius An outline of the midship section of a ship is shown in Figure 3(a).In many ?full‘ cargo ships the section is virtually a rectangle with the lower corners rounded off.This part of the section is referred to as the ?bilge‘ and the shape is often circular at this position.The radius of the circular arc forming the bilge is called the ?bilge radius‘.Some designers prefer to make the section some curve other than a circle in way of the bilge.The curve would have a radius of curvature which increases as it approaches the straight parts of the section with which it has to link up.Rise of floor The bottom of a ship at amidships is usually flat but is not necessarily horizontal.If the line of the flat bottom is continued outwards it will intersect the breadth moulded line as shown in Figure 3(a).The height of this intersection above base is called the ?rise of floor ‘.The rise of floor is very much dependent on the ship form.In ships of full form such as cargo ships the rise of floor may only be a few centimeters or may be eliminated altogether.In fine form ships much bigger rise of floor would be adopted in association with a larger bilge radius.Flat of keel
A feature which was common in the days of riveted ships what was known as ?flat of keel ‘ or ?flat of bottom ‘.Where there is no rise of floor, of course, the bottom is flat from the centre line to the point where the curve of the bilge starts.If there was a rise of floor it was customary for the line of the bottom to intersect the base line some distance from the centre line so that on either side of the centre line there was a small portion of the bottom which was horizontal, as shown in Figure 3(a).this was known as the ?flat of bottom‘ and its value lay in the fact that a rightangle connection could be made between the flat plate keel and the vertical centre girder and this connection could be accomplished without having to bevel the connecting angle bars.Tumble home Another feature of the midship section of a ship which was at one time quite common but has now almost completely disappeared is what was called ?tumble home‘.This is the amount which the side of the ship falls in from the breadth moulded line, as shown in Figure 3(b).Tumble home was a usual feature in sailing ships and often appeared in steel merchant ships before World War II.Ships of the present day rarely employ this feature since its elimination makes for ease of production and it is of doubtful value.Rake of stem In ships which have straight stems formed by a stem bar or a plate the inclination of the stem to the vertical is called the ?rake‘.It may be defined either by the angle to the vertical or the distance between the intersection of the stem produced with the base line and the forward perpendicular.When ships have curved stems in profile, and especially where they also have bulbous bows, stem rake cannot be simply defined and it would be necessary to define the stem profile by a number of ordinates at different waterlines.In the case of a simple straight stem the stem line is usually joined up with the base line by a circular are, but sometimes a curve of some other form is used, in which case several ordinates are required to define its shape.Draught and trim The draught at which a ship floats is simply the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline.If the waterline is parallel to the keel the ship is said to be floating on an even keel, but if the waterline is not parallel then the ship is said to be trimmed.If the draught at the after end is greater than that at the fore end the ship is trimmed by the stern and if the converse is the case it is trimmed by the bow or by the head.The draught can be measured in two ways, either as a moulded draught which is the distance from the base line to the waterline, or as an extreme draught which is the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline.In the modern welded merchant ship to the waterline.In the modern welded merchant ship these two draughts differ only by one thickness of plating, but in certain types of ships where, say, a bar keel is fitted the extreme draught would be measured to the underside of the keel and may exceed the moulded draught of by 15-23cm(6-9in).It is important to know the draught of a ship, or how much water the ship is ?drawing‘, and so that the draught may be readily obtained draught marks are cut in the stem and the stern.These are 6 in high with a space of 6in between the top of one figure and the bottom of the next one.When the water level is up to the bottom of a particular figure the draught in feet has the value of that figure.If metric units are used then the figures would probably be 10 cm high with a 10 cm spacing.In many large vessels the structure bends in the longitudinal vertical plane even in still water, with the result that the base line or the keel does not remain a straight line.The mean draught at which the vessel is floating is not then simply obtained by taking half the sum of the forward and after draughts.To ascertain how much the vessel is hogging or sagging a set of draught marks is placed amidships so that if da, d? and df are the draughts at the after end amidships and the forward end respectively then
Hog or sag=
da?df-d?
2When use is made of amidship draughts it is necessary to measure the draught on both sides of the ship and take the mean of the two readings in case the ship should be heeled one side or the other.The difference between the forward and after draughts of s ship is called the ?trim‘, so that trim T=da-df, and as previously stated the ship will the said to be trimming by the stern or the bow according as the draught aft or the draught forward is in excess.For a given total load on the ship the draught will have its least value when the ship is on an even keel.This is an important point when a ship is navigating in restricted depth of water or when entering a dry dock.Usually a ship should be designed to float on an even keel in the fully loaded condition, and if this is not attainable a small trim by the stern is aimed at.Trim by the bow is not considered desirable and should be avoided as it reduces the ?height of platform‘ forward and increases the liability to take water on board in rough seas.Freeboard Freeboard may be defined as the distance which the ship projects above the surface of the water or the distance measured downwards from the deck to the waterline.The freeboard to the weather deck, for example, will vary along the length of the ship because of the sheer of the deck and will also be affected by the trim, if any.Usually the freeboard will be a minimum at amidships and will increase towards the ends.Freeboard has an important influence on the seaworthiness of a ship.The greater the freeboard the greater is the above water volume, and this volume provides reserve buoyancy, assisting the ship to rise when it goes through waves.The above water volume can also help the ship to remain afloat in the event of damage.It will be seen later that freeboard has an important influence on the range of stability.Minimum freeboards are laid down for ships under International Law in the form of Load Line Regulations.(from ―Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers‖ by W.Muckle, 1975)
Technical Terms
1.principal dimension 主要尺度
2.naval architecture 造船（工程）學 3.造船工程（設計）師
4.length between perpendiculars(LBP)垂線間長 5.summer load waterline 夏季載重水線 6.forward/after perpendicular 首/尾垂線 7.rudder post 尾柱 8.stem 首柱
9.rudder pintle 舵銷
10.length over all(LOA)總長
11.overhang（水線以上）懸伸部分 12.bulbous bow 球鼻艏
13.length on the waterline（LWL）水線長 14.amidship 船中
15.breath moulded 型寬 16.breath extreme 最大船寬 17.shell plating 船殼板 18.rivet 鉚接 19.weld 焊接
20.strake（船殼板）列板 21.fender 護舷木
22.deck area 甲板面積（區域）23.cross channel vessel 海峽船 24.port 港口，船的左舷 25.side 舷側（邊）26.quay 碼頭
27.depth moulded 型深 28.plating of deck 甲板板 29.base line 基線 30.upper deck 上甲板 31.second deck 第二甲板
32.the uppermost continuous deck 最上層連續甲板 33.rounded gunwale 圓弧舷邊頂部 34.moulded line 型線 35.sheer 舷弧 36.ends 船端
37.deck line at side 甲板邊線 deck at side line 甲板邊線 deck at side
甲板邊線 38.profile
縱剖面（圖），輪廓 39.sheer forward/aft 首/尾舷 40.platform
平臺
41.rough sea
強浪，洶濤海面 42.seakeeping
耐波性
43.appearance
外形（觀），出現 44.camber
梁拱
round of beam 梁拱 45.weather deck 露天甲板 46.drainage 排水
47.upright 正浮，直立 48.at rest 在靜水中
49.accommodation 居住艙，適應 50.bilge radius
舭（部）半徑 5.1 midship section 船中剖面 52.bilge
舭（部）53.rise of floor 船底升高 54.flat of keel 龍骨寬 55.flat plate keel平板龍骨 56.vertical center girder 中桁材
57.bevel
折射角，將直角鋼改為斜角 58.connecting angle 聯接角鋼
59.tumble home 內傾 60.sailing ship 帆船
61.steel merchant ship 鋼質商船 62.bar 棒，巴（氣壓單位）63.rake 傾斜
64.draught 吃水，草圖，通風 65.even keel 等吃水，正浮
66.trimmed by the stern/bow 尾/首傾 67.moulded draught 型吃水 68.extreme draught 最大吃水 69.bar keel 棒龍骨 70.‖drawing‖“吃水” 71.draught marks 吃水標志 72.imperial unit 英制單位 73.metric unit 公制單位 74.spacing 間距 75.hogging 中拱 76.sagging 中垂 77.heel
橫傾 78.dry dock 干船塢
79.fully loaded condition 滿載標志 80.freeboard 干舷
81.seaworthiness 適航性
82.reserve buoyancy 儲備浮力 83.range of stability 穩性范圍
84.Load Line Regulations 載重線規范
Additional Terms and Expressions
1.form coefficients 船型系數 2.block coefficient 方型系數 3.prismatic coefficient 棱型系數
4.midship area coefficient 船中橫剖面面積系數
5.waterplane area coefficient 水線面面積系數
6.vertical prismatic coefficient 豎向棱型系數 7.body section of U-form U形橫剖面 8.V-shaped section V形橫剖面
9.geometrically similar ships 幾何相似船 10.base plane 基平面
11.center plane 中線面 12.midstation plane 中站面 13.moulded base line 基線 14.length breadth ratio 長度比 15.cruiser stern 巡洋艦型尾
16.principal coordinate planes 主坐標面 17.transom 方尾 18.soft chine 圓舭 19.hard chine 尖舭 20.counter 尾伸部 21.forefoot 首踵 22.aftfoot 尾踵
23.deadwood 尾鰭（呆木）
Notes to the Text
1.as will be seen later 和as is the case in the length between perpendiculars 中as 引出的從句為非限制性定語從句。關系代詞as代替整個主句，并在從主語中作主語。as 也可在從句中作賓語，表語用。
2.A third length 序數字前面，一般用定冠詞“the”，但當作者心目中對事物總數還不明確，或還不足以形成一個明確的序列時，序數字前面用不定冠詞“a”。例：
will they have to modify the design a fourth time?(它們的設計究竟要修改多少次，心中無數，但依次下來已是第四次，所以用不定冠詞“a”。)3.This is the distance measured on the waterline at which the ship is floating from the intersection of the stern with the waterline to the intersection of the stem with the waterline.這是一個符合據。其中at which the ship is floating 為定語從句，修飾the waterline.from the intersection of the stern(with the waterline為intersection 所要求的介詞短語)to the intersection of the stern(with the waterline 為第二個intersection 所要求的介詞短語）都屬于介詞短語，作狀語用，說明測量的范圍。
4.參見第一課注3.中的第二部分說明 5.quay 一般指與海岸平行的碼頭
pier 系指與海岸或呈直角面突出的碼頭
wharf 一般用于的碼頭
6.the deck line continued 和the stern produced 為過去分詞作后置定語，分別修飾“the deck line 和the stern.都可譯成“延長時”。
considerable variation was made from these standard values 和departures were made from the parabolic sheer profile 和（when）use is made of amidship draughts 這三句都屬于主語的成分被位于動詞隔離成兩部分。這是英語句子結構平衡的需要中帶有這種情況，閱讀和翻譯時需加以注意。
7.considerable variation was made from these standard values 和departures were made from the parabolic sheer profile 和（when）use is made of amidship draughts 這三句都屬于主語的成分被位于動詞隔離成兩部分。這是英語句子結構平衡的需要中帶有這種情況，閱讀和翻譯時需加以注意。Lesson Three
Merchant ship Types Break-bulk cargo ships
The inboard space in break bulk cargo ships is divided longitudinally by transverse bulkheads, spaced 40-70 ft apart, into a series of cargo compartments of approximately equal volume, generally seven for a ship of about 500 ft Lap.Vertically, the bulkheads are divided by one or two decks below the uppermost, continuous deck(main or strength deck).The space between the inner bottom and the lowest deck, called the hold, is limited to a height of about 18 ft(5.5m)to minimize damage to cargo through crushing.Usually the height of each space between decks termed between deck space)is 9-10ft(2.7-3.0m).In addition to the previously mentioned double-bottom tanks, the most break-bulk cargo ships have deep tanks used for fuel oil, water ballast, or liquid cargoes such as latex, coconut oil, or edible oils.The cargo is handled through large rectangular deck openings(hatches)over each cargo space.Mechanically operated hatch covers are used to close the openings.The hatch covers in the tween decks are strong enough to support cargo stowed on them.The topside hatch covers are watertight.The tween deck space is generally suitable for break-bulk or palletized cargo holds have had one hatch per deck, with of 35-50% the ship‘s breath and a length of 50-60% the hold length.The trend is toward widen hatches or multiple hatches abreast and often longer hatches, to increase cargo handling speed.A multiple hatch arrangement(triple hatch, for instance)is efficiently used for a partial load of containers stowed under deck.Break-bulk cargo handling between pier and ship is done usually by means of cargo booms installed on board.The booms are raised or lowered by adjustable wire rigging led from the mast or king post to the boom ends.A wire rope leads over sheaves from a winch to the outer end of each boom and terminates in a cargo hook.Cargo can be hoisted using one boom(customarily for very heavy loads of cargo, 10 tons or over)or for faster handling, by a pair of married booms, with one boom end over the hatch and the other over the pier.This cargo handling operation, called burtoning, is customary for loads up to 10 tons.Most break-bulk cargo ships fitted with booms have a pair of booms at each hatch end to expedite cargo handling.The cargo is often piled together in a large net which is emptied and returned for the next load.Packaged cargo of nearly uniform dimensions may be stacked on pallets which are hoisted aboard individually.The sling load is landed through the hatch opening.The pallets or nets are then unloaded, and each item is individually stowed by the hold gang.Any cargo stowed in the wings of the hold is manhandled unless it is on pallets and handled by a forklift truck.The use of forklift trucks is becoming common practice, and a number of these trucks may be carried on board if they are not available at cargo terminals.The amount of cargo which is manhandled onboard determines largely the ship turnaround and port expenses, and, the profitability of the transportation system.Most break-bulk cargo ships have provisions for a heavy lift boom of 30-100-metric ton capacity for occasional units of heavy cargo.An increasing number of break-bulk cargo ships are being fitted with revolving deck cargo cranes instead of masts, booms and winches.Container ships
Container ships are replacing the conventional break-bulk cargo ship in trade routes where rapid cargo handling is essential.Containers are weatherproof boxes(usually metal)strengthened withstand stacking and motion at sea.Containers are of standard size, the largest ones weighing up to about 30 metric tons when loaded.The use of standard containers facilitates ship-board stowage, land or waterway transportation, and rental or lease.A large container ship may be loaded or unloaded completely in about half a day, compared to several days for the same amount of cargo in break-bulk cargo ship.Generally, the shipper places the cargo in the container and，except for custom inspection, it is delivered unopened to the consignee.Highway trailers(most commonly), railroad cars, or barges transport containers to and from their land destination and are therefore apart of the same transportation system.For a given payload cargo capacity, container ships are larger and more costly to build than the traditional cargo ship, but both the cargo handling cost and the idle ship time in port are reduced considerably.Although in some ships containers are moved horizontally for loading and unloading, the predominant arrangement is that illustrated in Fig.1 where containers are stowed in vertical cells and moved vertically in and out of the vessel.Roll-on/Roll-off ships
With a broad interpretation all ships that are designed to handle cargo by rolling it on wheels can be considered under this heading.This would include trailer ships;sea trains(carrying railroad cars or entire carriers: ships carrying pallets handled by forklift trucks from and to shore;and so on, the following is a description of a ship of this type, which is intended primarily to operate as a trailer ship, although it may handle several types of wheeled vehicles.Roll-on/Roll-off ships require a high proportion of cubic capacity relative to the amount of cargo and are particularly suited to services with short runs and frequent loading and unloading.They need even shorter port time than container ships but their building cost is higher.Because fully loaded toll-on/roll-off ships can not carry enough cargo to immerse them deeply, their large freeboard allows the fitting of side ports above the waterline for handling of cargo on wheels by means of ramps.Usually, ships of this type have a transom stern(a square-shaped stern like that of a motorboat)fitted with doors for handling wheeled vehicles on an aft ramp.Roll-on/Roll-off ships have several decks, and the cargo is handled on wheels from the loading deck to other decks by elevators or sloping ramps.Both internal elevators and ramps occupy substantial volume in the ship.The need for clear decks, without interruption by transverse bulkheads, and tween decks for vehicle parking results in a unique structural arrangement.Barge-carrying ships
This type of ship represents a hold step in the trend toward cargo containerization and port time reductions.Cargo is carried in barges or lighters each weighing up to 1000 metric tons when loaded.The lighters are carried below and above deck and handled by gantry cranes or elevator platforms.These are among the fastest, largest, and costest ships for the carriage of general cargo.For their size, their payload capacity is less than that of the conventional break-bulk cargo ship.However, they can be loaded and unloaded much faster and with a considerable saving in man-hours.Because the lighters can be waterborne and operated as regular barges, these large ships can serve undeveloped ports advantageously.Using portable fixtures that can be erected quickly, barge-carrying ships can be adapted for the transport of varying amounts of standard containers in addition to or in plane of lighters.Bulk cargo ships
A large proportion of ocean transportation is effected by bulk cargo ships.Dry bulk cargo includes products such as iron ore, coal, limestone, grain, cement, bauxite gypsum, and sugar.Most oceangoing dry bulk carriers are loaded and unloaded using shore side installations.Many dry bulk carriers operating in the Great Lakes have shipboard equipment for the handling of cargo(self-unloaders), and an increasing number of oceangoing ships carrying this type of cargo are being fitted with self-unloading gear.By far the largest amount of liquid bulk cargo consists of petroleum products, but ocean transportation of other bulk liquid products is increasing in importance;for example, various chemicals, vegetable oils, molasses, latex, liquefied gases, molten sulfur, and even wine and fruit juices.Practically all liquid bulk carriers have pumps for unloading the cargo, usually have ship board pumps for unloading liquids.Practically all bulk carriers have the machinery compartment, crew accommodations, and conning stations located aft.An exception is the Great Lakes self-unloader with crew accommodations and bridge forward.The tendency in bulk carriers is toward larger ships, with speeds remaining about constant at moderate level(16-18 knots or 30-33 km/h for oceangoing ships, lower for Great Lakes vessels).The oceangoing ore carrier is characterized by a high double bottom and small volume of cargo hold because of the high density of the ore.Storing the cargo high in the ship decreases stability and prevents excessively quick rolling.The oceangoing combination bulk carrier permits low-cost transportation because of its flexibility.It is able to carry many types of bulk cargoes over a variety of sea lanes.This type of ship carries bulk cargoes, such as petroleum product, coal, grain, and ore.The double bottom in bulk carriers is shallow and the volume of cargo holds is large compared to the size of the ship.The tanker is the characteristic, and by far the most important, liquid bulk carrier both in numbers and tonnage.Tankers carry petroleum products almost exclusively.The very large tankers are used almost entirely for the transport of crude oil.A few tankers are built especially for the transportation of chemical products, and others are prepared for alter native loads of grain.Bulk liquid carriers, with standing, rectangular, cylindrical, or spherical cargo tanks separated from the hull, are used for the transportation of molten sulfur and liquefied gases, such as anhydrous ammonia and natural gas.Liquefied natural gas(LNG)is also carried in ships with membrane tanks, i.e., where a thin metallic linear is fitted into a tank composed of ship structural and load-bearing insulation.The transportation of molten surfur and liquefied gases requires special consideration regarding insulation and high structural soundness of cargo tanks, including the use of high grade, costly materials for their construction.(From ―McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology‖, Vol.8.1982).Passenger-cargo ships
The accommodations for passengers in this type of ship are located to assure maximum comfort.Generally a passenger-cargo ship serves ports that have an appeal for the tourist trade and where rather special, high freight-rate cargo is handled.Because of the service needs of passengers, a ship of this type requires a much larger crew than a merchant ship of comparable size engaged exclusively in the carriage of cargo.The living accommodations for passengers consist of staterooms with 1-4 berths, each room with bath and toilet.A few rooms may be connected and suites may include a living room, dressing room, and even a private outdoor veranda.Public rooms for passenger use may include dining room, lounge, cocktail room, card and game room, library, shops, and swimming pool.Ships carrying more than 12 passengers must comply with the SOLAS regulations.These regulations deal with ship characteristics related to items such as the following:(1)lessening the risk of foundering or capsizing due to hull damage,(2)preventing the start and spread of fires aboard, and(3)increasing the possibility and safety of abandoning ship in emergencies.The ship in Fig.2 is an interesting example of a departure from the traditional break-bulk cargo ship in which cargo is handled almost exclusively by means of a ship board installation of masts and booms.This ship is provided with gantry cranes to handle containers, vehicles, and large pallets.The containers may be stored in cargo holds equipped with container cells or on deck.Large-size pallets and vehicles may be handled through side ports by means of an athwart-ship gear called a siporter.Wheeled vehicles can also be rolled on and off the ship through the side ports.Cargo may be carried to and from lower decks by cargo elevators, and, in addition, there are vertical conveyors for handling cargo such as bananas.The horizontal conveyors shown in the typical section receive cargo automatically, mostly on pallets, from the cargo elevators.This cargo is then stowed by manually controlled, battery operated pallet loaders.Cargo for the forward hold is handled by a 5-ton burtoning cargo gear and transferred to lower levels by a cargo elevator.(From ―McGraw – Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology‖, Vol.12, 1977)
Technical Terms
1.break-bulk cargo ship 件雜貨船 26.king post 吊桿柱，起重柱 2.inboard 船內 27.wire rope 鋼絲繩 3.compartment 艙室 28.sheave
滑輪 4.transverse bulkhead 橫艙壁 29.winch 絞車 5.main deck 主甲板 30.cargo hook 吊貨鉤 6.strength deck 強力甲板 31.married booms 聯合吊桿 7.inner bottom 內底 32.burtoning 雙桿操作 8.hold(cargo hold)貨艙 33.cargo handling 貨物裝卸 9.tween deck space 甲板間艙 34.packaged cargo 包裝貨 10.double bottom 雙層底 35.pallet 貨盤 11.deep tank 深艙 36.sling load
懸吊荷重 12.water ballast 水壓載 37.hold gang 貨艙理貨組 13.latex 膠乳 38.wings 貨艙兩側 14.coconut oil 椰子油 39.forklift truck 鏟車 15.edible oil 食用油 40.terminal 碼頭，終端 17.hatch 艙口 41.turnaround 周轉期 18.hatch cover 艙口蓋 42.profitability 利益 19.palletized cargo 貨盤運貨 43.container ship 集裝箱船 20.multiple hatch 多艙口 44.trade route 貿易航線 21.abreast 并排 45.weather proof 風雨密 22.container 集裝箱 46.stacking 堆壓 23.pier 碼頭 47.stowage 裝載，貯藏 24.cargo boom 吊貨桿 48.waterway 水路 25.wire rigging 鋼索索具 49.rental 出租（費）50.lease 租借 51.shipper 貨運主 52.custom 海關
53.consignee 收貨人
54.highway trailer 公路拖車
55.payload 凈載重量，有效載荷 56.cell 格柵，電池，元件 57.roll-on/roll-off ship 滾裝船 58.heading 標題，航向 59.trailer ships 拖車運輸船
60.sea trains ferry 海上火車渡船 61.truck 卡車 62.trailer 拖車
63.military vehicle carriers 軍用車輛運輸船
64.cubic capacity 艙容 65.ramp 跳板，坡道 66.transom stern 方尾
67.motor boat 機動艇，汽艇 68.clear deck 暢通甲板 69.parking 停車（場）
70.barge-carrying ship 載駁船 71.lighter 港駁船 72.barge 駁船
73.portable fixture 輕便固定裝置
74.bulk cargo ship/bulk carrier 散裝貨船 75.dry bulk cargo 散裝干貨 76.limestone 石灰石 77.bauxite 礬土 78.gypsum 石膏
79.Great Lakes（美國）大湖 80.petroleum 石油
81.chemicals 化學制（產）品 82.molasses 糖漿
83.liquefied gas 液化氣體 84.molten sulfur 熔態硫 85.conning station 駕駛室
86.ore hold 礦砂艙 87.空
88.engine room 機艙
89.liquid bulk carrier 液體散貨船
90.combination bulk carrier 混裝散貨船 91.ocean-going ore carrier 遠洋礦砂船 92.lane 航道（線）93.tanker 油船 94.crude oil 原油
95.anhydrous ammonia 無水氨 96.natural gas 天然氣
97.passenger-cargo ship 客貨船 98.tourist 旅游者 99.freight-rate 運費率
100.carriage 裝（載）運，車輛 101.stateroom 客艙 102.suite 套間
103.living room 臥室 104.veranda 陽臺 105.lounge 休息室
106.cocktail room 酒吧間
107.card and game room 牌戲娛樂室 108.foundering 沉沒 109.capsizing 傾覆 110.abandoning 棄船 111.emergency 應急
112.installation 裝置，運載工具 113.vehicle 車輛，運載工具 114.gantry crane 門式起重機 115.container cell 集裝箱格柵 116.siporter 橫向裝卸機
117.rolled on and off 滾進滾出 118.side port 舷門
119.cargo elevator 運貨升降機 120.conveyor 輸送機
Additional Terms and Expressions 1.2.3.4.transport ship 運輸船 general cargo ship 雜貨船 liquid cargo ship 液貨船 refrigerated ship 冷藏船
5.6.7.8.working ship 工程船
ocean development ship 海洋開發船 dredger 挖泥船
floating crane/derrick boat 起重船 9.salvage vessel 救撈船 10.submersible 潛水器 11.ice-breaker 破冰船 12.fisheries vessel 漁業船 13.trawler 拖網漁船
seine netter 圍網漁船 14.harbour boat 港務船 15.supply ship 供應船 16.pleasure yacht 游艇
17.hydrofoil craft 水翼艇 18.air-cushion vehicle 氣墊船
hovercraft 全墊升氣墊船 19.catamaran 雙體船 20.concrete ship 水泥船
21.fiberglass reinforced plastic boat 玻璃鋼
艇
Notes to the Text
1.unless 連接詞，作“如果不”，“除非”解釋，例如：
An object remain at rest or moves in a straight line unless a force acts upon it.一個物體如無外力作用，它將繼續保持靜止或作直線運動。
In this book the word is used in its original sense unless(it is)otherwise sated.本書內，這個詞按其意采用，除非另有說明。2.“to and from 名詞”或“from and to +名詞” 后面的名詞委前面兩個介詞公用，可譯作“來回于（名詞）之間”。
3.with a broad interpretation 具有廣泛的意思
under this heading 屬于這個范疇
4.barge 和lighter 一般都可以譯作駁船，但barge 往往指貨物經過較長距離運輸到達某一目的地，故譯作“駁船”，而lighter 旨在港口或近距離內起到裝卸貨物的聯絡作用，故譯作“駁船”。
5.in additional to or in place of lighters 是in addition to lighters or in place of lighters 的省略形式，翻譯成中文時，不一定能省略。
6.“by far +形容詞（或副詞）的最高級或比較及”具有“遠遠，非常，最?，或?得多”的意思。例：
by far the fastest 最快的
by far faster than A 遠比A快（比A 快得多）
By far the most common type of fixed offshore structure in existence today is the template, or jacket, structure illustrated in Fig 1.1.現今最普遍采用的固定平臺型式是圖1.1所示的導管架平臺。
7.the SOLAS regulations 系指國際海上人命安全公約規則，幾乎所有海運國家都要遵守這些規則。其中的“SOLAS”為“International Convention for the Safety Of Life At Sea‖的縮寫。Lesson Four
Ship Design
The design of a ship involves a selection of the features of form, size, proportions, and other factors which are open to choice, in combination with those features which are imposed by circumstances beyond the control of the design naval architect.Each new ship should do some things better than any other ship.This superiority must be developed in the evolution of the design, in the use of the most suitable materials, to the application of the best workmanship, and in the application of the basic fundamentals of naval architecture and marine engineering.As sips have increased in size and complexity, plans for building them have became mare detailed and more varied.The intensive research since the period just prior to World War 2 has brought about many technical advances in the design of ships.These changes have been brought about principally by the development of new welding techniques, developments in main propulsion plants, advances in electronics, and changes in materials and methods of construction.All ships have many requirements which are common to all types, whether they are naval, merchant, or special-purpose ships.The first of such requirements is that the ship must be capable of floating when carrying the load for which it was designed.A ship floats because as it sinks into the water it displaces an equal weight of water, and the pressure of the water produces an upward force, which is called the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the ship and is called the displacement.Displacement is equal to the underwater volume of the ship multiplied by the density of the water in which it is gloating.When floating in still water, the weight of the ship, including everything it carries, is equal to the buoyancy or displacement.The weight of the ship itself is called the light weight.This weight includes the weight of the hull structure, fittings, equipment, propulsion machinery, piping and ventilation, cargo-handling equipment and other items required for the efficient operation of the ship.The load which the ship carries in addition to its own weight is called the deadweight.This includes cargo, passengers, crew and effects, stores, fresh water, feed water for the boilers incase of steam propelling machinery, and other weights which may be part of the ships international load.The sum of all these weights plus the lightweight of the ship gives the total displacement;that is
Displacement = lightweight + deadweight
One of the first things which a designer must do is to determine the weight and size of the ship and decide upon a suitable hull form to provide the necessary buoyancy to support the weight that has been chosen.Owner’s requirements
Ships are designed, built, and operated to fulfill, the requirements and limitations specified by the operator and owner.These owner‘s requirements denote the essential considerations which are to form the basis for the design.They may be generally stated as(1)a specified minimum deadweight carrying capacity,(2)a specified measurement tonnage limit,(3)a selected speed at sea, or a maximum speed on trial, and(4)maximum draft combined with other draft limitations.In addition to these general requirements, there may be a specified distance of travel without refueling and maximum fuel consumption per shaft horsepower hour limitation, as well as other items which will influence the basic design.Apart from these requirements, the ship owner expects the designer to provide a thoroughly efficient ship.Such expectations include(1)minimum displacement on a specified deadweight carrying capacity,(2)maximum cargo capacity on a minimum gross tonnage,(3)appropriate strength of construction,(4)the most efficient type of propelling machinery with due consideration to weight, initial cast, and cost of operation,(5)stability and general seaworthiness, and(6)the best loading and unloading facilities and ample accommodations for stowage.Design procedure
From the specified requirements, an approach is made to the selection of the dimensions, weight, and displacement of the new design.This is a detailed operation, but some rather direct approximations can be made to start the design process.This is usually done by analyzing data available from an existing ship which is closely similar.For example, the design displacement can be approximated from the similar ship‘s known deadweight of, say, 11790 tons and the known design displacement of 17600 tons.From these figures, a deadweight-displacement ratio of 0.67 is obtained.Thus, if the deadweight for the new design is, for example, 10000 tons, then the approximate design displacement will 10,000/0.67 or 15000 tons.This provides a starting point for the first set of length, beam, and draft dimensions, after due consideration to other requirements such as speed, stability, and strength.Beam is defined as the extreme breath of a ship at its widest part, while draft is the depth of the lowest part of the ship below the waterline.Length and speed These factors are related to the hull form, the propulsion machinery, and the propeller design.The hull form is the direct concern of the naval architect, which the propulsion machinery and propeller design are concern.The naval architect has considerable influence on the final decisions regarding the efficiency, weight, and size of the propeller, as both greatly influence the design of the hull form.Speed has an important influence on the length selected for the ship.The speed of the ship is related to the length in term of the ratio V/
L, where V is the speed in knots and L is the effective waterline length of the ship.As the speed-length ratio increases, the resistance of the ship increases.Therefore, in order to obtain an efficient hull form from a resistance standpoint, a suitable length must be selected for minimum resistance.Length in relation to the cross-sectional area of the underwater form(the prismatic coefficient), is also very important insofar as resistance is concerned.Fast ships require fine(slender)forms or relatively low fullness coefficients as compared with relatively slow ships which may be designed with fuller hull forms.Beam and stability
A ship must be stable under all normal conditions of loading and performance at sea.This means that when the ship is inclined from the vertical by some external force, it must return to the vertical when the external force is removed.Stability may be considered in the transverse or in the longitudinal direction.In surface ship, longitudinal stability is much less concern than transverse stability.Submarines, however, are concerned with longitudinal stability in the submerged condition.The transverse stability of a surface ship must be considered in two ways, first at all small angles of inclination, called initial stability, and second at large angles of inclination.Initial stability depends upon two factors,(1)the height of the center gravity of the ship above the base line and(2)the underwater form of the ship.The center of gravity is the point at which the total weight of the ship may be considered to be concentrated.The hull form factor governing stability depends on the beam B, draft T, and the proportions of the underwater and waterline shape.For a given location of the center of gravity, the initial stability of the ship is proportional to B2/T.Beam, therefore, is a primary factor in transeverse stability.At large angles of heel(transeverse inclination)freeboard is also an important factor.Freeboard is the amount the ship projects above the waterline of the ship to certain specified decks(in this case, to the weatherdeck to which the watertight sides extend).Freeboard affects both the size of the maximum righting arm and the range of the stability, that is the angle of inclination at which the ship would capsize if it were inclined beyond that angle.5 Depth an strength
A ship at sea is subjected to many forces because of the action of the waves, the motion of the ship, and the cargo and other weights, which are distributed throughout the length of the ship.These forces produces stresses in the structure, and the structure must be of suitable strength to withstand the action.The determination of the minimum amount of material required for adequate strength is essential to attaining the minimum weight of the hull.The types of structural stress experienced by a ship riding waves at sea are caused by the unequal distribution of the weight and buoyancy throughout the length of ship.The structure as a whole bends in a longitudinal plane, with the maximum bending stresses being found in the bottom and top of the hull girder.Therefore, depth is important because as it is increased, less material is required in the deck and bottom shell.However, there are limits which control the maximum depth in terms of practical arrangement and efficiency of design.(From ―McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of science and Technology‖, Vol.12, 1982)
Technical Terms
1.form 船型，形狀，格式 22.distance of travel 航行距離 2.proportion 尺度比，比例 23.refueling 添加燃料 3.workmanship 工藝質量 24.consumption 消耗 4.basic fundamentals 基本原理 25.initial cost 造價 5.marine engineering 輪機工程 26.cost of operation 營運成本 6.intensive 精致的 27.unloading facility 卸貨設備 7.propulsion plants 推進裝置 28.cross sectional area 橫剖面面積 8.naval ship 軍艦 29.fineness 纖瘦度 9.special-purpose ship 特殊用途船 30.prismatic coefficient 菱形系數 10.buoyancy 浮力 31.slender 瘦長（型）11.fittings 配/附件 32.beam 船寬 12.piping 管路 33.inclined 傾斜的 13.ventilation 通風 34.external force 外力 14.cargo-handing equipment 貨物裝卸裝35.surface ship 水面船舶
置 36.submarine 潛水艇 15.crew and effects 船員及自身物品 37.submerged condition 潛水狀態 16.stores 儲藏物 38.initial stability 初穩性 17.fresh water 淡水 39.weather deck 樓天甲板 18.feed water 給水 40.righting arm 復原力臂 19.boiler 鍋爐 41.capsize 傾復 20.measurement(噸位)丈量，測量 42.stress 應力 21.trial 試航，試驗 43.unequal distribution 分布不相等 44.longitudinal plane 縱向平面 45.hull girder 船體梁
AdditionalTerms and Expressions
1.tentative design 方案設計 2.preliminary design 初步設計 3.technical design 技術設計 4.working design 施工設計 5.basic design 基本設計
6.conceptual design 概念設計 7.inquire design 咨詢設計 8.contract design 合同設計 9.detailed design 詳細設計 10.finished plan 完工圖
11.hull specification 船體說明書 12.general specification 全船說明書 13.steel weight 鋼料重量
14.outfit weight（木作）舾裝重量 15.machinery weight 機械重量 16.weight curve重量曲線
17.weight estimation 重量估計
18.cargo capacity 貨艙容積
19.bale cargo capacity 包裝艙容積 20.bulk cargo capacity 散裝貨容積 21.bunker capacity 燃料艙容積 22.capacity curve 容積曲線 23.capacity plan 容量（積）圖 24.stowage factor 積載系數
25.homogenuous cargo 均質貨物 26.gross tonnage 總噸位 27.net tonnage 凈噸位
28.tonnage capacity 量噸容積 29.tonnage certificate 噸位證書
30.displacement length ratio 排水量長度比 31.accommodation 居住艙室 32.ice strengthening 冰區加強 33.drawing office 制圖室 34.drafting room 制圖室
Notes to the Text 1.A ship floats because as it sinks into the water it displace an equal weight of water, and pressure of the water produces an upward force which is called buoyancy.這是一個復合句。
從because開始至句末均屬原因狀語從句，它本身也是一個復合句，包含有以下從句：
as it sinks into the water 為整個原因狀語從句中的時間狀語從句;
it displaces an equal weight of water, and pressure of the water produces an upward 為整個原因狀語從句中的兩個并列的主要句子；
which is called buoyancy 為定語從句，修飾an upward force.2.In addition to 除……以外（還包括……）
例：In addition to these general requirements, … 除了這些一般要求外，還有……
而在The load which the ship carries in addition to its own weight is called the deadweight中的in addition to 應理解成“外加在它本身重量上的”，故應譯為“本身重量除外（不包括本身重量）。
3.插入語，相當于 for example.一般在口語中用得比較多。
4.注意 ―ton‖, ―tonne‖, 和 ―tonnage‖ 三個詞的區別。ton和tonne一般用來表示船舶的排水量和載重量，指重量單位。其中ton可分long ton(英噸)和 short ton(美噸)，而tonne為公噸；tonnage 是登記噸，表征船舶容積的一種單位。
5． …the angle of inclination at which the ship would capsize if it were inclined beyond that angle.從at 開始至句末是一定語從句，修飾angle, 而該從句本身又由一個帶虛擬語氣的主從復合句所構成。因為假設的條件不會發生，或發生的可能性非常小，所以主句和從句中的謂語動詞都采用虛擬語氣。
Lesson Five
General Arrangement
1.1 Definition The general arrangement of a ship can be defined as the assignment of spaces for all the required functions and equipment, properly coordinated for location and access.Four consecutive steps characterize general arrangement;namely, allocation of main spaces, setting individual space boundaries, choosing and locating equipment and furnishing within boundaries, and providing interrelated access.These steps progress from overall to detail considerations, although there is some overlapping.Generally, particular arrangement plans are prepared for conceptual, preliminary, contract, and working plan stages.The data for early stages come into first experience, and the degree of detail increases as the design progresses.It has often been said that ship design is inevitably a compromise between various conflicting requirements, and it is in formulation of the general arrangement that most of the compromises are made.Ship design requires a melding of many arts and sciences, and most of this melding occurs in the general arrangement.The designer considers the demands for all the functions and subfunctions of the ship, balances the relative types and importance of the demands, and attempts to arrive at an optimum coordinate relationship of the space assignments within the ship hull.The general arrangement, then, represents a summary or integration of information from other divisions and specialties in the ship design, to provide all the necessary functions of the ship in the most efficient and economical way from an overall viewpoint.The efficient operation of a ship depends upon the proper arrangement of each separate space and the most effective interrelationships between all spaces.It is important that the general arrangement be functionally and economically developed with respect to factors that affect both the construction and operation cost, especially the manpower required to operate the ship.Many other divisions of ship design provide the feed-in for the general arrangement, such as structure, hull engineering(hatch covers, cargo handling, etc), scientific(weights, stability, and lines), engineering(machinery, uptakes), and specifications.1.2 Function of ship
In this chapter, consideration of ship type is restricted to those whose function is to transport something for economic profit;in other words, commercial transportation.Such ship types may be subdivided in accordance with material to be transported;e.g., general cargo, bulk cargo, vehicles, passengers, etc.General cargo ships may further be subdivided in accordance with the form in which the general cargo is transported;e.g.break-bulk, containers, standardized pallets, roll-on/roll-off, etc.Bulk cargo ships may be subdivided into liquid bulk types and solid bulk types, or combinations of these, and, of course, may be further subdivided for specific liquids and solid bulks.Vehicle ships would include ferryboats and ships for the transoceanic delivery of automobiles, trucks, etc.Passengers can be carried in ships designed primarily for that purpose, as well as in any of the aforementioned types.Therefore, even after ship types are limited to those for Commercial transportation, they can have widely diverse functions.However, the common objective of the general arrangement in each case is to fulfill the function of the ship n the most economical manner;in other words develop a ship which will transport cargo at the least unit cost.This dual aspect of function cost is actually the force which has give rise to special ship types, many of which have been created in the last few years.The reason for this may be seen in a comparative annual cost break-bulk cargo ship fleet and a container ship fleet designed to carry the same cargo ,as estimated in ref[1].Conventional
Break-bulk
container
Fleer
Ship Fleet Capital……………………………………………………………..$2,370,000….$ 2,940,000 Operating…………………………………………………………….4,550,000
3,550,000 Cargo handing………………………………………………………22,900,000
4,920,000 Terminal allocation………………………………………………….1200,000
1,200,000 Overhead and allocations……………………………………………2,20,000
2200000 Total transportation cost …………………………………………….$33,220,000 $14,810,000 Cost per long ton of cargo transported………………………………$4,920
$2,190 It is the implication of such cost figures that gave rise to a rapid growth in the container ship type.Some such similar sets of cost figures, comparing different ways to accomplish the same function, explain the growth of any special ship type.The problems of general arrangement, then, are, associated with the function of the ship and generally fifer according to ship type.The arrangements of all types, however, have certain things in common.For example, the problems of accommodation and propulsion machinery arrangements are generally similar, although the different ship types impose different limitations.1.3
Ship as a system.In analyzing any tool or implement which has a functional-economic aspect, it is convenient to consider that tool as a system made up of a group of subsystems.By this approach, each subsystem may be analyzed separately, and its components and characteristics selected for optimum function and economics;then the subsystems may be combined to form the compatible system.Of course the subsystems must be compatible and the sum of their functions must equal the complete system function, just as the sum of their cists must equal the complete system costs.A ship which is a structural-mechanical tool or implement may be considered as a system for the transportation of goods or people ,across a body of water, from one marine terminal to another.The complete system is broken down into subsystems which generally must include, as a minimum, subsystems for:
? Enclosing volume for containing cargo and other contents of ship and providing buoyancy to support cargo and other weights(hull envelope).? Providing structure for maintaining watertight integrity of enclosed volume and supporting cargo and other contents of ship against static and dynamic forces and primary strength of the hull girder(structure).? Transporting cargo from pier to ship and stowing it aboard ship(cargo handling and stowage).? Propelling ship at various speeds(machinery and control).? Controlling direction of ship(steering).? Housing and supporting human components of system(accommodations).Providing safety in event of accident(watertight subdivision, fire control, etc.).The general arrangement is largely developed by consideration of the requirement of each system, which are balanced, weighed, and combined into a complete system.However, the development of the general arrangement is not completely compatible with the system approach, because a general arrangement is a diagram of space and location, which may be minor aspects of certain subsystems.For example, some sub-subsystems occupy practically no space and do not appear on a general arrangement plan.Although this chapter will not go further with the system approach than is warranted by the subject of “general arrangement‖, it should be noted that each of the foregoing subsystems may be further broken down into second-degree subsystems(or sub-subsystems)and these in turn may be further broken down.The complete ship itself is, of course, a subsystem of larger system for the transportation of goods or people from any point on earth to any other point.1.4 The Problem and the approach
The first step in solving the general arrangement problem is locating the main spaces and their boundaries within the ship hull and superstructure.They are:
Cargo spaces
Machinery spaces
Crew, passenger, and associated spaces
Tanks
Miscellaneous
At the same time, certain requirements must be met, mainly:
Watertight subdivision and integrity
Adequate stability
Structural integrity
Adequate provision for access
As stated in the foregoing, the general arrangement is evolved by a gradual progress of trial, check and improvement.As for any other problem, the first approach to a solution to the general arrangement must be based on a minimum amount of information, including: ? Required volume of cargo spaces, based on type and amount of cargo.? Method of stowing cargo and cargo handling system.? Required volume of machinery spaces, based on type of machinery and ship.? Required volume of tankage, mainly fuel and clean ballast, based on type of fuel, and cruising range.? Required standard of subdivision and limitation of main transverse bulkhead spacing.? Approximate principal dimensions(length, beam, depth, and draft).? Preliminary lines plan.The approximate dimensions and lines plan are base on a preliminary summation of the required volumes for all the aforementioned contents of the ship, a preliminary, estimate of all the weights in the ship, a selection of the proper hull coefficients for speed and power, and adequate freeboard and margin line for subdivision and stability.From the lines plan and margin line, a curve of sectional areas along the length of the ship and a floodable length curve may be made.The first general arrangement layout to allocate the main spaces is based on the foregoing information.Peak oulkheads and inner bottom are established in accordance with regulatory body requirements.Other main transverse bulkheads are located to satisfy subdivision requirements, based on preliminary floodable length curves.Decks are located to suit the requirements.Allowance for space occupied by structure must be deducted in arriving at the resulting net usable volumes and the clear deck heights.Usually, in the first approach, several preliminary general arrangements are laid out in the form of main space allocations, boundaries, and subdivisions.These are checked for adequacy of volumes, weights and stability, and the changes to be made in the preliminary lines to make these features satisfactory.At this point, certain arrangements may be dropped, either because they are not feasible or are less efficient than other arrangements.The general arrangement process then continues into more refined stages ,simultaneously with the development of structure, machinery layout, and calculations of weights, volumes, floodable length, and stability（intact and damaged）.The selection of one basic arrangement may cone early in the process, or may have to be delayed and based on a detailed comparison of ―trade-offs.‖ In any case, the selection is usually made in consultation with the owner so that consideration may be given to his more detailed knowledge of operating problems.（From “Ship Design and Construction” by D‘ Arcangelo, 1969）
Technical Terms
1.general arrangement 總布置 29.profit 利益 2.assignment 指定，分配 30.annual cost 費用 3.space 處所，空間 31.breakdown 細目 4.access 通道，入口
32.terminal allocation 碼頭配置費 5.allocation 分配，配置 33.overhead 管理費，雜項開支 6.furnishings 家具 34.component(組成)部分，分量 7.conceptual(design)概念（設計）35.characteristic 特性 8.preliminary(design)初步（設計）36.mechanical 機械的 9.contract(stage)合同（階段）37.goods 貨物 10.working plan 施工圖 38.marine terminal 港口，碼頭 11.formulation 公式化，明確表達 39.enclosing volume 密（圍）閉容積 12.melding 融合 40.hull envelope 船體外殼 13.optimum 最佳 41.primary strength 總強度 14.coordinate relationship 協調關系
42.stowage 配載 15.summary 綜合，摘要 43.housing 容納 16.integration 綜合，積分 44.diagram 圖 17.division 部分，劃分 45.superstructure 上層建筑 18.efficient and economical way 有效和46.machinery space 機艙
經濟的方式 47.miscellaneous(其他)雜用艙室 19.speciality 專業 48.watertight subdivision 水密分艙 20.feed-in 送進，提供 49.integrity 完整性 21.specifications 各種技術條件，說明書 50.tankage 液艙，容量（積）22.uptake 煙道 51.clean ballast 清潔壓載 23.commercial transportation 商業運輸 52.lines plan 型線圖 24.solid(liquid)bulk type 固體（液體）53.crusing range 巡航范圍
散裝型 54.margine line 限界線 25.ferryboat 渡船 55.floodable length curve 可浸長度曲線 26.transoceanic 渡（遠）洋的 56.layout（設計，布置）草圖 27.automobile汽車 57.peak bulkhead 尖艙艙壁 28.aforementioned(a.m.)上述的 58.regulatory body 主管機構（關）59.intact stability 完整穩性 60.trade-off 權衡，折衷
61.consultation 協商
Additional Terms and Expressions
1.interior arrangement 艙室布置
2.stairway and passageway arrangement 梯道及走道布置
3.interior/exterior passageway 內/外走道 4.bridge deck 駕駛甲板 5.compass deck 羅經甲板 6.boat deck 艇甲板
7.promenda deck 游步甲板
8.accommodation deck 起居甲板 9.vehicle deck 車輛甲板
10.winch platform 起貨機平臺 11.wheel house 駕駛室 12.chart room 海圖室 13.radio room 報務室 14.electric room 置電室 15.mast room 桅室
16.caption‘s room 船長室 17.crew‘s room 船員室 18.cabin 客艙
19.main engine control room 主機操縱室 20.auxiliary engine room 副機艙
21.boiler room 鍋爐間
22.steering engine room 舵機艙 23.workshop 機修間 24.store 貯藏室
25.fore/aft peak 首/尾尖艙
26.topside/bottomside tank 頂邊/底邊艙 27.wing tank 邊艙
28.steering gear 操舵裝置
29.anchor and mooring arrangement 錨泊和
系纜設備
30.howse pipe 錨鏈筒 31.chain locker 錨鏈艙
32.closing appliances 關閉設備 33.hatch cover 艙口蓋
34.lifesaving equipment/appliance 救生設備 35.mast 桅 36.rigging 索
37.bollard 雙柱帶纜柱 38.bitt 帶纜樁 39.fairlead 導纜鉤
Notes to the Text
1.It is in formulation of the general arrangement that most of the compromises are made.這是“it is … that … ”強調句型，強調in formulation of the general arrangement.in formulation of 原意為“在……的表達中”，現意譯為“體現在……中”。
2.It is important that the general arrangement be functionally and economically developed…
這是虛擬語氣形式的句型，在that 從句中采用原形動詞。類似的句型還有：
It is desired/suggested/requested that……
It is necessary that …
有時It is essential that …也用虛擬語氣。3.hull engineering 為“船舶設備”之意 4.scientific 原意為“科學的”，現根據上下文意譯成“船舶性能”。5.at the least unit cost 以最小的單價 6.a long ton 一英噸（=2240磅）
a short ton 一美噸（=2000磅）
7.any tool or implement 在這里implement 和tool 基本上同義，幫or 后面的名詞在翻譯時可以省略不譯。
8.across a body of water 穿過一段水路/一個水域
9.aboard ship和 on board ship, 以及on board a(the ship)都為“在船上”之意。
10.Although this chapter will not go further with the system approach than is warranted by the subject of ―general arrangement‖.這個讓步狀語從句中包含有比較狀語從句。than 后面的主語（this chapter）被省略掉了。其中的is warranted 原意為“補認為是合理（或正當）的”，整個從句可翻譯成：“雖然這一章只限于‘總布置’這個主題，而不再進一步討論系統處理方法”。
Lesson Six
Ship Lines The outside surface of a ship is the surface of a solid with curvature in two directions.The curves which express this surface are not in general given by mathematical expressions, although attempts have been made from time to time to express the surface mathematically.It is necessary to have some drawing which will depict in as detailed a manner as possible the outside surface of the ship.The plan which defines the ship form is known as a ‘line plan‘.The lines plan consists of three drawings which show three sets of sections through the form obtained by the intersection of three sets of mutually orthogonal planes with the outside surface.Consider first a set of planes perpendicular to the centre line of the ship.Imagine that these planes intersect the ship form at a number of different positions in the length.The sections obtained in this way are called ?body section‘ and are drawn in what is called the ?body sections‘ as shown in Figure 1*.When drawing the body plan half-sections aft of amidships（the after body sections）are drawn on one side of the centre line and the sections forward of amidships(the fore body sections)are drawn on the other side of the center line.It is normal to divide the length between perpendiculars into a number of divisions of equal length(often ten)and to draw a section at each of these divisions.Additional sections are sometimes drawn near the ends where the changes in the form become more rapid.In merchant ship practice the sections are numbered from the after perpendicular to the forward perpendicular —thus a.p.is 0 and f.p.is 10 if there are ten divisions.The two divisions of length at the ends of the ship would usually be subdivided so that there would be sections numbered 1/2, 11/2, 81/2, and 91/2.Sometimes as many as 20 divisions of length are used, with possibly the two divisions at each end subdivided, but usually ten divisions are enough to portray the form with sufficient accuracy.Suppose now that a series of planes parallel to the base and at different distances above it are considered.The sections obtained by the intersections of these planes with the surface of the ship are called ?waterlines‘ or sometimes ?level lines‘.The lines are shown in Figure 1.The waterlines like the body sections are drawn for one side of the ship only.They are usually spaced about, 1m(3-4ft)apart, but a closer spacing is adopted near the bottom of the ship where the form is changing rapidly.Also included on the half breadth plan is the outline of the uppermost deck of the ship.A third set of sections can be obtained by considering the inter-section of a series of vertical planes parallel to the centre line of the ship with the outside surface.The resulting sections are shown in a view called the ?sheer profile‘ see Figure 1 and are called ?buttocks‘ in the after body and ?bow lines‘ in the fore body or often simply ?buttocks‘.The buttocks like the waterlines will be spaced 1m(3-4ft)apart.On the sheer profile the outline of the ship on the centre line is shown and this can be regarded as a buttock at zero distance from the centre line.The three sets of sections discussed above are obviously not independent of one another, in the sense that an alteration in one will affect the other two.Thus, if the shape of a body section is altered this will affect the shape of both the waterlines and the buttocks.It is essential when designing the form of the ship that the three sets of curves should be ?fair‘ and their interdependence becomes important in this fairing process.What constitutes a fair curve is open to question.But formerly the fairing process was done very largely by eye.Nowadays the lines plan is often faired by some mathematical means which will almost certainly involve the use of the computer.However the fairing process is carried out the design of the lines of a ship will normally start by the development of an approximate body plan.The designer when he has such a body plan will then lift offsets for the waterlines and will run the waterlines in the half-breadth plan.This means drawing the best possible curves through the offsets which have been lifted from the sections, and this is done by means of wooden or plastics battens.If it is not possible to run the waterlines through all the points lifted from the body plan then new offsets are lifted from the waterlines and new body sections drawn.The process is then repeated until good agreement is obtained between waterlines and body sections.It is then possible to run the buttocks, and to ensure that these are fair curves it may be necessary to adjust the shape of body sections and waterlines.The process of fairing is usually done in the drawing office on a scale drawing.It is clear that a much more accurate fairing of the form is necessary for production purposes in particular, and this used to be done in the mould loft of the shipyard full size.The procedure was for the drawing office to send to the mould loft office from the lines as faired in the office and they were laid out full size on the loft floor.A contracted scale was adopted for the length dimension but waterline and section breadths and buttock heights were marked out full size.The same process of fairing was then adopted as used in the office, the fairing being done by using wood battens of about 25mm square section pinned to the loft floor by steel pins.To save space the waterlines and buttocks in the forward and after bodies were overlapped in the forward and after bodies were overlapped in the length direction.This type of full scale fairing enabled sections, waterlines and buttocks to be produced which represented the desired form with considerable accuracy.From the full scale fairing, offsets were lifted which were returned to the drawing office and made the basis of all subsequent calculations for the ship, as will be seen later.A more recent development has been the introduction of 1/10 scale lofting, which can be done in the drawing office, and the tendency has been to dispense with full scale loft work.Several methods have also been developed for the mathematical fairing of ship forms and linking this up with production processes.Discussion of these topics, however, is outside the scope of this work..The lines drawn on the lines plan representing the ship form are what are called ―moulded lines‖, which may be taken to represent the inside of the plating of the structure.The outside surface of the ship extends beyond the moulded lines by one thickness of shell plating in an all welded ship.When riveting was put on in a series of ―in‖ and ―out‖ strakes.In this case the outsides surface of the ship extended two thicknesses of plating beyond the moulded lines in way of an outside strake and one thickness beyond the moulded lines in way of an inside strake.Actually the outside surface would be rather more than one thickness or two thicknesses of plating, as the case may be beyond the moulded line in places where there is considerable curvature of the structure, as for example at the ends of the ship or below the level of the bilge.In multiple screw merchant ships it is customary to enclose the wing shafts in what is called a ―shaft bossing‖.This consists of plating, stiffened by frames and extending from the point where the shafts emerge from the ship and ending in a casting called a ―shaft bracket‖.The bossing is usually faired separately and added on to the main hull form.The bossing is treated as an appendage.In many ships of the cross section does not change for an appreciable distance on either side of amidships.This portion is called the ―parallel middle body‖ and may be of considerable extent in full slow ships but may not exist at all in fine fast ships.Forward of the parallel middle the form gradually reduces in section towards the bow and in like manner the form reduces in section abaft the after end of the parallel middle.These parts of the form are called respectively the ―entrance‖ and the ―run‖ and the points where they join up with the parallel middle are referred to as the ―forward‖ and ―after shoulders‖.(From ―Naval Architecture for Marine Engineering‖ by W.Muckle, 1975)
Technical terms
1.ship lines 船體線型 21.drawing office 制圖/設計室 2.ship form 船體形狀 22.mould loft 放樣間 3.mathematical expressions 數學表達式 23.full size 實尺（1：1）4.drawing 圖，拉延 24.loft floor 放樣臺 5.lines plan 型線圖 25.contracted scale 縮尺 6.orthogonal plan 正交平面 26.lofting 放樣 7.body section 橫剖面 27.steel pin 鐵釘 8.body plan 橫剖線圖 28.mathematical fairing of ship form 船體9.symmetry 對稱 數學光順法 10.water lines /level lines 水線，水平型線 29.screw 螺旋槳，螺釘 11.half breadth plan 半寬水線圖 30.wing shaft 側軸 12.view 視圖，觀察 31.shaft bossing 軸包套 13.sheer profile 側視圖，縱剖線圖 32.casting 鑄件 14.buttocks 后體縱剖線 33.shaft bracket 軸支架 15.bow line 前體縱剖線 34.appendage 附屬體 16.after/fore body 后/前體 35.parallel middle body平行中體 17.alteration 修改，變更 36.full slow ship 豐滿的低速船 18.fairing process 光順過程 37.fine fast ship 尖瘦的快速船 19.offsets 型值 38.entrance 進流端入口
to lift offsets 量取型值 39.run 去流端，運行，流向 20．Wooden/plastics battern 木質/塑料壓條 40.forward/after shoulder 前/后肩
Additional Terms and Expressions
1.grid 格子線 4.station ordinate 站線 2.ordinate station 站 5.finished/returned offsets 完工型值 3.midstation 中站 6.table of offsets 型值表 7.diagonal 斜剖線 11.preliminary offsets 原始型值 8.keel line 龍骨線 12.mathematical lines 數學型線 9.rake of keel, designed drag 龍骨設計斜13.mathematical fairing of lines 型線數學光度 順法 10.knuckle line 折角線
Notes to the Text
1.in as detailed a manner as possible 相當于 in a manner as detailed as possible, 閱讀和翻譯科技原文時，應注意這類不一般的語序。
2.關系詞what可引出主語從句，表語從句等。例如：…in what is called the ‘body plan’及…in what is called a ‘shaft bossing’中的what從句作為介詞in的賓語從句。
What constitutes a fair curve is open to question…中的what從句為主語從句。
The lines drawn on… are what are called moulded lines 中的what 從句為表語從句。3.When drawing the body plan half-sections only are shown because of the symmetry of the ship.When drawing the body plan 是省略了主語和謂語一部分（to be）的時間裝語從句，盡管從句和主句的主語并不一致。這種省略方法似乎與一般的英語語法規律有矛盾，但在科技文獻中較常見，其原因是這類省略不會引起讀音的誤解。
4.a.p.和f.p.分別為after perpendicular(尾垂線)和forward perpendicular(首垂線)的縮寫。5.Also included on the half-breadth plan is the outlines of the uppermost deck of the ship.這是依據倒裝句，為了突出情調部分，此句中的also included on the half breadth plan 這部分移至句首，主語the outline of…反而置于句末。
6.on a scale of 1/4 in to 1 ft or on 1/50 scale 以一個1/4英寸代表1英尺的比例尺（即1：48）或1:50的比例尺。
7.The procedure was for the drawing office to the mould loft offsets from the lines as faired in the office and they were laid out full size on the loft floor.for the drawing office to send….是‖for+名詞+不定式‖結構，在句中作表語。For后面的the drawing office 可看作不定式的邏輯主語。
Offsets 是不定式to send 的賓語。由于它后面有一個較長的介詞短語from the line(其后面又有as faired in ….On the loft floor 修飾the line)加以修飾，為了句子結構平衡的需要，被移至介語短語to the mould loft(作為地點狀語用)之后。8.in way of….在…部位，在….處
這一組合介詞在造船和海洋工程英語中用得較普遍。例：The structural strength of a ship in way of the engine and boiler space demands special attention the designer.機爐艙部位的船體輕度要求設計人員給予特別的注意。
The thickness of upper shell plating should be increased in way of the break.船樓端部處的上層殼板厚度應該增加。/ 9.as the case may be 按情況而定。
Lesson Seven
Ship Equilibrium, Stability and Trim
The basis for ship equilibrium
Consider a ship floating upright on the surface of motionless water.In order to be at rest or in equilibrium, there must be no unbalanced forces or moments acting on it.There are two forces that maintain this equilibrium(1)the force of gravity, and(2)the force of buoyancy.When the ship is at rest, these two forces are acting in the same perpendicular line, and , in order for the ship to float in equilibrium, they must be exactly equal numerically as well as opposite in direction.The force of gravity acts at a point or center where all of the weights of the ship may be said to be concentrated: i.e.the center of gravity.Gravity always acts vertically downward.The force of buoyancy acts through the center of buoyancy, where the resultant, of all of the buoyant forces is considered to be acting.This force always acts vertically upward.When the ship is heeled, the shape of the underwater body is changed, thus moving the position of the center of buoyancy.Now, when the ship is heeled by an external inclining force and the center of buoyancy has been moved from the centerline plane of the ship, there will usually be a separation between the lines of action of the force of gravity and the force of buoyancy.This separation of the lines of action of the two equal forces, which act in opposite directions, forms a couple whose magnitude is equal to the product of one of these forces(i.e.displacement)and the distance separating them.In figure 1(a),where this moment tends to restore the ship to the upright position, the moment is called the righting moment, and the perpendicular distance between the two lines of action is the righting arm(GZ).Suppose now that the center of gravity is moved upward to such a position that when the ship is heeled slightly, the buoyant force acts in a line through the center of gravity.In the new position, there are no unbalanced forces, or, in other words, a zero moment arm and a zero moment.In figure 1(b),the ship is in neutral equilibrium, and further inclination would eventually bring about a change of the state of equilibrium.If we move the center of gravity still higher, as in figure 1(c),the separation between the lines of action of the two forces as the ship is inclined slightly is in the opposite direction from that of figure 1(a).In this case, the moment does not act in the direction that will restore the ship to the upright but will cause it to incline further.In such a situation, the ship has a negative righting moment or an upsetting moment.The arm is an upsetting arm, or negative righting arm(GZ).These three cases illustrate the forces and relative position of their lines of action in the three fundamental states of equilibrium.32
Fig.1 Stable(a), Neutral(b), and Unstable(c)
Equilibrium in the upright position
The hull is shown inclined by an outside force to demonstrate the tendency in each case(From ―Modern Ship Design ‖ Second Edition, by Thomas.C.Gillmer, 1975)Stability and trim
Figure 2 shows a transverse section of a ship floating at a waterline WL displaced from its
buoyancy
Weight of ship
Fig.2 Stability shown in a transverse section of a floating ship(see text)
original waterline WL.One condition of equilibrium has been defined above.A second condition is that the centre of gravity of a ship must be in such a position that, if the vessel is inclined, the forces of weight and buoyancy tend to restore the vessel to its former position of rest.At small angles, vertical lines through B, the centre of buoyancy when the vessel is inclined to an angle 0,intersect the center line at M, the metacentre, which means ―change
point‖.If M is above G(the centre of gravity of the ship and its contents),the vessel is in stable equilibrium, When M concides with G, there is neutral equilibrium.When M is below G, the forces of weight and buoyancy tend to increase the angle of inclination, and the equilibrium is unstable.The distance GM is termed the metacentric height and the distance GZ, measured from G perpendicular to the vertical through B, is termed the righting level or GZ value.Weight and buoyancy are equal and act through G and B, respectively, to produce a moment(tendency to produce a heeling motion)△GZ, where △ is the displacement or weight in tons.Stability at small angles, known as initial stability, depends upon the metacentric height GM.At large angle, the value of GZ affords a direct measure of stability, and it is common practice to prepare cross-curves of stability, from which a curve of GZ can be obtained for any particular draft and displacement.Transverse stability should be adequate to cover possible losses in stability that may arise from flooding, partially filled tanks, and the upward thrust of the ground or from the keelblocks when the vessel touches the bottom on being dry-docked.The case of longitudinal stability, or trim, is illustrated in Figure3.There is a direct analogy with the case of transverse stability.When a weight originally on board at position A is moved a distance d, to position B, the new waterline W1L1 intersects the original waterline WL at center of flotation(the centre of gravity of the water plane area WL),the new centre of buoyancy is B, and the new centre of gravity is G.For a small angle of trim, signified by the Greek letter theta(θ)，θ=(a+f)/L wd=△GMl(a+f)/L
Changes in stern trim is x-y
Fig.3 Longitudinal section of float ship showing change in stern trim as deck load w was shifted
from position A to position B(see text)
Thus if（a+f）=1 inch =1/12 foot, wd =△GM/12L and this presents the moment to change trim one inch.The inclining experiment
A simple test called the inkling experiment provides a direct method of determining GM, the metacentric height, in any particular condition of loading, from which the designer can deduce the position of G, the ship‘s centre of gravity.If a weight w(ton)is transferred a distance d(feet)from one side of the ship to the other and thereby causes an angle of heel theta(θ)degrees，34 measured by means of a pendulum or otherwise, then GM=wd/△tanθ(see Figure 2).For any particular condition, KB and BM can be calculated, GM is found by the inclining experiment, whence KG=KM-GM.It is simple to calculate the position of G for any other condition of loading.(From ―Encyclopedia Britannica‖, Vo1.16, 1980)
Technical Terms
1.equilibrium平衡 15.stable equilibrium 穩定平衡 2.stability and trim 穩性與縱傾 16.netural equilibrium 中性平衡 3.floating upright 正浮 17.metacenter height 穩心高 4.force of gravity 重力 18.righting level 復原力臂 5.resultant 合力 19.initial stability 初穩性 6.center of buoyancy 浮力 20.cross-curves of stability 穩性橫截曲線 7.couple 力偶 21.flooding 進水 8.magnitude 數值（大小）22.thrust 推力 9.displacement 排水量，位移，置換 23.keelblock 龍骨墩 10.righting moment 復原力矩 24.dry dock 干船塢 11.righting arm 復原力臂 25.center of floatation 漂心 12.upsetting moment 傾復力矩 26.Greek letter 希臘字母 13.upsetting arm 傾復力臂 27.inclining experiment 傾斜試驗 14.metacentre 穩心 28.pendulum 鉛錘，擺
Additional Terms and Expressions
1.lost buoyancy 損失浮力 9.stability at large angles 大傾角穩性 2.reserve buoyancy 儲備浮力 10.dynamical stability 動穩性 3.locus of centers of buoyancy 浮心軌跡 11.damaged stability 破艙穩性 4.Bonjean‘s curves 邦戎曲線 12.stability criterion numeral 穩性衡準書 5.Vlasov‘s curves 符拉索夫曲線 13.lever of form stability 形狀穩性臂 6.Firsov‘s diagram 菲爾索夫圖譜 14.locus of metacenters 穩心曲線 7.Simpson‘s rules 辛浦生法 15.angle of vanishing stability 穩性消失角 8.trapezoidal rule 梯形法 16.free surface correction 自由液面修正
Notes to the Text
1.When the ship is at rest, these two forces are acting in same perpendicular line, and, in order for the ship to float in equilibrium, they must be exactly equal numerically as well as opposite in direction.in order for the ship to float in equilibrium 是“in order帶to的不定式“結構，表示目的狀語，其中for the ship中的the ship是不定式邏輯主語。
As well as是一個詞組，可有幾種譯法，具體譯成什么意思應根據上下文加以適當選擇。例如：
The captain as well as the passenger was frightened.船長和旅客一樣受驚。（和……一樣）受驚的既有旅客又有船長。（既……又）
不僅旅客而且船長也受驚了。（不僅……而且）除旅客外，還有船長也受驚了。（除……外，還）
不管那種譯法，強調的都是as well as前面的那個名次（例句中的the captain,船長），因此謂語動詞的性、數也由這個名詞決定。
2.thus moving the position of the center of buoyancy.由thus引出的現在分詞短語用作表示結果的狀語。一般來說，如分詞短語位于句末，往往有結果、目的等含義。
3.suppose now that the center of gravity is moved upward to such a position that when the ship is heeled slightly, the buoyant force acts in a line through the center of gravity.Suppose now that …與now let‘s suppose that…同意，其后that 所引出的從句是suppose 的賓語從句。
to such a position that…是such…that…引導結果狀語從句。但在這個從句中又包含了一個由關系副詞when引導的時間狀語從句。
4.Figure 2 shows a transverse section of a ship floating at a waterline WL, displaced from its original waterline WL.floating at a waterline WL 現在分詞短語（含有主動態），修飾前面的名詞a ship;displaced from its original waterline WL 過去分詞短語（含有被動態），也是修飾前面的名詞，ship,注意這里的displaced 應選擇“移動位置”的詞義。
5.At small angles, vertical lines through B, the center of buoyancy when the vessel is inclined at an angle θ，intersect the center line at M, the metacenter, which means ―change point‖.此句的主要成分為vertical lines intersect the center line.the center of buoyancy 是B的同位語。the metacenter 是M的同位語。
6.Tranverse stability should be adequate to cover possible losses in stability that may arise from flooding ,partically filled tanks, and the upwards thrust of the ground or from the keelblocks when the vessel touches the bottom on being dry-docked.that may arised from…the keelblocks是定語從句，修飾losses.when the vessel…on being dry-docked是時間狀語從句，修飾may arise from the keelblock.on being dry-docked 中的being dry-docked是動名詞的被動態，接在on之后表示（剛）進船塢的時候。
7.or otherwise意為“或相反，或其他”。例：
It can be verified by trial or otherwise.這可用試驗或其他方法加以驗證。
Fine or otherwise,we shall have to do this test.不管天氣好不好，我們非做這個試驗不可。
Lesson Eight
Estimating Power Requirements The power required to propel a new ship is subject to a formidable number of variable items.The family tree of power for propulsion(Fig.1)shows these divided into two main groups.One is concerned with the resistance to motion caused by the interaction of the hull of the ship with the surrounding water and the other concerns the efficiency with which the power developed in the engine itself can be used and converted into thrust at the propeller.Before considering the methods used for estimating their combined effect on power requirements, it is necessary to take the items in turn and discuss briefly their significance and nature.Fig.1 Power for propulsion
Ship resistance Friction at the hull surface in contact with the water is the major part of the resistance of all merchant vessels.Wave-making resistance does not assume prime importance until a speed/length ratio(V/√L)in excess of unity has been reached.The reason for surface friction is that water is far from being a perfect fluid.Its magnitude depends on the length and area of surface in contact and its degree of roughness, and it varies with the speed of the body through the fluid.By observation and experiment it can be shown that the particles of water in actual contact with the ship adhere to its surface and are carried along by it(it does not seem unreasonable to assume some interlocking of particles).There is no slip.At small distances from the body the velocity imparted to the surrounding fluid is only very small but with a noticeable degree of turbulence.The width of this belt, known as the layer increases somewhat towards the after end of the moving body.Its appearance is one of the most spectacular sights to be seen when a vessel is moving at high speed.from a practical point of view it is assumed that all the fluid shear responsible for skin friction occurs within this belt and also that outside it fluid viscosity can be disregarded.The exact width of the belt is difficult to determine, but an arbitrary assessment is usually accurate enough.If it is now considered that the effective shape of the immersed body is defined by the extremities of the boundary layer, then that body may be assumed to move without friction.However, this does not apply to the transmission of pressure.Part of the energy necessary to move a ship over the surface of the sea is expended in the form of pressure waves.This form of resistance to motion is known as residual resistance, or wave-making.Three such wave systems are created by the passage of a ship: a bow system, a stern system(both of which are divergent), and a transverse system.They occur only in the case of a body moving through two fluids simultaneously.For instance, the residuary resistance of well formed bodies like aircraft or submarines, wholly immersed, is comparatively small.Because of surface waves formed by a floating body the flow pattern varies considerably with speed, but
with an immersed body this flow pattern is the same at all speeds.For this reason the shape of a submarine or aircraft(in consideration of submerged performance only)is more easily related to the constant conditions under which it performs ,in the dynamic sense, than is the form of surface vessel.Returning to a consideration of our three wave systems, it can easily be understood that the bow system is initiated by a crest due to the build-up of pressure necessary to push the water aside and the greater the speed the greater will be the height of the crest and its distance from the bow.Conversely, the stern system is associated with a hollow due to filling-in at the stern.If a ship had a sufficient length of parallel middle body the bow wave system would die out before it reached the stern, but in practice ships are never long enough for this to obtain and interference effects have to be taken into account.The transverse wave system becomes of importance at high speeds and is responsible for the greater part of wave-making resistance.The net effect of the three systems is extremely important from a residuary resistance point of view, and it is necessary to ensure that they do not combine to produce a hollow(a through)at the stern.Of course, if the energy produced at the bow could be recovered at the stern then there would be no net energy loss.But this is not the case as energy is dissipated laterally in order to maintain a wave pattern.The more developed the wave pattern the more energy is needed to maintain it.Considerations of minimum resistance, therefore, involved a complicated assessment of the interrelation of ship-form characteristics likely to reduce wave causation.Wave-making resistance follows the laws of dynamic similarity(also known as Froude‘s Law of Comparison), which state that the resistances of geometrically ships will vary as the cube of their linear dimensions provided the speeds are in the ratio of the square root of the linear dimensions.Perhaps the law, which does not apply to frictional resistance, looks more concise if stated symbolically, namely:
RtL3V?3provided?rtvlL l
The most important cause of eddy-making is the ship.There is sometimes a tendency to think of eddy-making as being related only to such appendages as rudders, bilge keel, propeller bossings and the like.While it is perfectly true that badly designed appendages can have eddy-making resistances which are excessive in relation to their size and frictional resistances, the eddy-making of a ship, though relatively small, may be a very large part of the total eddy-making resistance.Eddy making is usually included with the wave-making resistance because it is impracticable to measure the one without the other.However, some distinction is helpful to an understanding of resistance phenomena.In eddy-making it is the stern of the ship which plays the influential part because of the difficulty of maintaining streamline flow even in the most easily shaped body.Propulsion
It will be obvious that the total resistance of a ship at any speed and the force necessary to propel it must be equal and opposite.The power that the ship‘s machinery is capable of developing, however, must be considerably more than this to overcome the various deficiencies inherent in the system, because engines, transmission arrangements and propellers all waste power before it becomes available as thrust.The total efficiency of propulsion therefore involves a consideration of the separate efficiencies of individual items the product of which is expressed in the form of a propulsive coefficient.The engine efficiency depends upon the type of engine employed and its loading.In the case of a reciprocating engine, either diesel or steam, the power developed in the cylinders can be calculated from the effective pressures recorded on indicator cards.This is known as indicated h.p., which is naturally more than the horsepower output when measured by means of a brake at the crankshaft coupling.The ratio b.h.p./i.b.p.is, of course the mechanical efficiency of the engine.If the power is measured on the propeller shaft aft of the thrust
block and any gearing, then this is known as shaft h.p.and in the case of a turbine is the only place at which it is practicable to measure the power output.There is no such thing as indicated or brake horsepower for a steam or gas turbine, shaft h.p.is almost the same as b.h.p.for a reciprocating engine which drives the propeller directly, but where gearing or special couplings are introduced in the case of high-speed diesel engines or turbines, the transmission losses in these items influence the s.h.p.This is, of course very necessary in order that fair comparisons between the efficiencies of different types of drives can be made.The remainder of the transmission losses are those in the stern tube.When all the engine and transmission losses have been taken into account what is left is a certain amount of the original power which is now delivered at the propeller.We have already noted that a ship in motion drags along with it a large mass of water.This ―wake‖ as it is known(not the popular interpretation of something that is left astern!)has a forward velocity in which the screw operates, so that the speed of the screw through the wake water is less than the speed of the ship.This is beneficial as it involves a gain in efficiency which is referred to as the wake gain.On the pressure distribution at the stern of the vessel which causes some augment of resistance.It is usual to consider this as a thrust deduction effect.These almost separate effects can be combined to give the effective horse-power required.The screw efficiency in the open, i.e.delivering its thrust to an imaginary vessel, is most important.It is only by considering hull resistance and propeller performance as separate entities that any proper assessment can be made of their effect when combined.The mechanism of hull resistance has been fairly well explored, but the theories of propeller action are still incomplete.Power estimates
When power estimates are required by a shipbuilder who is tendering for the construction of a new vessel, there is no time to run model tests, nor would the expense normally the justified.The naked e.h.p.is therefore estimated from a published series of methodical tests such as those of Ayre or Taylor.Percentage allowances are made to the naked e.h.p.for appendages and air resistance combined with an estimated lies in the proper selection of the QPC.There are numerous methods of estimating power, but the above is one of the most popular.Some rapid means of evaluating ship power requirements merely from a lines plan and main technical particulars has long been needed.With increasing productivity, faster construction times and fierce international competition for new orders this has become ever more pressing.Detailed power assessments for ship design proposals are needed frequently well in advance of any firm order.Statistical analysis methods are now being applied to resistance and propulsion problems to peed up the process of ship performance prediction.Performance criteria are expressed, in terms of equations based on selected parameters of hull shape, dimensions, propeller characteristics and stern conditions.Performance of a design can be assessed from these regression equations which have been derived from a large number of previous model results for the ship type under review.Comparison of a particular result with established data is obtained by minimization of the regression equations.The big advantage of doing things this way is that the coefficients of the regression equations can be fed into a high-speed digital computer.This means that in less than an hour the results of well over a dozen different combinations of hull characteristics can be calculated.This should then lead to an optimum combination of form parameters.The eventual link up with work now being done on the complete definition of hull shape in mathematical terms should take us one step nearer to the soundly based fully automated shipyard.(From ― Background to Ship Design and Shipbuilding Production‖ by J.Anthony Hind, 1965).39
Technical Terms
1.resistance 阻力 2.thrust 推力
3.propeller 推進器
4.skin friction resistance 摩擦阻力 5.wave-making resistance 興波阻力 6.eddy-making resistance 漩渦阻力 7.appendage resistance 附體阻力 8.propulsive efficiency 推進效率 9.hull efficiency 船身效率
10.transmission efficiency 軸系效率 11.speed/length ratio 速長比 12.perfect fluid 理想流體 13.roughness 粗糙度 14.turbulence 紊動
15.boundary layer 邊界層
16.spectacular sights 壯觀景色 17.fluid shear 流體剪力 18.fluid viscosity 流體粘性
19.immersed body 浸沒的船體部分 20.residuary resistance 剩余阻力 21.bow 船首 22.stern 船尾
23.divergent 分散的 24.submarine 潛水艇 25.aircraft 飛機 26.crest 波峰
27.hollow 凹陷，孔隙，波谷 28.parallel middle body平行中體 29.through 波谷
30.ship-form characteristics 船型特性
31.laws of dynamics similarity 動力相似定律 32.rudder 舵
33.bilge keel 舭龍骨
34.propeller bossing 推進器箍 35.streamline 流線型
36．reciprocating engine 往復式發動機 37.diesel/steam engine 柴油/蒸汽機 38.indicator card 示功圖 39.indicated h.p.指示馬達 40.brake 制動
41.crankshaft coupling 曲軸連軸器 42.mechanical efficiency 機械效率 43.thrust block 推力軸承 44.gearing 齒輪 45.shaft h.p.軸馬達 46.brake h.p.制動馬達 47.turbine 汽輪機
48.gas turbine 燃氣輪機 49.stern tube 尾軸管 50.wake 伴流
51.astern 向（在）船尾 52.wake gain 伴流增益
53.thrust deduction 推力減額
54.effective horse-power(e.h.p.)有效馬達
55.screw efficiency in the open(water)螺旋槳趟水效率
56.imaginary vessel 假想船
57.mechanism 作用原理（過程），機構 58.proposal 建議
59.statistical 統計分析 60.criterion 衡準
61.ship performance prediction 船舶性能預報 62.regression equation 回歸方程 63.form parameter 形狀參數
Additional Terms and Expression 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.service speed 服務航速 design speed 設計航速 cruising speed 巡航速度 trial speed 試航速度 endurance 續航力
admiralty coefficient/constant 海軍系數 fouling 污底
8.hydrodynamics 水動力學 9.inflow 進流
10.angle of attack 攻角
11.lift 升力
12.circulation 環量
13.aspect ratio 展弦比
14.Reynolds number 雷諾數 15.Froude number 傅汝德數 16.momentum theory 動量理論 17.impulse theory 沖量理論 18.cavitation 空泡現象
19.adjustable-pitch propeller 可調螺距螺旋槳
controllable-pitch propeller 可調螺距螺旋槳 20.reversible propeller 可反轉螺旋槳
21.coaxial contra-rotating propellers 對轉螺旋槳 22.ducted propeller, shrouded propeller 導管螺旋槳 23.tandem propeller 串列螺旋槳
24.jet propeller 噴射推進器 25.paddle wheel 明輪
26.ship model experiment tank 船模試驗水池 27.ship model towing tank 船模拖拽試驗水池 28.wind tunnel 風洞
29.cavitation tunnel 空泡試驗水筒 30.self propulsion test 自航試驗 31.scale effect 尺度效應 32.naked model 裸體模型
1.2.3.4.5.6.Notes to the Text
the family tree of power for propulsion 推進馬力族類表
For this reason the shape of a submarine or aircraft(in consideration of submerged performance only)is more easily related to the constant conditions under which it performs, in the dynamic sense, than is the form of a surface vessel.其中的主要句子the shape---is more easily---than---是一句帶有比較狀語從句的復合句。在than is the form of a surface vessel 中省略了 easily related to the variable conditions under which it performs,顯然，to the constant conditions 和 to the variable conditions 實際上是不同的。嚴格說，這種省略方法是不正規的，但由于讀者能從上下文聯系中容易判斷出種種不同，為了簡便起見，作了省略。在英美科技文章中有此種現象。
the greater the speed the greater will be the height of the crest and its distance from the bow.The more developed the wave pattern the more energy is needed to maintain it.這兩句都是“the+比較級---the +比較級”結構的句型。this is not the case 情況并非如此
and the like = and such like 以及諸如此類
The eventual link up with work now being done on the complete definition of hull shape in mathematical
Lesson Nine
Ship Motions, Manoeuvrability Ship motions Ship motions are defined by the movements from the equilibrium position of the ship‘s centre of gravity along the three axes shown in Figure 1 and by rotations about axes approximately parallel to these.The linear displacements along the horizontal(x), lateral(y), and veritical(z)
Fig.1 Coordinate axes of ship motions(see text)
axes are termed surge, sway, and heave, respectively.The rotations about the corresponding body axes are respectively termed roll, pitch, and yaw(veering off course).Roll, pitch, and heave are oscillatory because hydrodynamic forces and moments oppose them.Ship motions are important for many reasons.A ship should be able to survive any sea that may be Encountered and, in addition, to behave well and to respond to control.In brief, a ship should respond to the action of the sea in such a manner that the amplitudes of its motions and its position never become dangerous, and so that the accelerations it undergoes are kept within reasonable limits.Propulsive performance, or heaving.Hence these motions are made as small as possible.Ship motions are excited by waves, whose growth is governed by the wind velocity at the sea surface, the area of water, or distance, over which the wind blows(the ―fetch‖), and the length of time during which the wind has been blowing(the ―duration‖).Any seaway is always a complex mixture of waves of different lengths, as wind itself is a complex mixture of gusts.All wave components do not travel in the same direction, but the directions of most of them in a single storm lie within 30°of each other.Regular trains of waves of uniform height and length are rarely, if ever, encountered.Most seas are confused and can be considered as made up of many separate component waves that differ in height and length.Pitching, rolling, and heaving are all excited by the changing pattern of surface waves in relation to the speed and course of the ship.In practice, it is possible to damp one motion only---that of rolling.The fitting of bilge keels(finlike longitudinal projections along the part of the underwater body of a ship between the flat of the bottom and the vertical topsides)has this effect, and still more effective means are the activated for stabilizer(a device along the side of a ship activated by a gyroscope and used to keep the ship steady)and the passive or flume stabilizing tank, filled with water inside the ship.Manoeuvrability
Increases in the size and speed of ships bring problems of safe operation in congested waters and control at high speed in waves.Therefore, designs necessarily represent a compromise between manoeuvrability and course-keeping ability.Ship operators desire maximum manoeuvrability in port to minimize the need for assistance from tugs and to reduce delays in docking.They also desire a ship that can hold a steady course at sea with the minimum use of helm.These aims, however, are mutually conflicting.A ship is steered by means of one or more rudders arranged at the stern or, in rare cases, at the bow.There are many types and shapes of rudders, depending upon the type of ship, design of stern, and number of propellers.When a yaw---that is, a change of angle about a vertical axis through the centre of gravity---is started, a turning moment is set up and the ship swings off course unless the swing is corrected by rudder action.This turning effects arises because the hull′s centre of lateral resistance is much nearer the bow than the ship′s centre of gravity.Good course keeping demands directional stability.This is aided by design features that bring the centre of lateral resistance nearer to the ship′s centre of gravity.These measures, however, increase the diameter of the ship′s turning circle, requiring a design compromise.In warships, in vessels operating in confined water, and in tugs, a small turning circle is essential.In merchant ships, rapid manoeuvring is required only in port;accordingly, the everyday function of the rudder is to ensure the maintenance of a steady course with the minimum use of helm.In this sense, turning circle properties are of less practical significance than the effect of small rudder angles.(From ―Encyclopedia Britannica‖, Vol.16, 1980)
Technical Terms
1． manoeuvrability 操縱性 3． surge 縱蕩 2． linear displacement 線性位移 4． sway 橫蕩
5． heave 垂蕩 6． veer 變向
7． oscillatory 振蕩
8． hydrodynamic 流體動力(學)的 9． Amplitude 振幅 10． acceleration 加速度 11． wind velocity 風速 12． fetch 風區長度，波浪形成區 13． duration 持續時間 14． seaway 航路（道）15． gusts 陣風(雨)16． storm 風暴 17． regular trains of waves 規則波系
18． damp 阻尼 19． bilge keel 舭龍骨 20． finlike 鰭狀
21.projection 突出體，投影，規則
22.activated fin stabilitizer 主動式穩定（減搖）鰭 23.gyroscope(gyro)陀螺儀，回轉儀 24.steady 穩定 25.flume 槽
26.congested waters 擁擠水域 27.course-keeping 保持航向 28.tug 拖船
29.docking 靠碼頭 30.helm 操舵，駕駛 31.swing 擺動
32.turning circle 回轉圈 33.warship 軍艦
34.confined water 受限制水域
Additional Terms and Expressions
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.seakeeping 耐波性 seaworthiness 適航性 course 航向 track, path 航跡 drift 橫漂 side slip 橫移 rudder effect 舵效 sea condition 海況 swell 涌
trochoidal wave 坦谷波 divergent wave 散波
12.13.14.15.16.17.18.natural period 固有周期 slamming 砰擊
turning quality 回轉性 turning circle 回轉圈
turning circle test 回轉試驗 stopping test 停船試驗
free running model test 自由自航模操縱性試驗
19.rotating arm test 旋臂試驗
20.planar motion mechanism平面運動機構
Notes to the Text
1.In brief, a ship should respond to the action of the sea in such a manner that the amplitudes of its motions and its position never become dangerous, and so that the accelerations it undergoes are kept within reasonable limits.in such a manner that the amplitudes---become dangerous
句為結果狀語從句。原一位“以這樣的方法，以至于------”，譯成中文時可靈活些，例如可把前半句譯為“簡略說，船舶對海浪的響應方式應使其運動的幅值和所在的位置永遠不處于一種危險狀態”。
and so that 引出的也是結果狀語從句。此句中的it undergoes 為省略了關系代詞
that 的定語從句（that 在定語從句中作賓語時，讓往被省略），用來修飾 the accelerations.2.of each other 中的of表示（相互間的）方位、距離。
The shipyard is within 5km of shanghai.43 這個船廠離上海5公里以內。
3.if ever 為if they are ever encountered 的簡化形式。當從句內的謂語動詞為to be，有其主語跟主句的主語相同時，從句中的主語和to be 就可省略。這類連接詞除if外，還有when, while, once 以及as 等。
4.Most seas are confused and can be considered as made up of many separate component waves that differ in height and length。
其中的as made up of many separate component waves 是as引導的過去分詞短語作為主語補足語。
that 引出的定語從句用來修飾waves.5.This turning effect arises because the hull‘s centre of lateral resistance is much nearer the bow than the ship‘s centre of gravity.because引出的原因狀語從句中包含了一個比較級狀語從句，than后面的從句中省略了與主句中相同的部分（is near the bow）,這是科技文章中常見的情況。
6.These measures, however, increase the diameter of the ship‘s turning circle, requiring a design compromise.此句中的requiring a design compromise 為現在分詞短語，作狀語(表示結果)用（參見第七課注釋
Lesson Ten The Function of Ship Structural Components The strength deck, bottom, and side shell of a ship act as a box girder in resisting bending and other loads imposed on the structure.The main deck, bottom, and side shell also form a tight envelope to withstand the sea locally.The remaining structure contributes either directly to these functions or indirectly by maintaining the main members in position so that they can act efficiently.The bottom plating is a principal longitudinal member providing the lower flange of hull girder.It is also part of the watertight envelope, and subject to the local water head.At the forward end, it must withstand the dynamic pressure associated with slamming and plating thickness is usually increased to provide the necessary strength.When fitted, the inner bottom also makes a significant contribution to the strength of lower flange.It usually forms a tank boundary for the double bottom tanks and is subject to the local pressure of the liquid contained therein.In addition, it must support the loads from above, usually from cargo placed in the holds.The strength deck forms the principal member of the upper flange, usually provides the upper water tight boundary, and is subject locally to water, cargo, and equipment loadings.The remaining continuous decks, depending on their distance from the neutral axis, contribute to a greater or lesser extent in resisting the longitudinal bending loads.Certain decks which are not continuous fore and aft and not contribute to the longitudinal strength.Locally internal decks are subject to the loads of cargo, equipment, stores, living spaces, and, where they form a tank boundary or barrier against progressive flooding, liquid pressure.The side shell provides the webs for the main hull girder and is an important part of the watertight envelope.It is subject to static water pressure as well as the dynamic effects of pitching, rolling, and wave action.Particularly forward, the plating must be able to withstand the impact of
the seas.Aft, extra plate thickness is beneficial in way of rudders, shaft structure and propellers for strength, panel stiffness, and reduction of vibration.Additional thickness is necessary at the waterline for navigation in ice.Bulkheads are one of the major components of internal structure.Their function in the hull girder depends on their orientation and extent.Main transverse bulkheads act as internal stiffening diaphragms for the girder and resist racking loads, but do not contribute directly to longitudinal strength.Longitudinal bulkheads, on the other hand, if extending more than about one-tenth the length of the ship, do contribute to longitudinal strength and in some ships are nearly as effective as the side shell itself.Bulkheads generally serve structural functions such as forming tank boundaries, supporting decks and load-producing equipment such as kingposts, and adding rigidity to produce vibration.In addition, transverse bulkheads provide subdivision to prevent progressive flooding.All applicable loads must be considered during design.The foregoing structural elements of a ship are basically large sheets of plate whose thicknesses are very small compared with their other dimensions, and which, in general, carry loads both in and normal to their plane.These sheets of plate may be flat or curved, but in either case they must be stiffened in order to perform their required function efficiently.The various stiffing members have several functions:(a)the beams support the deck plating;(b)the girder, in turn, support the beams, transferring the load to the stanchions or bulkheads;(c)the transverse frames support the side shell and the ends of the transverse deck beams and are, in turn, supported by decks and stringers;(d)the stiffeners support the bulkhead plating, and so on.As discussed in detail in section 4, the stiffening members are generally rolled, extruded, flanged, flat, or built-up plate sections with one edge attached to the plate they reinforced.Vertical plates often connect the bottom shell and inner bottom, stiffening both members.If oriented transversely, these plates are called floors, and if longitudinally oriented, center vertical keel or side girder, as appropriate.Stiffening members do not, of course, act independently of the plating to which they are attached.A portion of the plate serves as one flange of the stiffener, and properties such as section modulus and moment of the stiffener must reflect this.The American Bureau of Shipping(ABS)considers a width of plating equal to the stiffener spacing as effective, while Lloyd‘s Register of Shipping(LR)assumes 24 in.to be effective.Stiffening members serve two functions, depending on how they are loaded.In the cases of loads normal to the plate, such as water loading on a transverse bulkhead, the stiffeners assume the load transferred from the plate.In the case of in-plane loads, such as those included in the deck by longitudinal bending of the hull girder, the beams serve to maintain the deck plating in its designed shape.If the deck beams are longitudinally oriented, they will, of course, carry the same primary stress as the plating and may contribute substantially to the hull girder strength.Pillars are used to support deck girders, longitudinal or transverse.These supports, in addition to carrying local loads from cargo, etc, serve to keep the deck and bottom from moving toward each other as a result of longitudinal bending of the hull girder.(From ―Ship Design and Construction‖ by D‘Arcangelo, 1969)
Technical Terms 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.structural components 結構構件 strength deck 強力甲板 box girder 箱形梁
tight envelope 密閉外殼
longitudinal member 縱向構件 hull girder 船體梁
lower/upper flange 下/上翼緣板 forward/aft end 首/尾端
dynamic pressure 動壓力 slamming 砰擊 inner bottom 內底 hold 貨艙
double bottom 雙層底 hold 貨艙
neutral axis 中和軸
longitudinal bending 縱向彎曲 longitudinal strength 總縱（縱向）強度 barrier 擋板，屏障 web 腹板
static water pressure 靜水壓力 impact 沖擊
shaft strut 尾軸架
panel stiffness 板格剛性 vibration 振動 bulkhead艙壁 diaphragm 隔壁
racking load 橫扭載荷 kingpost 起重柱
29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41.42.43.44.45.46.47.48.49.50.51.52.53.rigidity 剛度 subdivision 分艙 sheet 薄板 stanchion 支柱 stringer 船側縱桁 roll 輾軋 extrude 擠壓
flange 拆邊，法蘭
built-up plate sections 組合型材 bottom shell 外底板 floor 肋板
center vertical keel 中內龍骨，中桁材 side girder 旁桁材，旁縱桁 stiffener 扶強材
section modulus 剖面模數 moment of inertia 慣性矩
The American Bureau of Shipping(ABS)美國驗船局 spacing 間距
Lloyd‘s Register of Shipping 勞氏船級社
in-plane 面內 beam 橫梁
primary stress 第一類應力
pillar 支柱
deck girder 甲板縱桁 support 支柱（構件）
Additional Terms and Expressions 1.main hull 主船體 12.longitudinal framing 縱骨架式 2.superstructure 上層建筑 13.transverse framing 橫骨架式 3.deckhouse 甲板室 14.flat plate keel平板龍骨 4.bridge 橋樓 15.margin plate 內底邊板 5.forecastle 首樓 16.bilge bracket 舭肘板 6.poop 尾樓 17.side plate 舷（船）側板 7.stem 首柱 18.sheer strake 舷頂列板 8.sternpost 尾柱 19.stringer plate 甲板邊板 9.rudder post 舵柱 20.shell expansion plan 外板展開圖 10.shaft bossing 軸包架 21.bulwark 舷墻 11.framing 骨架 22.hatch coaming 艙口圍板
30.hawse pipe 錨鏈筒 31.bulb plate 球扁鋼 32.angle section 角鋼 33.T section T型材 34.face plate 面板 35.butt 對接（縫）36.seam 邊接（縫）
Notes to the Text 1.The remaining structure contributes either directly to these functions or indirectly by maintaining the main members in position so that they can act efficiently.句中含有either directly---or indirectly---兩個并列成分，而在indirectly 后省略了to these functions.by maintaining the main members in position so that---是用來修飾后者的；其中so that they can act efficiently 為目的狀語從句。
2.be subject to(n.)受------支配（易受，須經）
be subjected to(n.)受到，經受
Ships subject to the code should survive the normal effects of flooding following assumed hull damage caused by some external force.受本規則約束的船舶應能承受在外力作用下船體遭受假定破碎后正常進水的影響。
All full penetration butt welds of the shell plating of cargo tanks should be subjected to 100 per cent radiographic inspection.液貨艙殼板所有全焊透對接焊縫應進行100%的射線照相檢驗。
課文中的be subject to 均可作為be subjected to 理解，翻譯成“承受”，“經受”。
3.to a greater or lesser extent 在較大或較小程度上
4.Locally, internal decks are subject to the loads of cargo, equipment, stores, living spaces, and, where they form a tank boundary or barrier against progressive flooding, liquid pressure.句中的where they form---flooding 為地點狀語從句，然而帶有條件性質，可理解為承受liquid pressure 的條件。
5.As discussed in detail in Section 4, the stiffening members are generally rolled, extruded, flanged, flat or built-up plate sections with one edge attached to the plate they reinforce.句中的rolled, extruded, flanged, flat or built-up plate 都修飾sections.with one edge attached to the plate 是 with 后帶主謂關系的復合短語。they reinforce 為省略關聯詞（從語中作賓語）的定語從句，修飾前面的the plate.6.If oriented transversely, these plates are called floor, and if longitudinally oriented, center vertical keel or side girder, as appropriate.兩個if從句中省略主語及to be，參見第九課注3.在 center vertical keel or side girder 前面省略了these plates are called.As appropriate 可理解為as is appropriate 簡化形式，關系代詞as代替整個主句，并在從句中作主語，as appropriate, to passenger ships carrying dangerous goods.如第54條規則的要求適合于載運危險貨物的客船，應照此辦理。
7.The American Bureau of Shipping(ABS)considers a width of plating equal to the stiffener spacing as effective, while Lloyd‘s Register of Shipping(LR)assumes 24 in.to be effective.While 引出并列分句，表示同時存在兩種事物的對比。前句的considers… as effective 與后句的assumes… to be effective 結構相似，其中的as effective 和 to be effective 均作賓語補足語。
23.24.25.26.27.28.29.cantilever 懸臂梁
intercostal member 間斷構件 cant frame 斜肋骨 pant beam 強胸橫梁 lightening hole 減輕孔 bracket 肘板 bracket 肘板 Lesson Eleven
Structural Design, Ship Stresses Structural design
After having established the principal dimensions, form, and general arrangement of the ship, the designer undertakes the problem of providing a structure capable of withstanding the forces which may be imposed upon it.The hull of a steel merchant ship is a complex structure, unique in the field of engineering structures in that it is primarily a plate structure, depending for its major overall strength on the plating of the shell, decks, and in most cases, also on the inner bottom and longitudinal bulkheads.The framing members, each of which has its own function to perform, are designed primarily to maintain the plate membrances to the planned contours and their positions relative to each other when subjected to the external forces of water pressure and breaking seas, as well as to the internal forces caused by the services for which the ship is designed.Unlike most other large engineering structures, the forces supporting the ship‘s hull as well as the loads which may be imposed upon it vary considerably, and in many cases, cannot be determined accurately.As a result, those responsible for the structural design of ships must be guided by established standards.Basic considerations
The problem of the development of a satisfactory structure generally involves the following considerations:
1.It is necessary to establish the sizes of, and to combine effectively, the various component parts so that the structure, with a proper margin of safety, can resist the major overall stresses resulting from longitudinal and transverse bending.2.Each component part must be so designed that it will withstand the local loads imposed upon it from water pressure, breaking seas, the weight of cargo or passenger, and other superimpose loads such as deckhouses, heavy machinery, masts, and so on, including such additional margins as sometimes may be required to meet unusually severe conditions encountered in operation.Rules of classification societies
The various classification societies have continued to modify and improve their rules to keep pace with the records of service experience, an increasing amount of research, and the constantly growing understanding of the scientific principles involved.In the modern rules of the societies, the designer has available to him formulas and tables of scantlings, dimensions of framing shapers, and thicknesses.These are directly applicable to practically all the ordinary types of sea-going merchant vessel being built today, and contain a flexibility of application to vessels of special types.The design of structural features of a merchant ship is greatly influenced by the rules of classification societies;in fact, the principal scantlings of most merchant ships are taken directly from such rules.Scantling are defined as the dimensions and material thicknesses of frames, shell plating, deck plating, and other structures, together with the suitability of the means for protecting openings and making them sufficiently watertight or weathertight.The classification society rules contain a great deal of useful information relating to the design and construction of the various component parts of a ship‘s structure.Scantling can be determined directly from the tables given in these publications.In many cases, a good conception of the usual ―good-practice‖ construction can also be gleaned from the sketches and descriptive matter available from the classification societies.(From ―McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology‖, Vol.12.1982)Ship stresses
The ship at sea or lying in still water is being constantly subjected to a wide variety of stresses and strains, which result from the action of forces from outside and within the ship.Forces within the ship result from structural weight, cargo, machinery weight and the effects of operating machinery.Exterior forces include the hydrostatic pressure of the water on the hull and the action of the wind and waves.The ship must at all times be able to resist and withstand these stresses and strains throughout its structure.It must therefore be constructed in a
manner, and of such materials, that will provide the necessary strength.The ship must also be able to function efficiently as a cargo-carrying vessel.The various forces acting on a ship are constantly varying as to their degree and frequency.For simplicity, however, they will be considered individually and the particular measures adopted to counter each type of force will be outlined.The forces may initially be classified as static and dynamic.Static forces are due to the
Fig.1 Ship movement------the six degrees of freedom differences in weight and buoyancy which occur at various points along the length of the ship.Dynamic forces result from the ship‘s motion in the action of the wind and waves.A ship is free to move with six degrees of freedom—three linear and three rotational.These motions are described by the terms shown in Figure.1.These static and dynamic forces create longitudinal, transverse and local stresses in the ship‘s structure.Longitudinal stresses are greatest in magnitude and result in bending of the ship along its length.Fig.2 Static loading of a ship‘s structure
Longitudinal stresses
Static loading
If the ship is considered floating in still water, two different forces will be acting upon it along its length.The weight of the ship and its contents will be acting vertically downwards.The buoyancy or vertical component of hydrostatic pressure will be acting upwards.In total, the two forces exactly equal and balance one another such that the ship floats at some particular draught.The centre of the buoyancy force and the centre of the weight will be vertically in line.However, at particular points along the ship‘s length the net effect may be an access of buoyancy or an excess of weight.This net effect produces a loading of the structure, as with a beam.This loading results in shearing forces and bending moments being set up in the ship‘s structure which tend to bend it.The static forces acting on a ship‘s structure are shown in Figure 2(a).This distribution of weight and buoyancy will also result in a variation of load, shear forces and bending moments along the length of the ship, as shown in Figure 2(b)-(d).Depending upon the direction in which the bending moment acts, the ship will bend in a longitudinal vertical plane.The bending moment is known as the still water bending moment(SWBM).Special terms are used to describe the two extreme cases: where the buoyancy amidships exceeds the weight, the ship is said to ―hog‖, and this condition is shown in Figure 3, where the weight amidships exceeds the buoyancy, the ship is said to ―sag‖, and this condition is shown in Figure 4.Excess of buoyancy
Fig.3 Hogging condition
Excess of weight
Fig.4 Sagging condition Dynamic loading If the ship is now considered to be moving among waves, the distribution of weight will be the same.The distribution of buoyancy, however, will vary as a result of the waves.The movement of ship will also introduce dynamic forces.The traditional approach to solving this problem is to convert this dynamic situation into an equivalent static one.To do this, the ship is assumed to be balanced on a static wave of trochoidal form and length equal to the ship.The profile of a wave at sea is considered to be a trochoid.This gives waves where the crests are sharper than the throughts.The wave crest is considered initially at midships and then at the ends of the ship.The maximum hogging and sagging moments will thus occur in the structure for the particular loaded condition considered, as shown in Figure 5.Still water
Wave trough amidships
Wave crest amidships
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