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新概念優(yōu)美英文背誦短文50篇

時間:2019-05-14 21:06:20下載本文作者:會員上傳
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第一篇:新概念優(yōu)美英文背誦短文50篇

Unit1:The Language of Music A painter hangs his or her finished pictures on a wall, and everyone can see it.A composer writes a work, but no one can hear it until it is performed.Professional singers and players have great responsibilities, for the composer is utterly dependent on them.A student of music needs as long and as arduous a training to become a performer as a medical student needs to become a doctor.Most training is concerned with technique, for musicians have to have the muscular proficiency of an athlete or a ballet dancer.Singers practice breathing every day, as their vocal chords would be inadequate without controlled muscular support.String players practice moving the fingers of the left hand up and down, while drawing the bow to and fro with the right arm—two entirely different movements.Singers and instruments have to be able to get every note perfectly in tune.Pianists are spared this particular anxiety, for the notes are already there, waiting for them, and it is the piano tuner’s responsibility to tune the instrument for them.But they have their own difficulties;the hammers that hit the string have to be coaxed not to sound like percussion, and each overlapping tone has to sound clear.This problem of getting clear texture is one that confronts student conductors: they have to learn to know every note of the music and how it should sound, and they have to aim at controlling these sound with fanatical but selfless authority.Technique is of no use unless it is combined with musical knowledge and understanding.Great artists are those who are so thoroughly at home in the language of music that they can enjoy performing works written in any century.Unit2:Schooling and Education It is commonly believed in United States that school is where people go to get an education.Nevertheless, it has been said that today children interrupt their education to go to school.The distinction between schooling and education implied by this remark is important.Education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling.Education knows no bounds.It can take place anywhere, whether in the shower or in the job, whether in a kitchen or on a tractor.It includes both the formal learning that takes place in schools and the whole universe of informal learning.The agents of education can range from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a child to a distinguished scientist.Whereas schooling has a certain predictability, education quite often produces surprises.A chance conversation with a stranger may lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions.People are engaged in education from infancy on.Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term.It is a lifelong process, a process that starts long before the start of school, and one that should be an integral part of one’s entire life.Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general pattern varies little from one setting to the next.Throughout a country, children arrive at school at approximately the same time, take assigned seats, are taught by an adult, use similar textbooks, do homework, take exams, and so on.The slices of reality that are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the working of government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught.For example, high school students know that there not likely to find out in their classes the truth about political problems in their communities or what the newest filmmakers are experimenting with.There are definite conditions surrounding the formalized process of schooling.2

Unit3:The Defini tion of Price Prices determine how resources are to be used.They are also the means by which products and services that are in limited supply are rationed among buyers.The price system of the United States is a complex network composed of the prices of all the products bought and sold in the economy as well as those of a myriad of services, including labor, professional, transportation, and public-utility services.The interrelationships of all these prices make up the ―system‖ of prices.The price of any particular product or service is linked to a broad, complicated system of prices in which everything seems to depend more or less upon everything else.If one were to ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define ―price‖, many would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the buyer to the seller of a product or service or, in other words that price is the money values of a product or service as agreed upon in a market transaction.This definition is, of course, valid as far as it goes.For a complete understanding of a price in any particular transaction, much more than the amount of money involved must be known.Both the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only the money amount, but with the amount and quality of the product or service to be exchanged, the time and place at which the exchange will take place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other factors.In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of all the factors that comprise the total ―package‖ being exchanged for the asked-for amount of money in order that they may evaluate a given price.Unit4:Electricity The modern age is an age of electricity.People are so used to electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to imagine what life would be like without them.When there is a power failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight, cars hesitate in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and food spoils in silent refrigerators.Yet, people began to understand how electricity works only a little more than two centuries ago.Nature has apparently been experimenting in this field for million of years.Scientists are discovering more and more that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of electricity that could benefit humanity.All living cell send out tiny pulses of electricity.As the heart beats, it sends out pulses of record;they form an electrocardiogram, which a doctor can study to determine how well the heart is working.The brain, too, sends out brain waves of electricity, which can be recorded in an electroencephalogram.The electric currents generated by most living cells are extremely small – often so small that sensitive instruments are needed to record them.But in some animals, certain muscle cells have become so specialized as electrical generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all.When large numbers of these cell are linked together, the effects can be astonishing.The electric eel is an amazing storage battery.It can seed a jolt of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in which it live.(An electric house current is only one hundred twenty volts.)As many as four-fifths of all the cells in the electric eel’s body are specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of the shock it can deliver corresponds roughly to length of its body.4

Unit5:The Beginning of Drama There are many theories about the beginning of drama in ancient Greece.The on most widely accepted today is based on the assumption that drama evolved from ritual.The argument for this view goes as follows.In the beginning, human beings viewed the natural forces of the world-even the seasonal changes-as unpredictable, and they sought through various means to control these unknown and feared powers.Those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals.Eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the mysteries of the rites.As time passed some rituals were abandoned, but the stories, later called myths, persisted and provided material for art and drama.Those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also argue that those rites contained the seed of theater because music, dance, masks, and costumes were almost always used, Furthermore, a suitable site had to be provided for performances and when the entire community did not participate, a clear division was usually made between the “acting area” and the “auditorium.” In addition, there were performers, and, since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task.Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mimed the desired effect-success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun-as an actor might.Eventually such dramatic representations were separated from religious activities.Another theory traces the theater's origin from the human interest in storytelling.According to this vies tales(about the hunt, war, or other feats)are gradually elaborated, at first through the use of impersonation, action, and dialogue by a narrator and then through the assumption of each of the roles by a different person.A closely related theory traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements and sounds.5

Unit6:Television Television-----the most pervasive and persuasive of modern technologies, marked by rapid change and growth-is moving into a new era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world.It is an electronic revolution of sorts, made possible by the marriage of television and computer technologies.The word “television”, derived from its Greek(tele: distant)and Latin(visi sight)roots, can literally be interpreted as sight from a distance.Very simply put, it works in this way: through a sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the capability of converting an image(focused on a special photoconductive plate within a camera)into electronic impulses, which can be sent through a wire or cable.These impulses, when fed into a receiver(television set), can then be electronically reconstituted into that same image.Television is more than just an electronic system, however.It is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings.The field of television can be divided into two categories determined by its means of transmission.First, there is broadcast television, which reaches the masses through broad-based airwave transmission of television signals.Second, there is nonbroadcast television, which provides for the needs of individuals or specific interest groups through controlled transmission techniques.Traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses.We are most familiar with broadcast television because it has been with us for about thirty-seven years in a form similar to what exists today.During those years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the broadcast networks, ABC, NBC, and CBS, who have been the major purveyors of news, information, and entertainment.These giants of broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our perception of it as well.We have come to look upon the picture tube as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic medium as the passive viewer.6

Unit7:Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the steel industry in the United States, and , in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in America.His success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his competitors were reducing their investments.Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes for the benefit of society.He opposed charity, preferring instead to provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves.“He who dies rich, dies disgraced,” he often said.Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history.He also founded a school of technology that is now part of Carnegie-Mellon University.Other philanthrophic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to promote understanding between nations, the Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie Hall to provide a center for the arts.Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew Carnegie's generosity.His contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today.7

Unit8:American Revolution The American Revolution was not a sudden and violent overturning of the political and social framework, such as later occurred in France and Russia, when both were already independent nations.Significant changes were ushered in, but they were not breathtaking.What happened was accelerated evolution rather than outright revolution.During the conflict itself people went on working and praying, marrying and playing.Most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual fighting, and many of the more isolated communities scarcely knew that a war was on.America's War of Independence heralded the birth of three modern nations.One was Canada, which received its first large influx of English-speaking population from the thousands of loyalists who fled there from the United States.Another was Australia, which became a penal colony now that America was no longer available for prisoners and debtors.The third newcomer-the United States-based itself squarely on republican principles.Yet even the political overturn was not so revolutionary as one might suppose.In some states, notably Connecticut and Rhode Island, the war largely ratified a colonial self-rule already existing.British officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown governing class, which promptly sought a local substitute for king and Parliament.8

Unit9:Suburbanization If by “suburb” is meant an urban margin that grows more rapidly than its already developed interior, the process of suburbanization began during the emergence of the industrial city in the second quarter of the nineteenth century.Before that period the city was a small highly compact cluster in which people moved about on foot and goods were conveyed by horse and cart.But the early factories built in the 1840's were located along waterways and near railheads at the edges of cities, and housing was needed for the thousands of people drawn by the prospect of employment.In time, the factories were surrounded by proliferating mill towns of apartments and row houses that abutted the older, main cities.As a defense against this encroachment and to enlarge their tax bases, the cities appropriated their industrial neighbors.In 1854, for example, the city of Philadelphia annexed most of Philadelphia County.Similar municipal maneuvers took place in Chicago and in New York.Indeed, most great cities of the United States achieved such status only by incorporating the communities along their borders.With the acceleration of industrial growth came acute urban crowding and accompanying social stress-conditions that began to approach disastrous proportions when, in 1888, the first commercially successful electric traction line was developed.Within a few years the horse-drawn trolleys were retired and electric streetcar networks crisscrossed and connected every major urban area, fostering a wave of suburbanization that transformed the compact industrial city into a dispersed metropolis.This first phase of mass-scale suburbanization was reinforced by the simultaneous emergence of the urban Middle Class, whose desires for homeownership in neighborhoods far from the aging inner city were satisfied by the developers of single-family housing tracts.9

Unit10:Types of Speech Standard usage includes those words and expressions understood, used, and accepted by a majority of the speakers of a language in any situation regardless of the level of formality.As such, these words and expressions are well defined and listed in standard dictionaries.Colloquialisms, on the other hand, are familiar words and idioms that are understood by almost all speakers of a language and used in informal speech or writing, but not considered appropriate for more formal situations.Almost all idiomatic expressions are colloquial language.Slang, however, refers to words and expressions understood by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage by the majority.Colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in standard dictionaries but will be so identified.Both colloquial usage and slang are more common in speech than in writing.Colloquial speech often passes into standard speech.Some slang also passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy momentary popularity followed by obscurity.In some cases, the majority never accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains them in their collective memories.Every generation seems to require its own set of words to describe familiar objects and events.It has been pointed out by a number of linguists that three cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body of slang expressions.First, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and situations in the society;second, a diverse population with a large number of subgroups;third, association among the subgroups and the majority population.Finally, it is worth noting that the terms “standard” “colloquial” and “slang” exist only as abstract labels for scholars who study language.Only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware that they are using colloquial or slang expressions.Most speakers of English will, during appropriate situations, select and use all three types of expressions.10

Unit12:Museums From Boston to Los Angeles, from New York City to Chicago to Dallas, museums are either planning, building, or wrapping up wholesale expansion programs.These programs already have radically altered facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the not-too-distant future.In New York City alone, six major institutions have spread up and out into the air space and neighborhoods around them or are preparing to do so.The reasons for this confluence of activity are complex, but one factor is a consideration everywhereor selling off-works of art has taken on new importance because of the museum's space problems.And increasingly, curators have been forced to juggle gallery space, rotating one masterpiece into public view while another is sent to storage.Despite the clear need for additional gallery and storage space, however,“ the museum has no plan, no plan to break out of its envelope in the next fifteen years,” according to Philadelphia Museum of Art's president.11

Unit14:A Rare Fossil Record The preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate occurrence in the fossil record.The tiny, delicate skeletons are usually scattered by scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be fossilized.Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject to erosion.Still, their fossilization required a suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues, little scavenging by other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry away small bones, and fairly rapid burial.Given these factors, some areas have become a treasury of well-preserved ichthyosaur fossils.The deposits at Holzmaden, Germany, present an interesting case for analysis.The ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago.Over the years, thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been recovered from these rocks.The quality of preservation is outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos.Ichthyosaurs with embryos have been reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a small area around Holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time.The embryos are quite advanced in their physical development;their paddles, for example, are already well formed.One specimen is even preserved in the birth canal.In addition, the shale contains the remains of many newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long.Why are there so many pregnant females and young at Holzmaden when they are so rare elsewhere The quality of preservation is almost unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an awareness of the value of the fossils.But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth.12

Unit15:The Nobel Academy For the last 82years, Sweden's Nobel Academy has decided who will receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal.But today the Academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and from within.Critics contend that the selection of the winners often has less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal politics of the Academy and of Sweden itself.According to Ingmar Bjorksten , the cultural editor for one of the country's two major newspapers, the prize continues to represent “what people call a very Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish tastes.”

The Academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the Academy from outside influences.This may well be true, but critics respond that this very distance may also be responsible for the Academy's inability to perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world.Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers seek.If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it;not only is the cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases sales of an author's books.13 Unit16:The War between Britain and France In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, south Africa ,the West Indies, and Latin America.In reality, however, there was only one major war during this time, the war between Britain and France.All other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at least partially related to its antagonist’ goals and strategies.France sought total domination of Europe.this goal was obstructed by British independence and Britain’s efforts throughout the continent to thwart Napoleon;through treaties.Britain built coalitions(not dissimilar in concept to today’s NATO)guaranteeing British participation in all major European conflicts.These two antagonists were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths;France was predominant on land, Britain at sea.The French knew that, short of defeating the British navy, their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of Europe to British ships.Accordingly, France set out to overcome Britain by extending its military domination from Moscow t Lisbon, from Jutland to Calabria.All of this entailed tremendous risk, because France did not have the military resources to control this much territory and still protect itself and maintain order at home.French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide the force necessary to defeat the British navy.Such a force would give France a three-to-two advantage over Britain.This advantage was deemed necessary because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology, and also because Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win with fewer forces.Napoleon never lost substantial impediment to his control of Europe.As his force neared that goal, Napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate attack.14

Unit17:Evolution of Sleep Sleep is very ancient.In the electroencephalographic sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles.There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep.In dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli.Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep.The fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones.But why should they sleep deeply at all Why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have evolved Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in genera seem to sleep very little.There is, by and large, no place to hide in the ocean.Could it be that, rather than increasing an animal’s vulnerability, the University of Florida and Ray Meddis of London University have suggested this to be the case.It is conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep.The point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals.This is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true.15

Unit18:Modern American Universities Before the 1850’s, the United States had a number of small colleges, most of them dating from colonial days.They were small, church connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character of their students.Throughout Europe, institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient name of university.In German university was concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals.Between mid-century and the end of the 1800’s, more than nine thousand young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to Germany for advanced study.Some of them return to become presidents of venerable colleges-----Harvard, Yale, Columbia---and transform them into modern universities.The new presidents broke all ties with the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty.Professors were hired for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students.The new principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars.Drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the German method of lecturing, in which the professor’s own research was presented in class.Graduate training leading to the Ph.D., an ancient German degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment, was introduced.With the establishment of the seminar system, graduate student learned to question, analyze, and conduct their own research.At the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music.The president of Harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose their own course of study.The notion of major fields of study emerged.The new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world.Paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime.Students were also trained as economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers.18現(xiàn)代美國大學

19世紀50年代以前美國有一些小的學院,大多數成立于殖民時期。它們是與教會掛鉤的小機構,主要目的是培養(yǎng)學生的道德品行。當時在歐洲各地,高等教育機構已經發(fā)展起來,用的是一個古老的名稱--大學。

德國已經發(fā)展出一種不同類型的大學。德國大學關心的主要是創(chuàng)造知識和傳播知識,而不是道德教育。從世紀中葉到世紀末,有9000多名美國青年因不滿國內所受的教育而赴德深造。他們中的一些人回國后成為一些知名學府--哈佛、耶魯、哥倫比亞的校長并且把這些學府轉變成了現(xiàn)代意義的大學。

新校長們斷絕了和教會的關系,聘請了新型的教職員,聘用教授根據的是他們在學科方面的知識,而不是正確的信仰和約束學生的強硬手段。

新的原則是大學既要傳播知識也要創(chuàng)造知識。這就需要由學者型老師組成教工隊伍。靠死記硬背和做練習來學習的方法變?yōu)榈聡降闹v解方法。德 國式的講解就是由教授講授自己的研究課題。通過研究生性質的學習可以獲得表明最高學術造詣的古老的德國學位--博士學位。

隨著討論課制度的建立,研究生們學會了提問、分析以及開展他們自己的研究。同時,新式大學學校規(guī)模和課程設臵完全突破了過去那種只

有數學、經典著作、美學和音樂的狹窄課程表。哈佛大學的校長率先推出選課制度,這樣學生們就能選擇自己的專業(yè)。主修領域的概念也出現(xiàn)了。新的目標是使大學對實際社會更有用。

密切關注著社會上的實際需求,新的大學著意培養(yǎng)學生解決問題的能力。工程系學生成為新式教育體制下最典型的學生。學生們還被培訓成為經濟學家、建筑師、農學家、社會工作人員以及教師。

Unit19:Children s Numerical Skills people appear to born to compute.The numerical skills of children develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth.Not long after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress accuracy---one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs.Soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five knives, spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to fifteen pieces of silverware.Having thus mastered addition, they move on to subtraction.It seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth and retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second enter a second-grade mathematics class without any serious problems of intellectual adjustment.Of course, the truth is not so simple.This century, the work of cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily learning on which intellectual progress depends.Children were observed as they slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped into-----concepts that adults take for quantity is unchanged as water pours from a short glass into a tall thin one.Psychologists have since demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be coaxed into finding the total.Such studies have suggested that the rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort.They have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the idea of a oneness,a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than setting a table-----is itself far from innate 18

19兒童的數學能力

人似乎生來就會計算。孩子們使用數字的技能發(fā)展得如此之早和如此必然,很容易讓人想象有一個內在的精確而成熟的數字鐘在指導他們的成長。

孩子們在學會走路和說話后不久,就能以令人驚嘆的準確布臵桌子--五把椅子前面分別擺上一把刀、一個湯匙、一把叉子。很快地,他們就能知道他們已在桌面上擺放了五把刀、五個湯匙、五把叉子。沒有多久,他們就又能知道這些東西加起來總共是15把銀餐具。

如此這般地掌握了加法之后,他們又轉向減法。有一種設想幾乎順理成章,那就是,即使一個孩子一出生就被隔絕到荒島

上,七年后返回世間,也能直接上小學二年級的數學課,而不會碰到任何智力調整方面的大麻煩。當然,事實并沒有這么簡單。

本世紀認知心理學家的工作已經揭示了智力發(fā)展所依賴的日常學習的微妙形式。他們觀察到孩子們緩慢掌握那些成年人認為理所當然的概念的

過程,或者是孩子們偶然遇到這些概念的過程。他們也觀察到孩子們拒絕承認某些常識的情況。比如:

孩子們拒絕承認當水從短而粗的瓶中倒入細而長的瓶子中時,水的數量沒有變化。心理學家們而后又展示一個例子,即:讓孩子們數一堆鉛筆時,他們能順利地報出藍鉛筆或紅鉛筆的數目,但卻需誘導才能報出總的數目。此類研究表明:數學基礎是經過逐漸努力后掌握的。

他們還表示抽象的數字概念,如可表示任何一類物品并且是在做比擺桌子有更高數學要求的任何事時都必備的一、二、三意識,遠遠不是天生就具備的。

Unit20:The History Significance of American Revolution The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and distant localities as the expression of one intellectual or social movement;yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of Thomas Jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life.The American Revolution represents the link between the seventeenth century, in which modern England became conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the end of the eighteenth century.It may seem strange that the march of history should have had to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but only in the North American colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the foundation of a new nation.Here, in the popular rising against a ―tyrannical‖ government, the fruits were more than the securing of a freer constitution.They included the growth of a nation born in liberty by the will of the people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty.With the American nation, for the first time, a nation was born, not in the dim past of history but before the eyes of the whole world.20

20美國革命的歷史意義

歷史的進程是如此錯綜復雜,人類行為的動機是如此令人費解,以至于想把那些時間跨度大,涉及人數多,空間范圍廣的事件描述成為一個智者或一場社會運動的表現(xiàn)的企圖是危險的。

然而以托馬斯?杰弗遜登上總統(tǒng)寶座為高潮的那一段歷史過程可以被視為一個特殊的例子。

在這段歷史時期里不僅誕生了新的生活方式,而且民族主義成為了一種新的生活方式。美國獨立戰(zhàn)爭成為聯(lián)結17世紀現(xiàn)代英格蘭的自我意識和18世紀末現(xiàn)代歐洲的覺醒的紐帶。歷史的行程需要跨越大西洋,這看起來似乎有些奇怪,但卻只有在北美殖民地為民權和自由的斗爭才能導致新國家的建立。

這里,反對“暴政”的民眾起義的成果不僅是獲得一個包含更多自由的憲法,還包括了一個依照人民的意愿誕生在自由中的國家的成長。這個國家不是基于血緣、地理、君主或王朝的野心。由于有了美國,第一次一個國家的誕生不是發(fā)生在歷史模糊的過去,而是在全世界人們的眼前。

Unit21:The Origin of Sports When did sport begin If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have observed, the beasts play.Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games.Fishes and birds dance.The apes have simple, pleasurable games.Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with the universe of animals – past, present, and future.Young animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh(or so it seems)to the point of delighted exhaustion.Their play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in earnest.Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble part of our basic nature.In their generous conceptions, play harmlessly and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and imagination into action.Play is release from the tedious battles against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life.This is a grand conception that excites and provokes.The holders of this view claim that the origins of our highest accomplishments----liturgy, literature, and law----can be traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young beasts and children.Our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse.22

21體育的起源

體育運動開始于何時如果體育運動的本質就是游戲的話,我們就可以宣稱體育運動比人類古老,因為正如我們所觀察到的,野獸也進行嬉戲。狗和貓會扭抱玩球,魚和鳥翩翩起舞,猿類會進行一些簡單的、愉快的游戲。雀躍的幼兒,捉迷藏的學童和成年摔跤者展示出人與動物界的有力的跨越世代與物種的永恒的聯(lián)系--特別是幼獸,它們翻筋斗、追逐、奔跑、扭打、模仿、嬉笑(或者看起來是),直到愉快地精疲力盡。他們的玩耍,同我們的一樣,似乎并沒有別的目的而只是給游戲者以愉悅,暫時把我們從嚴肅生活的痛苦中拉出來。一些哲學家稱我們的嬉戲是我們本質中最崇高的部分。

依他們這些隨意性很大的見解,游戲無害而且實驗性地允許我們的創(chuàng)造力、幻想和想象發(fā)揮作用。游戲讓人們從永不間斷亦不可避免的生活悲劇-與乏匱和衰退進行的枯燥抗爭中得到一種解脫。這是一個令人興奮、給人啟發(fā)的偉大見解。這種見解的持有者宣稱,我們的最高成就如宗教典禮、文學、法律的起源可以追溯到游戲的沖動。但令人不解的是我們看到只有幼獸和小孩子才最純粹地享受著這種沖動。從這種比較豁達和非宿命的人性觀來看,我們的運動是超時代、跨物種的輝煌的創(chuàng)造。

Unit22:Collectibles Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since ancient times.Whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness, others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone.In the United States, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from traditional objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more recent items of interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and comic books.Interest in collectibles has increased enormously during the past decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their value as investments.Especially during cycles of high inflation, investors try to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their current market values.In general, the most traditional collectibles will be sought because they have preserved their value over the years, there is an organized auction market for them, and they are most easily sold in the event that cash is needed.Some examples of the most stable collectibles are old masters, Chinese ceramics, stamps, coins, rare books, antique jewelry, silver, porcelain, art by well-known artists, autographs, and period furniture.Other items of more recent interest include old photograph records, old magazines, post cards, baseball cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old bottles, and comic books.These relatively new kinds of collectibles may actually appreciate faster as short-term investments, but may not hold their value as long-term investments.Once a collectible has had its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by an increasing number of enthusiastic collectors competing for the limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more difficult to locate.24

Unit23:Ford Although Henry Ford’s name is closely associated with the concept of mass production, he should receive equal credit for introducing labor practices as early as 1913 that would be considered advanced even by today’s standards.Safety measures were improved, and the work day was reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day common at the time.In order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire factory was converted from two to three shifts.In addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those injured on the job were instituted.The Ford Motor Company was one of the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized skilled laborers and an English language school for immigrants.Some efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for former convicts.The most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best mechanics and to discourage the growth of labor unions.Ford explained the new wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing.He also mentioned the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the automobiles that they produced – in effect creating a market for the product.In order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to establish a decent home and demonstrate good personal habits, including sobriety, thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability.Although some criticism was directed at Ford for involving himself too much in the personal lives of his employees, there can be no doubt that, at a time when immigrants were being taken advantage of in frightful ways, Henry Ford was helping many people to establish themselves in America.25

23亨利?福特

盡管亨利?福特的名字和大生產的概念相連,但他在勞工保護上得到同樣的贊譽,因為他早在1913年便實行了用今天的標準來衡量依然是先進的標準。安全措施得到改進,日工作時間從當時普遍的10或12小時減少到8小時。為了適應更短的日工作時間,整個工廠從雙班變成了三班。而且,病假和改善了的工傷醫(yī)療得以制度化。福特汽車公司是最早建立技術學校來培訓專門技工和為移民開設英語學校的工廠之一。公司甚至為雇傭殘疾人和有前科的人而作出了一些努力。最受廣泛稱贊的革新是實行五美元一天的最低工資。其目的是招收和留住那些最好的技工并阻礙工會的發(fā)展。

福特從效率和利潤分享的角度來解釋這項新的工資政策。他也提到這樣一個事實,他的員工可以買他們生產的汽車--這實際上是為其產品另開辟了一個市場。為了夠資格得到最低工資,員工必須建立一個得體的家庭并顯示出良好的個人習慣,包括節(jié)制、儉省、勤勉和可靠。雖然有人批評福特過多地干涉 了員工的私人生活,但毫無疑問,在移民們被用惡劣的方式剝削的時代,亨利?福特卻幫助了許多人在美國扎下根來。

Unit25:Movie Music Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as ―silent‖, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent.From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment;when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes.At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films;an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient.Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film.As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist, would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed.For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces.Since the conductor seldom saw the films until the night before they were to be shown(if indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement was normally improvised in the greatest hurry.To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments.In 1909, for example, the Edison Company began issuing with their films such indications of mood as ― pleasant‖, ―sad‖, ―lively‖.The suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music, and precise directions to show where one piece led into the next.Certain films had music especially composed for them.The most famous of these early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W Griffith’s film Birth of a Nation, which was released in 1915.27 電影插曲

盡管我們習慣于將1927年以前的電影稱為“無聲電影”,但是就無聲這個詞完整的意義上來說,電影從未真正的無聲過,從最初開始音樂就被視為必不可少的伴奏。當盧米埃爾的電影在1896年2月美國首屆影片公映展覽上放映的時候,影片便用當時的流行曲臨場鋼琴伴奏。最初,這些音樂伴奏與電影沒有什么特別的關系,用什么曲子伴奏都行。但在很短的時間內,為一部莊重的影片演奏快活的音樂所產生的不協(xié)調感變得顯而易見,因此鋼琴家們開始注意將自己的作品與影片的情調結合起來。

隨著影劇院在數量上與重要性上的不斷增長,在一些場合,除了鋼琴師外,還要加上小提琴師,或許還有一位大提琴師。較大的影劇院里還組成了小型的管弦樂隊。在很長的時間內,為各部影片選擇配樂完全掌握在樂隊指揮或隊長手中,而通常把持這種職位的資格不是技巧或鑒賞品味,而是擁有一個大的音樂作品的個人收藏。因為直到電影上映的前一天晚上樂隊指揮才能看到影片(如果這個指揮真正有幸能夠看到影片的話),音樂安排通常是在非常匆忙的情況下臨場進行的。為了解決以上的困難,電影發(fā)行公司開辦了為音樂伴奏印制提示單的業(yè)務。例如1909年愛迪生公司開始將一些諸如“喜悅的”、“悲傷的”、“活潑的”之類表明影片情調特征的提示與影片一起發(fā)行。

這些提示逐漸變得更加具體,并且出現(xiàn)了包括影片情調說明、適用樂曲名稱和樂曲轉換點等內容的配樂說明單。某些影片擁有專門為其創(chuàng)作的音樂。這些早期特創(chuàng)樂譜中最著名的便是為D.W.格雷夫斯1915年上映的影片《一個國家的誕生》所創(chuàng)作的音樂。

Note: 美國通俗音樂分類: 1.Jazz;1)traditional jazz----a)blues, 代表人物:Billy Holiday b)ragtime(切分樂曲): 代表人物:Scott Joplin c)New Orleans jazz(= Dixieland jazz)eg: Louis Armstron d)swing eg: Glenn Miller, Duke Ellington, etc.e)bop(=bebop, rebop)eg: Lester Young, Charlie Parker etc.28 2)modern jazz------a)cool jazz(=progressive jazz)高雅爵士樂。Eg: Kenny G.b)third-stream jazz.Eg: Charles Mingus, John Lewis.c)main stream jazz.d)avant-garde jazz.e)soul jazz.Eg: Sarah Vaughn, Ella Fitzgerald

f)Latin jazz.2.gospel music 福音音樂,主要源于Nero spirituals.Eg.Dolly Parker, Mahalia Jackson 3.Country and Western music.Eg.John Denver, Tammy Wynette, Kenny Rogers, etc.4.Rock music-----------a)rock and roll eg: Elvis Prestley(US), the Beatles(UK.)

b)folk rock Eg: Bob Dylon, Michael Jackson, Mariah Carey, Bruce Springsteen, Lionel Riche etc.c)punk rock

d)acid rock

e)rock jazz eg: M.J.McLaughlin

f)Jurassic rock 5.Music for easy listening(i.e.light music)29 Unit26:International Business and Cross-cultural Communication The increase in international business and in foreign investment has created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and skills in cross-cultural communication.Americans, however, have not been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed the same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as have their foreign counterparts.Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the purpose of reaching an agreement.It involves persuasion and compromise, but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators must understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how compromise is reached within the culture of the negotiation.In many international business negotiations abroad, Americans are perceived as wealthy and impersonal.It often appears to the foreign negotiator that the American represents a large multi-million-dollar corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining further.The American negotiator’s role becomes that of an impersonal purveyor of information and cash.In studies of American negotiators abroad, several traits have been identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception, while undermining the negotiator’s position.Two traits in particular that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and impatience on the part of the American negotiator.Furthermore, American negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals.Foreign negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in it for long-term benefits.In order to solidify the relationship, they may opt for indirect interactions without regard for the time involved in getting to know the other negotiator.30

國際商業(yè)和跨文化交流

國際貿易和海外投資的增加產生了對具有外語知識和跨文化交流技巧的經理的需求。然而,美國人在這兩方面未得到良好的訓練,因此沒有在國際談判中象他們的外國對手一樣成功。談判是為了達成協(xié)議而反復交流的過程。它包括說服和妥協(xié)。

但是為了去進行說服和妥協(xié),談判者必須懂得在談判的文化中怎樣說服人和怎樣達成妥協(xié)。在國外的國際商務談判中,美國人被視為富有和不帶個人情感。在外國談判者看來,似乎美國人代表著一個龐大的擁有數百萬資財的大企業(yè),不用進一步地討價還價就能出得起價錢。

美國談判者的角色變成了一個沒有個人感情的信息及現(xiàn)金的供應者。對在國外的美國談判者的研究中,我們找出了損害談判者能力的幾個特點,或許證實這個已成定式的看法。尤其引起跨文化誤解的兩個特點是美國談判者的直截了當和缺乏耐心。此外,美國談判者經常堅持實現(xiàn)短期目標,而外國的談判者會珍視建立談判者之間的聯(lián)系并愿意為長期利益投入時間。

為了鞏固這種聯(lián)系,他們會選擇非直接的交流而不計較投入用于了解對方的時間。明顯地,價值觀的不同和理解上的差異影響了談判的結果和談判者的成功與否。美國人要在國際商務談判中扮演更為有效的角色,他們就必須投入更多的努力提高跨文化的理解力。

Unit27:Scientific Theories In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related.A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced.A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not as yet been observed.After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory.If observations confirm the scientist’s predictions, the theory is supported.If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further.There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments.Facts by themselves are not science.As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said, ―Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house.‖

Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem.After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination.Possible solutions to the problem are formulated.These possible solutions are called hypotheses.In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown.It extends the scientist’s thinking beyond the known facts.The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test hypotheses.Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and direction.When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.32

科學理論

在科學中,理論是對所觀察到的相關事件的合理解釋。理論通常包含一個虛構的模型,這個模型幫助科學家構想所觀察到的事件是如何發(fā)生的。分子運動理論便是我們能找到的一個很好的例子。在這個理論中,氣體被描繪成由許多不斷運動的小顆粒組成。一個有用的理論,除了能夠解釋過去的觀測,還有助于預測那些未被觀測到的事件。一個理論公開后,科學家們設計實驗來檢驗這個理論。如果觀察證實了科學家的預言,這個理論則得到了驗證。如果觀察不能證實科學家的預言,科學家就必須進一步的研究。或許是實驗存在錯誤,或許是這個理論必須被修改或拋棄。

科學家除了收集信息和操作實驗外還需要想象能力和創(chuàng)/造性思維。事實本身并不是科學。正如數學家喬斯亨利波恩克爾所說:“科學建立在事實之上,就像房子用磚砌成一樣。但事實的收集不能被稱作科學,就像一堆磚不能被叫作房子一樣。

”多數科學家通過找出別的科學家在一個特定問題上的所知來開始研究。在收集了已知事實之后,科學家開始了研究中需要相當想像力的部分。他們爾后擬訂對這個問題的可行的解決方法。這些可行的解決方式被稱為假設。

在某種意義上,任何假設都是向未知的跳躍。它使科學家的思維超越已知事實。科學家計劃實驗、計算、觀測以檢驗假定。若沒有假設,進一步的研究便缺乏目的和方向。當假設被證實了,就成為理論的一部分。

Unit28:Changing Roles of Public Education One of the most important social developments that helped to make possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and 1960's on the schools.In the 1920's, but especially in the Depression conditions of the 1930's, the United States experienced a declining birth rate---every thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940.With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom that followed it young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression.Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in 1946,106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955.Although economics was probably the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the baby boom.The increased value placed on the idea of the family also helps to explain this rise in birth rates.The baby boomers began streaming into the first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by 1950.The public school system suddenly found itself overtaxed.While the number of schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar conditions, these same conditions made the schools even less prepared to cope with the food.The wartime economy meant that few new schools were built between 1940 and 1945.Moreover, during the war and in the boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers left their profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere in the economy.Therefore in the 1950’s and 1960’s, the baby boom hit an antiquated and inadequate school system.Consequently, the ― custodial rhetoric‖ of the 1930’s and early 1940’s no longer made sense that is, keeping youths aged sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them in school could no longer be a high priority for an institution unable to find space and staff to teach younger children aged five to sixteen.With the baby boom, the focus of educators and of laymen interested in education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and back to basic academic skills and discipline.The system no longer had much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services to older youths.34 公共教育的角色變化一項重要的、有可能促使人們對公共教育的角色的看法發(fā)生轉變的社會發(fā)展是本世紀五六十年代的生育高峰對學校的影響。在20年代,尤其是在30年代后的大蕭條中,美國經歷了一次出生率的下降--1920年每千名年齡在15歲至45歲的婦女生下大約118個存活嬰兒,1930年89.2個,1936年75.8個,1940年80個。隨著二戰(zhàn)帶來的持續(xù)繁榮以及隨之而來的經濟增長,年輕人比大蕭條中的同齡人更早地結婚成家,而且比前輩養(yǎng)育更大的家庭。1946年出生率上升到102%,1950年達106%,1955年達118%。對于生育高峰,經濟有可能是最重要的決定因素,但它并不是唯一的解釋。不斷受到重視的家庭觀念也有助于解釋出生率的上升。到40年代中期為止,這些生育高峰出生的孩子們開始源源不斷地進入小學一年級。到了1950年,就形成了一股洪流。公共教育系統(tǒng)突然感到不堪重負了。由于戰(zhàn)時和戰(zhàn)后的狀況,使得學齡兒童人數增加,這些狀況使得學校面對這股洪流更加措手不及。戰(zhàn)時經濟意味著在1940年到1950年間幾乎沒有建立新學校。而且,在戰(zhàn)時和隨后的經濟增長時期,大量的教師離開崗位去別處從事報酬更為優(yōu)厚的工作。

因此,在五六十年代,生育高峰沖擊著陳舊而不完備的學校體系。這樣一來,30年代以及40年代早期,“監(jiān)護理論”就不再有意義了。也就是說,通過使16歲以上的年輕人留在學校不進入勞動力市場的做法再也不是教育機構的優(yōu)先考慮了。因為教育機構不再能找到場地和教師來教育那些更小的5-16歲的孩子。隨著生育高峰,教育者和圈外人士對教育的興趣和焦點,不可避免地轉向了更低的年級和基礎的學術技能和學科上。這個系統(tǒng)不再有濃厚的興趣給較年長的年輕人提供非傳統(tǒng)的新式的和額外的服務。

Unit29:Telecommuting Telecommuting--substituting the computer for the trip to the job----has been hailed as a solution to all kinds of problems related to office work.For workers it promises freedom from the office, less time wasted in traffic, and help with child-care conflicts.For management, telecommuting helps keep high performers on board, minimizes tardiness and absenteeism by eliminating commutes, allows periods of solitude for high-concentration tasks, and provides scheduling flexibility.In some areas, such as Southern California and Seattle, Washington, local governments are encouraging companies to start telecommuting programs in order to reduce rush-hour congestion and improve air quality.But these benefits do not come easily.Making a telecommuting program work requires careful planning and an understanding of the differences between telecommuting realities and popular images.Many workers are seduced by rosy illusions of life as a telecommuter.A computer programmer from New York City moves to the tranquil Adirondack Mountains and stays in contact with her office via computer.A manager comes in to his office three days a week and works at home the other two.An accountant stays home to care for her sick child;she hooks up her telephone modern connections and does office work between calls to the doctor.These are powerful images, but they are a limited reflection of reality.Telecommuting workers soon learn that it is almost impossible to concentrate on work and care for a young child at the same time.Before a certain age, young children cannot recognize, much less respect, the necessary boundaries between work and family.Additional child support is necessary if the parent is to get any work done.Management too must separate the myth from the reality.Although the media has paid a great deal of attention to telecommuting in most cases it is the employee’s situation, not the availability of technology that precipitates a telecommuting arrangement.That is partly why, despite the widespread press coverage, the number of companies with work-at-home programs or policy guidelines remains small.36

電子交通

電子交通--用電腦取代上班的往返--作為對各種各樣的辦公室工作問題的解決辦法已受到了歡迎。

對工作者來說,它承諾不受辦公室的約束,更少的時間浪費在交通上和有助于解決照看小孩的矛盾。對管理者來說,電子交通有助于挽留高效率的工作者,通過省去辦公室與家之間的來回往返,大大減少工作拖拉和曠工,給予管理者獨處的時間來完成需要高度集中精神的任務,為管理者提供靈活的時間安排。在一些地區(qū),如南加利福尼亞和西雅圖、華盛頓,地方政府鼓勵公司開始電子交通計劃以減少交通高峰時的塞車和提高空氣質量。

但這些益處也來之不易。要使電子交通成功需要仔細的計劃并且理解電子交通的現(xiàn)實狀況和流行的想象之間的區(qū)別。許多工作者被電子交通的美好幻想所迷惑。一位電腦程序設計員從紐約市搬到了寧靜的阿第倫達克山,用電腦保持與她辦公室之間的聯(lián)系。一位經理一周三天到辦公室,其他兩天在家工作;一位會計師在家照顧她生病的孩子,接通電話調制解調器的接頭,在同醫(yī)生通話之余完成辦公室工作。

這些是很有震撼力的情景,但也是對現(xiàn)實有限的反映。電子交通者很快發(fā)現(xiàn)在同一時間專注工作和照看小孩幾乎是不可能的。在某個年齡之前,小孩子不可能意識到,更不可能尊重工作與家庭之間的界限。如果家長要完成工作,就必須另外照看小孩。

管理階層必須把現(xiàn)實同神話分開。雖然傳媒對電子交通投入了極大的關注,但在很大程度上,是員工的實際情況而不是技術的可能性促成電子交通的安排。這就是為什么盡管有廣泛的報導,具有在家工作項目或行動綱領的公司數目依然很少的部分原因。

Unit30:The origin of Refrigerators By the mid-nineteenth century, the term ―icebox‖ had entered the American language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States.The ice trade grew with the growth of cities.Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter.After the Civil War(1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use.Even before 1880,half of the ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went to families for their own use.This had become possible because a new household convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented.Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose.In the early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary.The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling.Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping up the ice in blankets, which kept the ice from doing its job.Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve the delicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox.But as early as 1803, and ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the right track.He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the market center.When he used an icebox of his own design to transport his butter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium price for his butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-pound bricks.One advantage of his icebox, Moore explained, was that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night in order to keep their produce cool.38

冰箱的由來

直到19世紀中期,“冰箱”這個名詞才進入了美國語言,但冰僅僅只是開始影響美國普通市民的飲食。冰的買賣隨著城市的發(fā)展而發(fā)展。冰被用在旅館、酒館、醫(yī)院以及被一些有眼光的城市商人用于肉、魚和黃油的保鮮。內戰(zhàn)(1861-1865)之后,冰被用于冷藏貨車,同時也進入了民用。甚至在1880年前,半數在紐約、費城和巴爾的摩銷售的冰,三分之一在波士頓和芝加哥銷售的冰進入家庭使用,因為一種新的家庭設備,冰箱,即現(xiàn)代冰箱的前身,被發(fā)明了。

制造一臺有效率的冰箱不像我們想象的那么簡單。19世紀早期,關于對冷藏科學至關重要的熱物理知識是很淺陋的。認為最好的冰箱應該防止冰的融化這樣一個普遍的觀點顯然是錯誤的,因為正是冰的融化起了制冷作用。早期為節(jié)省冰的努力,包括用毯子把冰包起來,使得冰不能發(fā)揮它的作用。直到近19世紀末,發(fā)明家們才成功地找到有效率的冰箱所需要的精確的隔熱和循環(huán)的精確平衡。

但早在1803年,一位有發(fā)明天才的馬里蘭農場主,托馬斯莫爾,找到了正確方法。他擁有一個農場,離華盛頓約20英里,那里的喬治鎮(zhèn)村莊是集市中心。當他用自己設計的冰箱運送黃油去市場時,他發(fā)現(xiàn)顧客們會走過裝在競爭者桶里那些迅速融化的黃油而給他比市價更高的價格買他仍然新鮮堅硬,整齊地切成一磅一塊的黃油。莫爾說他的冰箱的一個好處是使得農民們不必在夜里上路去市場以保持他們產品的低溫。

Unit31:British Columbia British Columbia is the third largest Canadian provinces, both in area and population.It is nearly 1.5 times as large as Texas, and extends 800 miles(1,280km)north from the United States border.It includes Canada’s entire west coast and the islands just off the coast.Most of British Columbia is mountainous, with long rugged ranges running north and south.Even the coastal islands are the remains of a mountain range that existed thousands of years ago.During the last Ice Age, this range was scoured by glaciers until most of it was beneath the sea.Its peaks now show as islands scattered along the coast.The southwestern coastal region has a humid mild marine climate.Sea winds that blow inland from the west are warmed by a current of warm water that flows through the Pacific Ocean.As a result, winter temperatures average above freezing and summers are mild.These warm western winds also carry moisture from the ocean.Inland from the coast, the winds from the Pacific meet the mountain barriers of the coastal ranges and the Rocky Mountains.As they rise to cross the mountains, the winds are cooled, and their moisture begins to fall as rain.On some of the western slopes almost 200 inches(500cm)of rain fall each year.More than half of British Columbia is heavily forested.On mountain slopes that receive plentiful rainfall, huge Douglas firs rise in towering columns.These forest giants often grow to be as much as 300 feet(90m)tall, with diameters up to 10 feet(3m).More lumber is produced from these trees than from any other kind of tree in North America.Hemlock, red cedar, and balsam fir are among the other trees found in British Columbia.40

英屬哥倫比亞

英屬哥倫比亞是加拿大的第三大省,無論是面積還是人口都是如此。它幾乎是德克薩斯的1.5倍,從美國邊境一直向北延伸了800英里(1,280公里)。它包括了加拿大整個西海岸及附近島嶼。

大部分英屬哥倫比亞多山巒。綿長而粗獷的山脈貫通南北。甚至那些沿海的島嶼都是那些存在于千萬年前的山脈的遺跡。在上一個冰河時期,這些山脈被冰河沖刷侵蝕,直到大部分山脈被淹沒在海中。它們的峰頂顯現(xiàn)為沿著海岸散布的島嶼。

西南海岸地區(qū)有著潮濕溫和的海洋性氣候。從太平洋來的溫暖的洋流使得從西吹過內陸的海風變得溫暖。因此這兒冬天平均氣溫在零上而且夏天也不會酷熱。這些溫暖的西風同樣也從海洋帶來了濕氣。來自太平洋的、從海岸向內陸的風遇到海岸山脈和落基山脈這些山脈屏障。當氣流升高跨越這些山脈時,風的溫度就降低了,風中的水分形成降雨。在一些朝西山坡區(qū)域每年大約有200英寸(500厘米)的降水。

大部分英屬哥倫比亞密布著森林。在有充足降水的斜坡,巨大的道格拉斯樅樹高聳入云。這些森林巨人常常長到高達300英尺(90米),直徑粗達10英尺(3米)。這些樹產出了比北美其他任何樹都多的木材。鐵杉、紅香椿、香脂冷杉樅都是發(fā)現(xiàn)于英屬哥倫比亞的其它樹種。

Unit32:Botany Botany, the study of plants, occupies a peculiar position in the history of human knowledge.For many thousands of years it was the one field of awareness about which humans had anything more than the vaguest of insights.It is impossible to know today just what our Stone Age ancestors knew about plants, but form what we can observe of pre-industrial societies that still exist a detailed learning of plants and their properties must be extremely ancient.This is logical.Plants are the basis of the food pyramid for all living things even for other plants.They have always been enormously important to the welfare of people not only for food, but also for clothing, weapons, tools, dyes, medicines, shelter, and a great many other purposes.Tribes living today in the jungles of the Amazon recognize literally hundreds of plants and know many properties of each.To them, botany, as such, has no name and is probably not even recognized as a special branch of ― knowledge‖ at all.Unfortunately, the more industrialized we become the farther away we move from direct contact with plants, and the less distinct our knowledge of botany grows.Yet everyone comes unconsciously on an amazing amount of botanical knowledge, and few people will fail to recognize a rose, an apple, or an orchid.When our Neolithic ancestors, living in the Middle East about 10,000 years ago, discovered that certain grasses could be harvested and their seeds planted for richer yields the next season the first great step in a new association of plants and humans was taken.Grains were discovered and from them flowed the marvel of agriculture: cultivated crops.From then on, humans would increasingly take their living from the controlled production of a few plants, rather than getting a little here and a little there from many varieties that grew wild-and the accumulated knowledge of tens of thousands of years of experience and intimacy with plants in the wild would begin to fade away.42

植物學

植物學,即對植物的研究,在人類知識的歷史中占據了特殊的地位。這是人類幾千年來超越模糊的認知而真正有所了解的領域之一。我們今天不可能知道新石器時代的祖先們對植物到底了解多少,但我們在至今仍存在的前工業(yè)化社會觀察到:人類對植物及其特性的詳細了解應該是非常古老的。這是理所當然的。植物是其他生物甚至其他植物食物金字塔的基礎。它們對人們的生活至關重要,不僅在食物上,而且在衣物、武器、工具、染料、藥物、住所和許許多多其他的用途上。至今仍生活在亞馬遜河叢林中的部落確實能夠辨識幾百種植物并知道每一種的許多特性。對他們來說,植物學沒有專門的名稱,甚至可能根本未被認為是一種專門知識。

不幸的是,工業(yè)化的程度越高,我們距直接與植物接觸就越遠,我們的植物學知識的增加也就越微不足道。然而每個人在不知不覺中擁有大量的植物學知識,很少有人認不出玫瑰、蘋果或蘭花。大約一萬年前居住在中東的新時代的祖先們發(fā)現(xiàn)某些草能被收獲,它們的種子下一季耕種會收獲更多時,人類就邁出了人和植物之間的新關系第一大步。谷子被發(fā)現(xiàn)后,農業(yè)的奇跡從此誕生:這就是可栽培的谷物。從那時起,人類越來越依賴少數可控制的作物生存,而不再是從眾多的野生種類中這里獲取一點,那里獲取一點。這樣在千萬年中對于野生植物的經驗和密切聯(lián)系中積累起來的知識就開始消失了。

Unit33:Plankton

Scattered through the seas of the world are billions of tons of small plants and animals called plankton.Most of these plants and animals are too small for the human eye to see.They drift about lazily with the currents, providing a basic food for many larger animals.Plankton has been described as the equivalent of the grasses that grow on the dry land continents, and the comparison is an appropriate one.In potential food value, however, plankton far outweighs that of the land grasses.One scientist has estimated that while grasses of the world produce about 49 billion tons of valuable carbohydrates each year, the sea’s plankton generates more than twice as much.Despite its enormous food potential, little effect was made until recently to farm plankton as we farm grasses on land.Now marine scientists have at last begun to study this possibility, especially as the sea’s resources loom even more important as a means of feeding an expanding world population.No one yet has seriously suggested that ― plankton-burgers‖ may soon become popular around the world.As a possible farmed supplementary food source, however, plankton is gaining considerable interest among marine scientists.One type of plankton that seems to have great harvest possibilities is a tiny shrimp-like creature called krill.Growing to two or three inches long, krill provides the major food for the great blue whale, the largest animal to ever inhabit the Earth.Realizing that this whale may grow to 100 feet and weigh 150 tons at maturity, it is not surprising that each one devours more than one ton of krill daily.44

浮游生物

浮游生物數十億噸的被稱為“浮游生物”的小動物、植物散布在世界的海洋中。這些小的動、植物大多太小而難以被人眼看到。它們隨波逐流,為許多較大的動物提供了基本的食物。

浮游生物曾被描述為生長在大陸陸地上的各種草類的海洋對應物。這種比喻是恰當的。然而就潛在的食物價值而言,浮游生物遠勝于草類。一位科學家曾經估計,世界上的草類每年生產大約490億噸有用的碳水化合物,而海洋里的浮游生物每年生產的碳水化合物多于此數的兩倍。

盡管浮游生物具備巨大的食物潛能,但直到最近人們還很少象種植草類那樣付出努力養(yǎng)殖浮游生物。現(xiàn)在,海洋科學家們至少已開始研究這種可能性。全球人口不斷擴張,海洋資源作為食品的重要性日益突出。

現(xiàn)在還沒有人認真說過“浮游生物漢堡”會很快在世界上流行起來。然而,作為一種可能養(yǎng)殖的補充性食物資源,浮游生物正引起了海洋科學家們相當大的興趣。

一種似乎具有很大收獲可能性的微小的蝦狀浮游生物被稱為鱗蝦。鱗蝦長至2~3英寸長時即成為地球上曾居住過的最大動物--藍鯨的主要食物。成熟的藍鯨可以達到100英尺長,150噸重,所以每頭鯨每天吞食1噸多的鱗蝦一點也不讓人吃驚。

Unit34:Raising Oysters In the oysters were raised in much the same way as dirt farmers raised tomatoes-by transplanting them.First, farmers selected the oyster bed, cleared the bottom of old shells and other debris, then scattered clean shells about.Next, they ‖planted‖ fertilized oyster eggs, which within two or three weeks hatched into larvae.The larvae drifted until they attached themselves to the clean shells on the bottom.There they remained and in time grew into baby oysters called seed or spat.The spat grew larger by drawing in seawater from which they derived microscopic particles of food.Before long, farmers gathered the baby oysters, transplanted them once more into another body of water to fatten them up.Until recently the supply of wild oysters and those crudely farmed were more than enough to satisfy people’s needs.But today the delectable seafood is no longer available in abundance.The problem has become so serious that some oyster beds have vanished entirely.Fortunately, as far back as the early 1900’s marine biologists realized that if new measures were not taken, oysters would become extinct or at best a luxury food.So they set up well-equipped hatcheries and went to work.But they did not have the proper equipment or the skill to handle the eggs.They did not know when, what, and how to feed the larvae.And they knew little about the predators that attack and eat baby oysters by the millions.They failed, but they doggedly kept at it.Finally, in the 1940’s a significant breakthrough was made.The marine biologists discovered that by raising the temperature of the water, they could induce oysters to spawn not only in the summer but also in the fall, winter, and spring.Later they developed a technique for feeding the larvae and rearing them to spat.Going still further, they succeeded in breeding new strains that were resistant to diseases, grew faster and larger, and flourished in water of different salinities and temperatures.In addition, the cultivated oysters tasted better!46

飼養(yǎng)牡蠣

過去人們飼養(yǎng)牡蠣的方式很大程度上類似于田地里的農夫種植蕃茄--通過移植來飼養(yǎng)它們。首先,農夫選好牡蠣苗床,清除底部的舊殼和其它雜物,然后四處撒播干凈的殼。接著,他們“栽種”已受精的牡蠣卵。這些卵在2~3周內會孵化成幼貝。幼貝一直漂流直到粘在苗床底部干凈的殼上為止。它們會呆在那兒并逐漸長成小牡蠣。我們稱之為種子或貝苗。貝苗吸進海水中的微小生物作為食物從而越長越大。不久之后,農夫將這些小牡蠣收集起來,把它們移種進其他的水域加快其生長,然后再次將它們移種進另外的水域以使其肥壯起來。

直到最近,野生的以及人工飼養(yǎng)的牡蠣完全能夠滿足人們的需要。但是今天這種可口的海味已不再大量存在。這個問題已經變得如此嚴重以至于一些牡蠣苗床已完全消失。幸運的是,早在20世紀初期海洋生物學家們就意識到如果不采取新的措施,牡蠣將會滅絕或至少會變?yōu)橐环N奢侈的食品。因此他們建造了裝備良好的孵卵場所并開始工作。但是他們尚沒有適當的裝臵或技術來處理牡蠣卵。他們不知道何時、用什么以及如何喂養(yǎng)幼貝。他們對捕食數百萬幼小牡蠣的動物天敵也所知無幾。他們失敗了,但他們頑強地堅持了下來。終于,在20世紀40年代,一個重要的突破性的進展產生了。

海洋生物學家發(fā)現(xiàn),升高水溫能夠誘導牡蠣不僅在夏季也在秋季、冬季和春季里產卵。后來他們發(fā)展了一項技術來喂養(yǎng)幼貝至其長成貝苗。他們進一步成功地培養(yǎng)出了新的品種,可以抵抗疾病、長得更快、更大并且在不同的鹽度和溫度的水中都能茁壯生長。此外,這些培殖出的牡蠣口感更佳!

U 47

nit35:Oil Refining An important new industry, oil refining, grew after the Civil war.Crude oil, or petroleum – a dark, thick ooze from the earth – had been known for hundreds of years, but little use had ever been made of it.In the 1850’s Samuel M.Kier, a manufacturer in western Pennsylvania, began collecting the oil from local seepages and refining it into kerosene.Refining, like smelting, is a process of removing impurities from a raw material.Kerosene was used to light lamps.It was a cheap substitute for whale oil, which was becoming harder to get.Soon there was a large demand for kerosene.People began to search for new supplies of petroleum.The first oil well was drilled by E.L.Drake, a retired railroad conductor.In 1859 he began drilling in Titusville, Pennsylvania.The whole venture seemed so impractical and foolish that onlookers called it ― Drake’s Folly‖.But when he had drilled down about 70 feet(21 meters), Drake struck oil.His well began to yield 20 barrels of crude oil a day.News of Drake’s success brought oil prospectors to the scene.By the early 1860’s these wildcatters were drilling for ― black gold‖ all over western Pennsylvania.The boom rivaled the California gold rush of 1848 in its excitement and Wild West atmosphere.And it brought far more wealth to the prospectors than any gold rush.Crude oil could be refined into many products.For some years kerosene continued to be the principal one.It was sold in grocery stores and door-to-door.In the 1880’s refiners learned how to make other petroleum products such as waxes and lubricating oils.Petroleum was not then used to make gasoline or heating oil.48

煉油

一種重要的新興工業(yè)--煉油業(yè)在國內戰(zhàn)爭后成長起來。未加工的石油,或原油--一種深色的地下的稠漿--數百年來一直為大眾所知,但是人們卻很少使用過它。在十九世紀五十年代,薩繆爾M科爾,賓西法尼亞西部的一位制造商,開始從當地的溢出物中收集石油并將它煉成煤油。與冶煉礦石一樣,石油提煉是一個從未加工的原料中除去雜質的過程。

煤油被用來點燈。它是鯨油的一種便宜的替代品,而鯨油正變得越來越難以獲得。不久就產生了對煤油的大量需求。人們開始尋找新的石油供應。

第一口油井為EL瑞克,一個退休的火車檢票員所鉆得。1859年他開始在賓西法尼亞的泰特斯維爾鉆井。整個的這項冒險事業(yè)看起來是如此不現(xiàn)實和愚蠢以致旁觀者稱之為“鴨子的蠢行”。(譯者注:Drake'sFolly,drake在這里意含雙關,即指瑞克的名字,又指該詞的本義即鴨子。)但當瑞克往下鉆至70英尺(21米)的時候,他發(fā)現(xiàn)了石油。他的油井從此每天生產20桶原油。

瑞克成功的消息將石油勘探者們吸引到現(xiàn)場。截止到19世紀60年代早期,這些冒險者為尋找“黑色的金子”鉆探遍了整個賓西法尼亞西部。這項繁榮的事業(yè)在刺激性和粗獷的西部氣氛上可與1848年的加州淘金熱相媲美,而且它為勘探者帶來了遠超過淘金潮的財富。

原油能被提煉成許多產品。多年以來煤油一直是主要的一種產品。它在雜貨店中出售由人挨戶推銷。19世紀八十九十年代煉油者們懂得了生產其它石油產品,如蠟和潤滑油。那時石油還沒有被用來制造汽油或采暖裝臵用油。

Unit36:Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor Spreading The theory of plate tectonics describes the motions of the lithosphere, the comparatively rigid outer layer of the Earth that includes all the crust and part of the underlying mantle.The lithosphere(n.[地]巖石圈)is divided into a few dozen plates of various sizes and shapes, in general the plates are in motion with respect to one another.A mid-ocean ridge is a boundary between plates where new lithospheric material is injected from below.As the plates diverge from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding layer at the base of the lithosphere.Since the size of the Earth is essentially constant, new lithosphere can be created at the mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of lithospheric material is consumed elsewhere.The site of this destruction is another kind of plate boundary: a subduction zone.There one plate dives under the edge of another and is reincorporated into the mantle.Both kinds of plate boundary are associated with fault systems, earthquakes and volcanism, but the kinds of geologic activity observed at the two boundaries are quite different.The idea of sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate tectonics.In its original version, in the early 1960’s, it described the creation and destruction of the ocean floor, but it did not specify rigid lithospheric plates.The hypothesis was substantiated soon afterward by the discovery that periodic reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field are recorded in the oceanic crust.As magma rises under the mid-ocean ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma become magnetized in the direction of the magma become magnetized in the direction of the geomagnetic field.When the magma cools and solidifies, the direction and the polarity of the field are preserved in the magnetized volcanic rock.Reversals of the field give rise to a series of magnetic stripes running parallel to the axis of the rift.The oceanic crust thus serves as a magnetic tape recording of the history of the geomagnetic field that can be dated independently;the width of the stripes indicates the rate of the sea-floor spreading.50

第二篇:《新概念優(yōu)美背誦短文50篇》中文版

《新概念優(yōu)美背誦短文50篇》中文

01 音樂的語言

畫家將已完成的作品掛在墻上,每個人都可以觀賞到。作曲家寫完了一部作品,得由 演奏者將其演奏出來,其他人才能得以欣賞。因為作曲家是如此完全地依賴于職業(yè)歌手和職 業(yè)演奏者,所以職業(yè)歌手和職業(yè)演奏者肩上的擔子可謂不輕。

一名學音樂的學生要想成為 一名演奏者,需要經受長期的、嚴格的訓練,就象一名醫(yī)科的學生要成為一名醫(yī)生一樣。絕 大多數的訓練是技巧性的。

音樂家們控制肌肉的熟練程度,必須達到與運動員或巴蕾舞演 員相當的水平。歌手們每天都練習吊嗓子,因為如果不能有效地控制肌肉的話,他們的聲帶將不能滿足演唱的要求。弦樂器的演奏者練習的則是在左手的手指上下滑動的同時,用 右手前后拉動琴弓--兩個截然不同的動作。歌手和樂器演奏者必須使所有的音符完全相同協(xié) 調。鋼琴家們則不用操這份心,因為每個音符都已在那里等待著他們了。

給鋼琴調音是調 音師的職責。但調音師們也有他們的難處: 他們必須耐心地調理敲擊琴弦的音錘,不能讓音錘發(fā)出的聲音象是打擊樂器,而且每個交疊的音都必須要清晰。如何得到樂章清晰的紋理 是學生指揮們所面臨的難題:他們必須學會了解音樂中的每一個音及其發(fā)音之道。他們還 必須致力于以熱忱而又客觀的權威去控制這些音符。除非是和音樂方面的知識和悟性結合起 來,單純的技巧沒有任何用處。

藝術家之所以偉大在于他們對音樂語言駕輕就熟,以致于 可以滿懷喜悅地演出寫于任何時代的作品。

02上學與受教育

在美國,人們通常認為上學是為了受教育。而現(xiàn)在卻有人認為孩子們上學打斷了他們 受教育的過程。這種觀念中的上學與受教育之間的區(qū)別非常重要。

與上學相比,教育更具 開放性,內容更廣泛。教育不受任何限制。它可以在任何場合下進行,在淋浴時,在工作 時,在廚房里或拖拉機上。

它既包括在學校所受的正規(guī)教育,也包括一切非正規(guī)教育。傳 授知識的人可以是德高望重的老者,可以是收音機里進行政治辯論的人們,可以是小孩子,也可以是知名的科學家。上學讀書多少有點可預見性,而教育往往能帶來意外的發(fā)現(xiàn)。與 陌生人的一次隨意談話可能會使人認識到自己對其它宗教其實所知甚少。人們從幼時起就 開始受教育。因此,教育是一個內涵很豐富的詞,它自始至終伴隨人的一生,早在人們上 學之前就開始了。

教育應成為人生命中不可缺少的一部分。然而,上學卻是一個特定的形 式化了的過程。在不同場合下,它的基本形式大同小異。在全國各地,孩子們幾乎在同一 時刻到達學校,坐在指定的座位上,由一位成年人傳授知識,使用大致相同的教材,做作業(yè),考試等等。他們所學的現(xiàn)實生活中的一些片斷,如字母表或政府的運作,往往受到科目范 圍的限制。例如,高中生們知道,在課堂上他們沒法弄清楚他們社區(qū)里政治問題的真情,也不會了解到最新潮的電影制片人在做哪些嘗試。學校教育這一形式化的過程是有特定的 限制的。

03“價格”的定義

價格決定資源的使用方式。價格也是有限的產品與服務在買方中的配給 手段。美國的價格系統(tǒng)是復雜的網狀系統(tǒng),包括經濟生活中一切產品買賣的價格,也包括 名目繁多的各種服務,諸如勞動力、專職人員、交通運輸、公共事業(yè)等服務的價格。所有 這些價格的內在聯(lián)系構成了價格系統(tǒng)。任何一種個別產品或服務的價格都與這個龐大而復雜的系統(tǒng)密切相關,而且或多或少地受到系統(tǒng)中其它成份的制約。如果隨機挑選一群人,問 問他們如何定義“價格”,許多人會回答價格就是根據賣方提供的產品或服務,買方向其付出 的錢數。

換句話說,價格就是市場交易中大家認同的產品或服務的貨幣量。該定義就其本 身來說自有其道理。

但要獲得對價格在任何一樁交易中的完整認識,就必須考慮到大量“ 非貨幣”因素的影響。買賣雙方不但要清楚交易中的錢數,而且要非常熟悉交易物的質量和數量,交易的時間、地點,采用哪種形式付款,有怎樣的緩付和優(yōu)惠,對交易物的質量保證、交貨條款、退賠權利等等。也就是說,為了能估算索價,買賣雙方必須通曉構成交易物價 格的通盤細節(jié)。

04電

當今時代是電氣時代。人們對電燈、收音機、電視和電話早已司空見慣以致很難想 象沒有它們生活會變成什么樣。

當停電時,人們在搖曳不定的燭光下暗中摸索; 因沒有紅 綠燈的指示,汽車在道路上遲疑不前;冰箱也停止工作,導致食物變質。人們只是在兩個世紀前一點才開始了解電的使用原理,自然界卻顯然在這方面經歷過了數百萬年。科學家不 斷發(fā)現(xiàn)許多生物世界里可能有益于人類的關于電的有趣秘密。所有生物細胞都會發(fā)出微小的 電脈沖。當心臟跳動時,把它發(fā)出的脈沖記錄下來就成了心電圖,這可讓醫(yī)生了解心臟的 工作狀況。大腦也發(fā)出腦電波,這可在腦電圖上記錄下來。

許多生物細胞發(fā)出的電流都是 極微小的,小到要用靈敏儀器才能記錄和測量。但一些動物的某些肌肉細胞能轉化成一個 個發(fā)電機,以致完全失去肌肉細胞的功能。這種細胞大量地連接在一起時產生的效果將是 非常令人吃驚的。電鰻就是一種令人驚異的蓄電池。它可以在水中發(fā)出相當于 800 伏特電壓電流(家庭用戶的電壓只有 120 伏特)。在電鰻的身體里,多至五分之四的細胞都專門用 來發(fā)電,而且發(fā)出的電流的強度大約和它身體的長度成正比。

05戲劇的起源

關于古希臘戲劇的起源存在著多種理論,其中一個最普遍為人接受的理論 假設認為戲劇從儀式演化而來。

這個觀點是這樣進行論證的:一開始,人類把世界上的自 然力量,甚至季節(jié)的變化都看成是不可預料的。他們試圖通過各種方式去控制這些未知的、令人恐懼的力量。那些似乎帶來了滿意結果的手段就被保留下來并且重復直到這些手段固 化為不變的儀式,最后產生了能夠解釋或者掩蓋這些儀式神秘性的故事。

隨著時間的推移,一些儀式被廢棄了,但這些后來被稱作神話的故事流傳下來并且為藝術和戲劇提供了素材。

認為戲劇從儀式演化而來的人們還認為那些儀式包含了戲劇的基本因素,因為音樂、舞蹈、面具和服裝幾乎經常被使用,而且,必須為演出提供一個合適的地點;如果不是整個社區(qū)共 同參加演出,經常在“演出區(qū)”和“觀眾席”之間劃分出明顯的分界。另外,儀式中還有演員,而且宗教領袖通常承擔演出任務,因為在儀式的執(zhí)行中避免錯誤的發(fā)生被認為有相當大的重要性;他們經常帶著面具,穿著服裝象演員那樣扮演其它人、動物或超自然的生靈,用動作 來表演以達到所需要的效果,比如打獵的成功或戰(zhàn)斗的勝利、將至的雨、太陽的復活。最 后這些戲劇性的表演從宗教活動中分離了出來。

另一個追溯戲劇起源的理論認為它來自人 們對敘述故事的興趣。根據這個觀點,故事(關于狩獵、戰(zhàn)爭或者其它偉績)是逐漸豐富起 來的。首先通過一個講解人來運用模仿、表演和對話,然后再由不同的人扮演各自的角色; 另一個與之緊密相關的理論將戲劇的起源追溯至舞蹈,這些舞蹈大體上是有節(jié)奏感的和體操 式的那一類,或者是對動物動作和聲音的模仿。

06電視

電視--以快速變化與發(fā)展為標志的最普遍、最具有影響力的一項現(xiàn)代技術,正在步 入一個極端復雜化與多樣化的新時代。

這個時代承諾重新塑造我們的生活和我們的世界。這可以稱得上是又一次電子革命,其關鍵在于電視技術與計算機技術的結合。“電視”這個詞來源于希臘語詞根(tele:遠)和拉丁語詞根(vision:景象),可以從字面上理解為來自遠處的 景象。

簡單說來,電視是以這種方式工作的,通過一個復雜的電子系統(tǒng),電視能夠將一幅 圖像(這幅圖像被聚焦在一部攝像機內的一塊特殊的光導底片上)轉換成能經過導線或電纜 發(fā)送出去的電子脈沖信號。

當這些電子脈沖信號被輸入一部接收機(電視機)時,就可以用 電子學的方法把脈沖信號重新恢復成同一幅圖像。但是,電視不僅僅是一個電子系統(tǒng),它還是一種表達工具和傳播渠道。因此,電視成了一個對其他人發(fā)生影響的強大工具。電視這 個領域可以根據其發(fā)射方式分為兩類。

第一類為廣播電視,通過電視信號的寬帶無線電波 發(fā)射展現(xiàn)在大眾面前;第二類為非廣播電視,使用受控的發(fā)射技術來滿足個人以及某些特殊利益群體的需要。電視早已成為大眾媒介。我們熟悉廣播電視,因為廣播電視已經以類似 目前的方式存在了大約 37 年。

在那些年頭中,電視絕大部分一直由 ABC、NBC、CBS 這 些廣播電視公司控制著,這些廣播電視公司一直是新聞、信息和娛樂的主要提供者。這些廣播業(yè)的巨頭實際上不僅塑造了電視,而且也塑造了我們對電視的理解。我們漸漸把顯像 管看作是娛樂的來源,讓自己成為這個生動的媒介的被動觀眾。

07安德魯·卡內基 被稱作鋼鐵大王的安德魯·卡內基在美國建立了鋼鐵工業(yè)。在這個過 程中,他變成了美國最富有的人之一。

他的成功,部分來自于他銷售產品的能力,部分來 自于經濟蕭條時期的擴充策略。在蕭條時期,他的多數對手都在縮減投資。卡內基認為個人應該通過努力工作來獲得進展,但他也強烈地感到有錢人應該運用他們的財富來為社會謀 取福利。他反對施舍救濟,更愿意提供教育機會,使別人自立。

卡內基經常說:“富有著 死去的人死得可恥。”他對社會的較重要的貢獻都以他的名字命名。這些貢獻包括匹茲堡卡 內基學校。

這個學校有一個圖書館,一個美術館和一個國家歷史博物館;他還創(chuàng)立了一所 技術學校,這所學校現(xiàn)在是卡內基 梅隆大學的一部分;其他的慈善捐贈有為促進國家間了 解的“卡內基國際和平基金”,為科學研究提供經費的華盛頓卡內基學院以及給各種藝術活動 提供活動中心的卡內基音樂廳。安德魯·卡內基的慷慨大度幾乎影響到每個美國人的生活。由于他超過五百萬美元的捐款,2500個圖書館得以建立起來,遍布在美國各地的小村鎮(zhèn),形成了我們今天還在享用的公共圖書館系統(tǒng)的核心。

08美國革命

美國革命其實并不算是一場革命,因為它并未導致完全的和徹底的變化。這 次革命并不是對政治和社會框架的一次突然和猛烈的顛覆,象后來在已經是獨立國家的法國 和俄國所爆發(fā)的革命那樣。

革命帶來了重大的變化,但并非翻天覆地,所發(fā)生的只是進化 的加速,而不是一場徹底的革命;在沖突期間,人們仍然上班、做禮拜、結婚、玩耍。多數人并沒有受到實際戰(zhàn)斗的嚴重影響。許多較閉塞的社區(qū)對這場戰(zhàn)爭幾乎一無所知。美國 獨立戰(zhàn)爭宣布了三個現(xiàn)代國家的誕生,其中一個是加拿大。

加拿大的第一大批講英語的流 入人口來自于成千上萬英王的效忠者,這些人從美國逃到了加拿大。另一個國家是澳大利亞,因為美國不再是容納罪犯和欠債者的國度了,澳大利亞就變成了一個懲治罪犯的殖民地(注:獨立戰(zhàn)爭前,英國政府將罪犯流放到美國)。第三個國家就是美國,它完全建立在共 和原則基礎上。即使政治上的顛覆也不如人們可能想象的那樣具有革命性。在一些州,特 別是康涅狄格和羅德島,戰(zhàn)爭基本上只是承認了已經存在的殖民地的自治。

四處被驅逐的 英國官員都被本土的統(tǒng)治階級所替代,這個統(tǒng)治階級迅速地以地方權力機關來替代國王和議 會。

09郊區(qū)的發(fā)展

如果“郊區(qū)”指的是比已建好的城市內部發(fā)展更為迅速的城市邊緣地帶,那 么郊區(qū)化可以說始于 1825 年至 1850 年工業(yè)化城市出現(xiàn)期間。

在這之前,城市只是高度密 集的小聚居群。在其中,人們步行走動,商品靠馬車來運送。但是建于 18 世紀三四十年代的早期工廠位于城邊的航道和鐵路附近,被工作機會吸引到這里的成千上萬的人們需要住 房。漸漸地,在與舊有的主要城區(qū)相毗鄰的地方,不斷涌現(xiàn)出由排房和公寓樓組成的工人聚居區(qū),包圍了工廠。作為對這種侵蝕的自衛(wèi),也為了擴大它們收稅的地域范圍,城市吞并 了工業(yè)化的臨近地帶,比如 1854 年費城的城區(qū)就兼并了費縣的絕大部分地區(qū)。相似的城市 化也發(fā)生在芝加哥和紐約。今天很多美國的大城市其實就是靠吞并它們附近的邊緣地區(qū)而變成大都會的。隨著工業(yè)化的加速發(fā)展,城市里出現(xiàn)了嚴重擁擠和相伴而來的社會壓力。當1888 年第一條商業(yè)上成功的電氣化鐵軌被制造出來時,壓力開始接近危機的程度。幾年之 內,馬車就被廢棄了,電車網相互交織連接著各個重要的城區(qū),從而形成了一種郊區(qū)化的潮 流,即密集的工業(yè)城市轉變成了分散的都市。

此時城市中產階級的出現(xiàn)進一步加強了第一 波大規(guī)模郊區(qū)化。這些中產階級希望在遠離老舊城市的地區(qū)擁有住宅,單一家庭住宅地區(qū) 的開發(fā)者滿足了他們的愿望。

10語言的類型

標準用法包括那些為使用這種語言的大多數人在任何場合下理解、使用和 接受的詞和短語,而不論該場合是否正式。

這些詞和短語的意義已很確定并被列入了標準 詞典中。相反,俗語是指那些幾乎所有講這種語言的人都理解并在非正式的口頭或書面中使用,卻不適用于更正規(guī)的一些場合的詞和短語。幾乎所有的習慣用語都屬于俗語,而俚 語指的是為很多講這種語言的人理解但大多數人不把它們列入好的、正式用法之內的詞和短 語;俗語甚至俚語都可能在標準字典中查到,但是字典中會標明它們的性質。

俗語和俚語 詞匯的應用都是口頭較多、筆頭較少。俗語用法經常地被接受為標準用法。一些俚語也變成了標準用法,但另外一些俚語只經歷了短暫的流行,而后就被棄之不用了。有時候,多 數人從來不接受某些俚語,但是他們把這些俚語保存到集中記憶中。每一代人似乎都需要 獨有的一套詞匯來描述熟知的物體和事件。很多語言學家指出,大量俚語的形成需要三個文化條件:第一,對社會中新事物的引入和接受;第二,一個由大量子群構成的多樣化人口; 第三,各子群與多數人口之間的聯(lián)系。最后需要提到的是,“標準語”、“俗語”和“俚語”這些 術語只是對研究語言的專家才有用的抽象標簽。不論何種語言,只會有很小一部分使用者能夠意識到他們是在使用俗語或俚語。講英語的多數人能夠在適當的場合中選擇使用所有 這三種語言類型。

11考古學

考古學是歷史學的一個來源,而不是地位卑微的輔助學科。考古學資料本身也是一種 歷史文獻,而不僅僅是文字資料的例證。

正象任何一位歷史學家那樣,考古學家研究調查 并盡力去重構一個過程。這個過程創(chuàng)造了我們生活的人類世界,也創(chuàng)造了我們自身,因為我們都是我們所處的時代和社會環(huán)境的產物。考古學的資料就是人類行為所造成的物質變 化。更簡潔地說,是石化了的人類行為。

這些變化的總和構成了我們所說的考古學記錄。這些記錄自有其獨特和不足之處,因而導致人們對考古歷史和更熟悉的文字記載歷史進行相當膚淺的對比。并不是所有的人類行為都留下化石。我說的話,你通過空氣振動聽見,這 當然是人類造成的物質變化,也可能有重大的歷史意義,但這些話在考古學中未留下絲毫痕 跡,除非有人用錄音機錄下來或文書把這些話寫了下來。

戰(zhàn)場上軍隊的行動可能“改變歷史 的進程”,但從考古學的觀點來看,這同樣是難以捕捉的;可能更糟的是,多數有機物質會 腐爛。

任何由木頭、生皮、絨線、亞麻、草、毛發(fā)以及相似物質做成的東西除非在一些非 常特殊的條件下,幾年或幾個世紀以后,會在塵土中腐爛并消失。

在短時期內,能留下考 古記錄的東西也都會退化為石頭、骨頭、玻璃、金屬和陶器的碎片。然而,現(xiàn)代考古學通過運用適當的技術和比較的方法,在從泥炭、沙漠和凍土中所獲得的一些幸運發(fā)現(xiàn)的輔助下,能夠填充這個空缺的很大部分。

12博物館 從波士頓到洛杉機,從紐約到芝加哥、到達拉斯,所有的博物館或者正在籌劃、建造或者正在完成大規(guī)模的擴建計劃。這些計劃或者已經根本性地改變了博物館門面與展廳的設 計,或者預期在不久的將來會這樣做。

單單在紐約市,六個主要機構或者已經向空中和周 圍擴展,或者正準備這樣做。大家一致行動的原因是復雜多樣的,但其中的一個因素是普遍 考慮的空間問題。隨著收藏品的增多,也隨著博物館的需要和功能的變化,空間已經變成 了一項非常珍貴的商品。在我國,也許沒有任何其他地方比費城藝術博物館更符合這個事實。這個博物館幾十年來一直需要額外的空間,十年前進行了最后一次重大的翻新。由于空間 緊缺,該藝術博物館在考慮購買與受贈藝術品已越來越謹慎,有時甚至放棄增強藝術收藏的 機會。由于博物館的空間問題,將藝術品脫手或者說賣掉已經有了新的重要意義。博物館將從偉大或近乎偉大榮升為不朽。

但在今天,該委員會卻遭到了評選委員會內外的猛烈 批評。批評者們爭論說:“評選獲獎者時,起作用更大的不是真實的寫作能力,而是該委員會以及瑞典特有的內部政治。按照瑞典兩家主要報紙之一的文化版編輯 Ingmar Bjorksten 的說法,該文學獎仍然是”人們所說的一種非常瑞典式的做為:反映瑞典口味“。對于其評選 過程中目光短淺的指責,該委員會辯護說,該委員會與世界幾大文學之都相距遙遠,實際上 使該委員會免受外來的干擾。

這也許是對的,但批評者們反駁說,也正因為相距如此遙遠,該委員會才不能準確地把握文學界的真正趨勢。盡管對評選程序存在著關注,該文學獎將繼續(xù)作為世人最為推崇的文學的標志而存在,并將繼續(xù)是作家們難以達到卻又會不斷追逐的目 標。如果不考慮其他因素,而僅僅考慮與之俱來的經濟利益,該獎也將繼續(xù)為人所渴求: 這不僅因為該獎本身就是一筆可觀的現(xiàn)金收入,而且該獎還將極大地增加一個作家的著作的 銷量。

16英法戰(zhàn)爭

在 18 世紀后期,戰(zhàn)爭爆發(fā)于歐洲大陸的幾乎每一個角落,在中東、南非、西印度群島、拉丁美洲亦都是如此。

然而實際上,在這一時期只有一場主要的戰(zhàn)爭,那就是英法之間的 戰(zhàn)爭。所有其他戰(zhàn)爭都服從于這一更大的爭端,至少是與這兩個對手的目標和戰(zhàn)略有某些 關聯(lián)。法國力圖統(tǒng)治整個歐洲,而英國的自主及其力圖在整個歐洲大陸挫敗拿破侖的種種努力都是法國實現(xiàn)這一目標的障礙。英國通過條約建立了聯(lián)盟(和今天北約的概念沒有什么 不同)以保證英國插手所有歐洲的主要爭端。

這兩個對頭并不是一對好對手,因為他們的力 量極不均衡:法蘭西在陸地上稱王,英格蘭則在海上稱霸。法國人明白,如果不能擊敗英國海軍,他們勝利的唯一希望就是讓歐洲的所有港口都對英國艦船關閉。于是,法國將其 軍事占領從莫斯科延伸到里斯本,從尤特蘭延伸到卡拉布里亞,企圖以此來制服英國。所 有這些行動包含著巨大的風險,因為法國并不具備足夠的軍事資源,來控制這么多地盤,同 時又能保護自己,維持國內的秩序。法國戰(zhàn)略家們的算盤是,其海軍若擁有150 艘軍艦,則 將足以擊跨英國海軍。這樣的武力將使法國對英國具有 3 比 2 的優(yōu)勢。這種優(yōu)勢被認為是必不可少的,因為英國人具有超群的海上技能和技術,并且打的是一場防御戰(zhàn)爭,使它能以 少勝多。

拿破侖從未忘卻他的目標,因為英國是他統(tǒng)治全歐的最后一個重大的障礙。隨著 他的力量越來越靠近這個目標,拿破侖變得越來越不耐煩起來,開始策劃立即攻擊。

17睡眠的進化

睡眠是古老的。從腦電圖上看,我們人類和所有靈長目動物以及幾乎所有的哺乳動物 和鳥類都一樣需要睡眠;甚至爬行類動物也有睡眠。

有證據顯示,有夢睡眠和無夢睡眠這兩種類型的睡眠取決于該動物的生活方式。從統(tǒng)計上看,食肉動物比被捕食動物有更多的 有夢睡眠,而被捕食動物更多地無夢睡眠。動物在有夢睡眠時,被有效地解除動作能力,并且對外界刺激缺乏反應。無夢睡眠則要淺得多。我們都看到過貓和狗在顯然的酣睡中,有一點響動耳朵就會豎起來。被捕食動物很少有深度的有夢睡眠,這看來顯然是自然選擇 的結果。

而且這一點是有道理的:當睡眠高度進化以后,愚笨的動物比聰明的動物更少在 深度睡眠狀態(tài)下喪失動作能力。

但是動物為什么要進入深度睡眠呢?為什么這樣的無動作狀 態(tài)也會進化出來呢? 海豚、鯨魚以及水生哺乳動物睡眠都極少,這一事實可以給睡眠的根本功能提供有用的線索。海洋中是沒有藏身之處的。會不會是這樣,睡眠不但不增加動物受 傷害的可能性,反而是減少了這種可能性呢?佛羅里達大學的 Wilse Webb 和倫敦大學的 Ray Meddis 認為情況就是如此。可以想像得出,在危險的時刻,那些由于太愚笨而不能自動保 持安靜的動物,會不由自主地變得動彈不得。這一點在食肉動物的幼獸身上表現(xiàn)得特別明 顯。這是一個很有意思的看法,它至少部分是正確的。

18現(xiàn)代美國大學 世紀 50 年代以前美國有一些小的學院,大多數成立于殖民時期。它們是與教會掛 鉤的小機構,主要目的是培養(yǎng)學生的道德品行。當時在歐洲各地,高等教育機構已經發(fā)展 起來,用的是一個古老的名稱--大學。

德國已經發(fā)展出一種不同類型的大學。德國大學關 心的主要是創(chuàng)造知識和傳播知識,而不是道德教育。從世紀中葉到世紀末,有 9000 多名美國青年因不滿國內所受的教育而赴德深造。他們中的一些人回國后成為一些知名學府--哈 佛、耶魯、哥倫比亞的校長并且把這些學府轉變成了現(xiàn)代意義的大學。

新校長們斷絕了和 教會的關系,聘請了新型的教職員,聘用教授根據的是他們在學科方面的知識,而不是正確 的信仰和約束學生的強硬手段。

新的原則是大學既要傳播知識也要創(chuàng)造知識。這就需要由 學者型老師組成教工隊伍。靠死記硬背和做練習來學習的方法變?yōu)榈聡降闹v解方法。德國式的講解就是由教授講授自己的研究課題。通過研究生性質的學習可以獲得表明最高學 術造詣的古老的德國學位--博士學位。

隨著討論課制度的建立,研究生們學會了提問、分 析以及開展他們自己的研究。同時,新式大學學校規(guī)模和課程設置完全突破了過去那種只有數學、經典著作、美學和音樂的狹窄課程表。哈佛大學的校長率先推出選課制度,這樣 學生們就能選擇自己的專業(yè)。主修領域的概念也出現(xiàn)了。新的目標是使大學對實際社會更有 用。

密切關注著社會上的實際需求,新的大學著意培養(yǎng)學生解決問題的能力。工程系學生 成為新式教育體制下最典型的學生。學生們還被培訓成為經濟學家、建筑師、農學家、社會 工作人員以及教師。

19兒童的數學能力

人似乎生來就會計算。孩子們使用數字的技能發(fā)展得如此之早和如此必然,很容易讓 人想象有一個內在的精確而成熟的數字鐘在指導他們的成長。孩子們在學會走路和說話后 不久,就能以令人驚嘆的準確布置桌子--五把椅子前面分別擺上一把刀、一個湯匙、一把叉子。很快地,他們就能知道他們已在桌面上擺放了五把刀、五個湯匙、五把叉子。沒有多 久,他們就又能知道這些東西加起來總共是 15 把銀餐具。

如此這般地掌握了加法之后,他 們又轉向減法。有一種設想幾乎順理成章,那就是,即使一個孩子一出生就被隔絕到荒島上,七年后返回世間,也能直接上小學二年級的數學課,而不會碰到任何智力調整方面的大 麻煩。當然,事實并沒有這么簡單。本世紀認知心理學家的工作已經揭示了智力發(fā)展所依 賴的日常學習的微妙形式。他們觀察到孩子們緩慢掌握那些成年人認為理所當然的概念的過程,或者是孩子們偶然遇到這些概念的過程。他們也觀察到孩子們拒絕承認某些常識的 情況。比如:孩子們拒絕承認當水從短而粗的瓶中倒入細而長的瓶子中時,水的數量沒有 變化。心理學家們而后又展示一個例子,即:讓孩子們數一堆鉛筆時,他們能順利地報出 藍鉛筆或紅鉛筆的數目,但卻需誘導才能報出總的數目。此類研究表明:數學基礎是經過 逐漸努力后掌握的。

他們還表示抽象的數字概念,如可表示任何一類物品并且是在做比擺 桌子有更高數學要求的任何事時都必備的一、二、三意識,遠遠不是天生就具備的。

20美國革命的歷史意義

歷史的進程是如此錯綜復雜,人類行為的動機是如此令人費解,以至于想把那些時間跨度大,涉及人數多,空間范圍廣的事件描述成為一個智者或一場社會運動的表現(xiàn)的企圖是危 險的。

然而以托馬斯?杰弗遜登上總統(tǒng)寶座為高潮的那一段歷史過程可以被視為一個特殊 的例子。在這段歷史時期里不僅誕生了新的生活方式,而且民族主義成為了一種新的生活 方式。美國獨立戰(zhàn)爭成為聯(lián)結 17 世紀現(xiàn)代英格蘭的自我意識和 18世紀末現(xiàn)代歐洲的覺醒 的紐帶。歷史的行程需要跨越大西洋,這看起來似乎有些奇怪,但卻只有在北美殖民地為 民權和自由的斗爭才能導致新國家的建立。

這里,反對”暴政“的民眾起義的成果不僅是獲 得一個包含更多自由的憲法,還包括了一個依照人民的意愿誕生在自由中的國家的成長。這個國家不是基于血緣、地理、君主或王朝的野心。由于有了美國,第一次一個國家的誕生 不是發(fā)生在歷史模糊的過去,而是在全世界人們的眼前。

21體育的起源 體育運動開始于何時?如果體育運動的本質就是游戲的話,我們就可以宣稱體育運動比 人類古老,因為正如我們所觀察到的,野獸也進行嬉戲。狗和貓會扭抱玩球,魚和鳥翩翩 起舞,猿類會進行一些簡單的、愉快的游戲。

雀躍的幼兒,捉迷藏的學童和成年摔跤者展 示出人與動物界的有力的跨越世代與物種的永恒的聯(lián)系--特別是幼獸,它們翻筋斗、追逐、奔跑、扭打、模仿、嬉笑(或者看起來是),直到愉快地精疲力盡。他們的玩耍,同我們的 一樣,似乎并沒有別的目的而只是給游戲者以愉悅,暫時把我們從嚴肅生活的痛苦中拉出來。一些哲學家稱我們的嬉戲是我們本質中最崇高的部分。

依他們這些隨意性很大的見解,游 戲無害而且實驗性地允許我們的創(chuàng)造力、幻想和想象發(fā)揮作用。游戲讓人們從永不間斷亦不可避免的生活悲劇-與乏匱和衰退進行的枯燥抗爭中得到一種解脫。這是一個令人興奮、給人啟發(fā)的偉大見解。

這種見解的持有者宣稱,我們的最高成就如宗教典禮、文學、法律 的起源可以追溯到游戲的沖動。但令人不解的是我們看到只有幼獸和小孩子才最純粹地享受著這種沖動。從這種比較豁達和非宿命的人性觀來看,我們的運動是超時代、跨物種的 輝煌的創(chuàng)造。

22收藏品

從古代開始,收藏品就是文化的一部分。一些物品因它們的有用性被收藏,而另一些 則純粹因為它們的美被收藏。

在美國,當今流行的收藏品種類從傳統(tǒng)物件,如郵票、硬幣、珍本書籍、藝術品,到更近期一些的有趣的東西,如布娃娃、瓶子、壘球卡、連環(huán)漫畫冊。

對收藏品的興趣在過去十年中大大地增長,部分原因是一些收藏品顯示出了它們的投資價 值。

尤其在高通貨膨脹時期,投資者盡量購買那些至少會保持他們現(xiàn)有市場價值的有形資 產。一般來說,最傳統(tǒng)的收藏品受青睞,因為它們多年后仍保持其價值。

它們擁有完善的 拍賣市場,在需要現(xiàn)金的時候最容易被賣掉。一些最穩(wěn)當的收藏品是古老的畫作、中國陶器、郵票、硬幣、珍本書籍、古代珠寶、銀器、瓷器、著名藝術家的作品、親筆簽名和有時 代特征的家具。

其它更近期的物品有舊唱片、舊雜志、明信片、壘球卡片、彩色玻璃、布 娃娃、早期汽車、古瓶和連環(huán)畫冊。作為短期投資這些相對說來較新穎的收藏品的確可能 更快地增值,但作為長期投資則可能不能保值。一旦一件收藏品有了它第一次交易,它便 以一個相當穩(wěn)定的比率增值,這個增值率受到越來越多的熱情的收藏者的支持,他們?yōu)橛邢?的而且越來越難找到的收藏品而競爭。

23亨利·福特

盡管亨利·福特的名字和大生產的概念相連,但他在勞工保護上得到同樣的贊譽,因為 他早在 1913 年便實行了用今天的標準來衡量依然是先進的標準。安全措施得到改進,日工 作時間從當時普遍的 10 或 12 小時減少到 8 小時。

為了適應更短的日工作時間,整個工廠 從雙班變成了三班。而且,病假和改善了的工傷醫(yī)療得以制度化。福特汽車公司是最早建立技術學校來培訓專門技工和為移民開設英語學校的工廠之一。公司甚至為雇傭殘疾人和 有前科的人而作出了一些努力。最受廣泛稱贊的革新是實行五美元一天的最低工資。其目 的是招收和留住那些最好的技工并阻礙工會的發(fā)展。

福特從效率和利潤分享的角度來解釋 這項新的工資政策。他也提到這樣一個事實,他的員工可以買他們生產的汽車--這實際上 是為其產品另開辟了一個市場。

為了夠資格得到最低工資,員工必須建立一個得體的家庭 并顯示出良好的個人習慣,包括節(jié)制、儉省、勤勉和可靠。雖然有人批評福特過多地干涉了員工的私人生活,但毫無疑問,在移民們被用惡劣的方式剝削的時代,亨利·福特卻幫助 了許多人在美國扎下根來。

24鋼琴的家系

可以追溯至 15 至 16 世紀早期的鍵盤樂器,包括小型撥弦琴、洋琴和維金娜 琴。17 世紀時風琴、敲弦琴和撥弦琴成為鍵盤樂器類的主要成員。這種至高無上的地位 一直為它們所保持,直到 18 世紀末期鋼琴將它們取代。

敲弦古鋼琴的音調有金屬的音質,缺乏雄勁。然而由于它的音調變化多,許多作曲家發(fā)現(xiàn)對于親切的室內樂是一種得體的樂 器。

人們最喜歡用具備明快有力音調的撥弦古鋼琴來配合當時小型管弦樂團的低音樂器以 及在演奏會上演奏。但它的音調難以變化,除非使用機械或構件裝置。18世紀早期的意大 利,鋼琴在一位撥琴鋼琴制造者手中得到完善(盡管音樂理論家們指出有更早的例子)。這 種樂器被稱為 piano eforte(意大利語,柔和而響亮的),以顯示它有力的多樣性。演奏者用 一個頭部帶皮氈的彈擊樂錘敲擊琴弦。更早的這種樂器之上的金屬絲要重得多。從此,持續(xù)到 19 世紀的一系列機械上的改進,包括引入踏板以維持音調或使其柔和,改善金屬框架,以及使用最佳性能的鋼絲,最終產生了一種具備無數音調效果的樂器。

這些效果涵蓋了從 最精致的和聲到幾乎全部的管弦樂音響,從明快流暢的吟唱的音調到尖銳的打擊樂器的清晰 動人的恢宏氣勢。

25電影插曲

盡管我們習慣于將 1927 年以前的電影稱為”無聲電影“,但是就無聲這個詞完整的意義 上來說,電影從未真正的無聲過,從最初開始音樂就被視為必不可少的伴奏。當盧米埃爾 的電影在 1896 年 2月美國首屆影片公映展覽上放映的時候,影片便用當時的流行曲臨場鋼 琴伴奏。最初,這些音樂伴奏與電影沒有什么特別的關系,用什么曲子伴奏都行。但在很短的時間內,為一部莊重的影片演奏快活的音樂所產生的不協(xié)調感變得顯而易見,因此鋼琴 家們開始注意將自己的作品與影片的情調結合起來。隨著影劇院在數量上與重要性上的不 斷增長,在一些場合,除了鋼琴師外,還要加上小提琴師,或許還有一位大提琴師。較大的影劇院里還組成了小型的管弦樂隊。在很長的時間內,為各部影片選擇配樂完全掌握在 樂隊指揮或隊長手中,而通常把持這種職位的資格不是技巧或鑒賞品味,而是擁有一個大的 音樂作品的個人收藏。

因為直到電影上映的前一天晚上樂隊指揮才能看到影片(如果這個指 揮真正有幸能夠看到影片的話),音樂安排通常是在非常匆忙的情況下臨場進行的。為了解決以上的困難,電影發(fā)行公司開辦了為音樂伴奏印制提示單的業(yè)務。例如 1909 年愛迪生公司開始將一些諸如”喜悅的“、”悲傷的“、”活潑的“之類表明影片情調特征的提示與影片一起 發(fā)行。這些提示逐漸變得更加具體,并且出現(xiàn)了包括影片情調說明、適用樂曲名稱和樂曲 轉換點等內容的配樂說明單。某些影片擁有專門為其創(chuàng)作的音樂。

這些早期特創(chuàng)樂譜中最 著名的便是為 D.W.格雷夫斯 1915 年上映的影片《一個國家的誕生》所創(chuàng)作的音樂。

國際商業(yè)和跨文化交流 國際貿易和海外投資的增加產生了對具有外語知識和跨文化交 流技巧的經理的需求。然而,美國人在這兩方面未得到良好的訓練,因此沒有在國際談判 中象他們的外國對手一樣成功。談判是為了達成協(xié)議而反復交流的過程。它包括說服和妥 協(xié)。

但是為了去進行說服和妥協(xié),談判者必須懂得在談判的文化中怎樣說服人和怎樣達成 妥協(xié)。在國外的國際商務談判中,美國人被視為富有和不帶個人情感。

在外國談判者看來,似乎美國人代表著一個龐大的擁有數百萬資財的大企業(yè),不用進一步地討價還價就能出得起 價錢。

由于戰(zhàn) 時和戰(zhàn)后的狀況,使得學齡兒童人數增加,這些狀況使得學校面對這股洪流更加措手不及。戰(zhàn)時經濟意味著在 1940 年到 1950

年間幾乎沒有建立新學校。而且,在戰(zhàn)時和隨后的經濟 增長時期,大量的教師離開崗位去別處從事報酬更為優(yōu)厚的工作。因此,在五六十年代,生育高峰沖擊著陳舊而不完備的學校體系。這樣一來,30 年代以及 40 年代早期,”監(jiān)護理 論“就不再有意義了。也就是說,通過使 16

歲以上的年輕人留在學校不進入勞動力市場的 做法再也不是教育機構的優(yōu)先考慮了。因為教育機構不再能找到場地和教師來教育那些更 小的 5-16

歲的孩子。隨著生育高峰,教育者和圈外人士對教育的興趣和焦點,不可避免地 轉向了更低的年級和基礎的學術技能和學科上。

這個系統(tǒng)不再有濃厚的興趣給較年長的年 輕人提供非傳統(tǒng)的新式的和額外的服務。>29 電子交通 電子交通--用電腦取代上班的往返--作為對各種各樣的辦公室工作問題的解決辦法已受 到了歡迎。

對工作者來說,它承諾不受辦公室的約束,更少的時間浪費在交通上和有助于 解決照看小孩的矛盾。

對管理者來說,電子交通有助于挽留高效率的工作者,通過省去辦 公室與家之間的來回往返,大大減少工作拖拉和曠工,給予管理者獨處的時間來完成需要高

度集中精神的任務,為管理者提供靈活的時間安排。在一些地區(qū),如南加利福尼亞和西雅 圖、華盛頓,地方政府鼓勵公司開始電子交通計劃以減少交通高峰時的塞車和提高空氣質量。但這些益處也來之不易。

要使電子交通成功需要仔細的計劃并且理解電子交通的現(xiàn)實狀況 和流行的想象之間的區(qū)別。許多工作者被電子交通的美好幻想所迷惑。一位電腦程序設計

員從紐約市搬到了寧靜的阿第倫達克山,用電腦保持與她辦公室之間的聯(lián)系。一位經理一 周三天到辦公室,其他兩天在家工作;一位會計師在家照顧她生病的孩子,接通電話調制解 調器的接頭,在同醫(yī)生通話之余完成辦公室工作。

這些是很有震撼力的情景,但也是對現(xiàn) 實有限的反映。電子交通者很快發(fā)現(xiàn)在同一時間專注工作和照看小孩幾乎是不可能的。在

某個年齡之前,小孩子不可能意識到,更不可能尊重工作與家庭之間的界限。如果家長要 完成工作,就必須另外照看小孩。管理階層必須把現(xiàn)實同神話分開。

雖然傳媒對電子交通 投入了極大的關注,但在很大程度上,是員工的實際情況而不是技術的可能性促成電子交通 的安排。這就是為什么盡管有廣泛的報導,具有在家工作項目或行動綱領的公司數目依然 很少的部分原因。

>30

冰箱的由來

直到 19 世紀中期,”冰箱“這個名詞才進入了美國語言,但冰僅僅只是開始影響美國普 通市民的飲食。冰的買賣隨著城市的發(fā)展而發(fā)展。

冰被用在旅館、酒館、醫(yī)院以及被一些 有眼光的城市商人用于肉、魚和黃油的保鮮。內戰(zhàn)(1861-1865)之后,冰被用于冷藏貨車,同時也進入了民用。

甚至在 1880 年前,半數在紐約、費城和巴爾的摩銷售的冰,三分之一

在波士頓和芝加哥銷售的冰進入家庭使用,因為一種新的家庭設備,冰箱,即現(xiàn)代冰箱的前

身,被發(fā)明了。制造一臺有效率的冰箱不像我們想象的那么簡單。世紀早期,關于對 冷藏科學至關重要的熱物理知識是很淺陋的。認為最好的冰箱應該防止冰的融化這樣一個

普遍的觀點顯然是錯誤的,因為正是冰的融化起了制冷作用。早期為節(jié)省冰的努力,包括 用毯子把冰包起來,使得冰不能發(fā)揮它的作用。直到近19 世紀末,發(fā)明家們才成功地找到 有效率的冰箱所需要的精確的隔熱和循環(huán)的精確平衡。但早在 1803 年,一位有發(fā)明天才的

馬里蘭農場主,托馬斯?莫爾,找到了正確方法。他擁有一個農場,離華盛頓約 20 英里,那里的喬治鎮(zhèn)村莊是集市中心。

當他用自己設計的冰箱運送黃油去市場時,他發(fā)現(xiàn)顧客們 會走過裝在競爭者桶里那些迅速融化的黃油而給他比市價更高的價格買他仍然新鮮堅硬,整

齊地切成一磅一塊的黃油。莫爾說他的冰箱的一個好處是使得農民們不必在夜里上路去市 場以保持他們產品的低溫。

>31

英屬哥倫比亞

英屬哥倫比亞是加拿大的第三大省,無論是面積還是人口都是如此。它幾乎是德克薩 斯的

1.5 倍,從美國邊境一直向北延伸了 800 英里(1,280

公里)。它包括了加拿大整個西 海岸及附近島嶼。大部分英屬哥倫比亞多山巒。綿長而粗獷的山脈貫通南北。甚至那些

沿海的島嶼都是那些存在于千萬年前的山脈的遺跡。在上一個冰河時期,這些山脈被冰河 沖刷侵蝕,直到大部分山脈被淹沒在海中。

它們的峰頂顯現(xiàn)為沿著海岸散布的島嶼。西南 海岸地區(qū)有著潮濕溫和的海洋性氣候。從太平洋來的溫暖的洋流使得從西吹過內陸的海風 變得溫暖。

因此這兒冬天平均氣溫在零上而且夏天也不會酷熱。這些溫暖的西風同樣也從 海洋帶來了濕氣。

來自太平洋的、從海岸向內陸的風遇到海岸山脈和落基山脈這些山脈屏 障。當氣流升高跨越這些山脈時,風的溫度就降低了,風中的水分形成降雨。在一些朝西

山坡區(qū)域每年大約有 200 英寸(500 厘米)的降水。大部分英屬哥倫比亞密布著森林。在有 充足降水的斜坡,巨大的道格拉斯樅樹高聳入云。

這些森林巨人常常長到高達 300 英尺(90 米),直徑粗達 10 英尺(3 米)。這些樹產出了比北美其他任何樹都多的木材。鐵杉、紅香

椿、香脂冷杉樅都是發(fā)現(xiàn)于英屬哥倫比亞的其它樹種。

>32 植物學

植物學,即對植物的研究,在人類知識的歷史中占據了特殊的地位。這是人類幾千年 來超越模糊的認知而真正有所了解的領域之一。

我們今天不可能知道新石器時代的祖先們 對植物到底了解多少,但我們在至今仍存在的前工業(yè)化社會觀察到:人類對植物及其特性的 詳細了解應該是非常古老的。

這是理所當然的。植物是其他生物甚至其他植物食物金字塔 的基礎。它們對人們的生活至關重要,不僅在食物上,而且在衣物、武器、工具、染料、藥物、住所和許許多多其他的用途上。至今仍生活在亞馬遜河叢林中的部落確實能夠辨識 幾百種植物并知道每一種的許多特性。

對他們來說,植物學沒有專門的名稱,甚至可能根 本未被認為是一種專門知識。不幸的是,工業(yè)化的程度越高,我們距直接與植物接觸就越

遠,我們的植物學知識的增加也就越微不足道。然而每個人在不知不覺中擁有大量的植物 學知識,很少有人認不出玫瑰、蘋果或蘭花。

大約一萬年前居住在中東的新時代的祖先們 發(fā)現(xiàn)某些草能被收獲,它們的種子下一季耕種會收獲更多時,人類就邁出了人和植物之間的 新關系第一大步。

谷子被發(fā)現(xiàn)后,農業(yè)的奇跡從此誕生:這就是可栽培的谷物。從那時起,人類越來越依賴少數可控制的作物生存,而不再是從眾多的野生種類中這里獲取一點,那里

獲取一點。這樣在千萬年中對于野生植物的經驗和密切聯(lián)系中積累起來的知識就開始消失 了。

>33

浮游生物 數十億噸的被稱為”浮游生物“的小動物、植物散布在世界的海洋中。這些小 的動、植物大多太小而難以被人眼看到。

它們隨波逐流,為許多較大的動物提供了基本的 食物。浮游生物曾被描述為生長在大陸陸地上的各種草類的海洋對應物。這種比喻是恰當 的。然而就潛在的食物價值而言,浮游生物遠勝于草類。一位科學家曾經估計,世界上的 草類每年生產大約 490

億噸有用的碳水化合物,而海洋里的浮游生物每年生產的碳水化合物 多于此數的兩倍。盡管浮游生物具備巨大的食物潛能,但直到最近人們還很少象種植草類

那樣付出努力養(yǎng)殖浮游生物。現(xiàn)在,海洋科學家們至少已開始研究這種可能性。全球人口 不斷擴張,海洋資源作為食品的重要性日益突出。

現(xiàn)在還沒有人認真說過”浮游生物漢堡“ 會很快在世界上流行起來。然而,作為一種可能養(yǎng)殖的補充性食物資源,浮游生物正引起 了海洋科學家們相當大的興趣。

一種似乎具有很大收獲可能性的微小的蝦狀浮游生物被稱 為鱗蝦。鱗蝦長至 2~3 英寸長時即成為地球上曾居住過的最大動物--藍鯨的主要食物。成

熟的藍鯨可以達到 100 英尺長,150 噸重,所以每頭鯨每天吞食 1 噸多的鱗蝦一點也不讓人 吃驚。

>34 飼養(yǎng)牡蠣

過去人們飼養(yǎng)牡蠣的方式很大程度上類似于田地里的農夫種植蕃茄--通過移植來飼養(yǎng) 它們。

首先,農夫選好牡蠣苗床,清除底部的舊殼和其它雜物,然后四處撒播干凈的殼。接 著,他們”栽種“已受精的牡蠣卵。這些卵在 2~3 周內會孵化成幼貝。幼貝一直漂流直到 粘在苗床底部干凈的殼上為止。它們會呆在那兒并逐漸長成小牡蠣。我們稱之為種子或貝

苗。貝苗吸進海水中的微小生物作為食物從而越長越大。不久之后,農夫將這些小牡蠣收 集起來,把它們移種進其他的水域加快其生長,然后再次將它們移種進另外的水域以使其肥 壯起來。直到最近,野生的以及人工飼養(yǎng)的牡蠣完全能夠滿足人們的需要。

但是今天這種 可口的海味已不再大量存在。這個問題已經變得如此嚴重以至于一些牡蠣苗床已完全消失。幸運的是,早在 20

世紀初期海洋生物學家們就意識到如果不采取新的措施,牡蠣將會滅絕 或至少會變?yōu)橐环N奢侈的食品。因此他們建造了裝備良好的孵卵場所并開始工作。但是他

們尚沒有適當的裝置或技術來處理牡蠣卵。他們不知道何時、用什么以及如何喂養(yǎng)幼貝。他 們對捕食數百萬幼小牡蠣的動物天敵也所知無幾。

他們失敗了,但他們頑強地堅持了下來。終于,在 20 世紀 40 年代,一個重要的突破性 的進展產生了。海洋生物學家發(fā)現(xiàn),升高水

溫能夠誘導牡蠣不僅在夏季也在秋季、冬季和春季里產卵。后來他們發(fā)展了一項技術來喂 養(yǎng)幼貝至其長成貝苗。

他們進一步成功地培養(yǎng)出了新的品種,可以抵抗疾病、長得更快、更大并且在不同的鹽度和溫度的水中都能茁壯生長。此外,這些培殖出的牡蠣口感更佳!>35 煉油

一種重要的新興工業(yè)--煉油業(yè)在國內戰(zhàn)爭后成長起來。未加工的石油,或原油--一種深 色的地下的稠漿--數百年來一直為大眾所知,但是人們卻很少使用過它。

在十九世紀五十 年代,薩繆爾?M?科爾,賓西法尼亞西部的一位制造商,開始從當地的溢出物中收集石油

并將它煉成煤油。與冶煉礦石一樣,石油提煉是一個從未加工的原料中除去雜質的過程。煤 油被用來點燈。

它是鯨油的一種便宜的替代品,而鯨油正變得越來越難以獲得。不久就產 生了對煤油的大量需求。人們開始尋找新的石油供應。第一口油井為

E?L?瑞克,一個 退休的火車檢票員所鉆得。1859 年他開始在賓西法尼亞的泰特斯維爾鉆井。整個的這項

冒險事業(yè)看起來是如此不現(xiàn)實和愚蠢以致旁觀者稱之為”鴨子的蠢行“。(譯者注:Drake's Folly, drake

在這里意含雙關,即指瑞克的名字,又指該詞的本義即鴨子。)但當瑞克往下鉆 至 70 英尺(21 米)的時候,他發(fā)現(xiàn)了石油。他的油井從此每天生產 桶原油。瑞克成功的 消息將石油勘探者們吸引到現(xiàn)場。截止到 19 世紀 60 年代早期,這些冒險者為尋找”黑色的

金子“鉆探遍了整個賓西法尼亞西部。這項繁榮的事業(yè)在刺激性和粗獷的西部氣氛上可與 1848 年的加州淘金熱相媲美,而且它為勘探者帶來了遠超過淘金潮的財富。原油能被提煉 成許多產品。多年以來煤油一直是主要的一種產品。它在雜貨店中出售由人挨戶推銷。19 世紀八十九十年代煉油者們懂得了生產其它石油產品,如蠟和潤滑油。那時石油還沒有被

用來制造汽油或采暖裝置用油。

>36

板塊結構與海床擴展

板塊結構理論描述巖石圈的運動。巖石圈是相對堅硬的地球外層,包括全部地殼和部 分地幔。

巖石圈被劃分為幾十個大小不同形狀各異的板塊,一般而言這些板塊都處于相對 運動之中。一道中海脊是板塊之間的邊界,在那里新的巖石圈的物質從下部注入。

當板塊 從中海脊脫離時,它們滑向在巖石圈基部較易變形的地層上。因為地球的大小本質上是不

變的,只有同等數量的巖石圈物質在其它地方被吞沒,新的巖石圈才能生成。銷毀舊巖石 圈的地方形成另外一種板塊邊界:一塊潛沒的區(qū)域。在這里,一塊板塊潛沒到另一板塊的 邊緣之下并結合入地幔之中。

兩種板塊邊界均與地層系統(tǒng)、地震以及火山活動有關,但在 兩種邊界處觀察到的諸般地質活動卻迥然不同。海床擴展說實際上早于板塊結構理論。在 世紀 60 年代它的理論雛形中,描述了海底的生成和毀滅,但沒有詳細介紹堅硬的巖石圈 板塊。這個假定不久之后為發(fā)現(xiàn)所證實。該發(fā)現(xiàn)表明地球磁場周期性的逆轉被記錄在海洋 地殼中。當巖漿從中海脊下涌起的時候,巖漿中的磁鐵礦物質按地磁場的方向被磁化。巖

漿冷卻并凝固下來后,地磁場的方向和磁極被保留在磁化了的火山巖中。磁場的逆轉形成 一系列與斷層軸線平行的條形磁區(qū)。

這樣海洋殼就扮演了磁帶的角色,記錄下可以鑒定時 間的地磁場的歷史。條形磁區(qū)的寬度表明了海底擴展的速度。

>37

冰山 冰山是大自然最壯觀的創(chuàng)造之一,但大多數人卻從未看到過冰山,一種朦朧神秘的氣氛

籠罩著它們。冰山形成于久遠的、寒冷的水體中,而且伴隨著雷聲轟鳴般的嘈雜和水花洶 涌的風暴,但卻無人耳聞目睹。冰山僅存在短短的一段時間就慢慢地悄無聲息地融化掉。冰 山具有最純粹的美,人們如是說。

冰山呈現(xiàn)出千姿百態(tài),可能白得耀眼,或者是閃耀著藍 色、綠色或紫色的玻璃般的光芒,或濃或淡。它們在平靜的陽光照耀的海水中顯得優(yōu)雅堂

皇,令人浮想聯(lián)翩。但是人們亦把冰山稱為恐怖的和危險的。它們的確如此--在夜間,霧 天和風暴肆虐時。

即便是在晴朗的天氣里,與它們保持一段安全距離也是明智的。冰山的 大部分體積穩(wěn)藏于水下,因此其水下部分的伸展遠遠超過可見的頂部。冰山也可能出人意

料地翻滾,劇烈地攪動周圍的水體。冰山是冰川的一部分,從冰川斷裂漂流進水中,一段 時間后融化。今天的冰山由多年前降落的雪花形成。它們的體內是數百年,或數千年,有 時甚至是數百萬年前的降雪。這些雪花落在極地或寒冷的山上,僅有少量融化或根本不融

化,這樣經過許多年或許多世紀后積累了巨大的深度。由于每年的雪花積累在表面之上,蒸發(fā)和融化使得雪花慢慢失去其羽狀尖端而變成微小的冰粒。

當新的雪花降落到舊的表面 上,也變成了冰粒。因而雪花覆蓋層和冰粒層層堆積起來直到如此之大的厚度以致較上層 的重量壓縮較下層。

在時間和壓力的作用下,許多小冰粒結合到一起變成更大的晶體,最 終較底層的晶體合并成龐大而堅固的冰塊。

>38 黃水晶

黃水晶是一種堅硬、透明的礦物質。它是鋁、硅和氟的化合物。黃水晶寶石價值不菲。珠寶商把這種石頭稱為”黃玉“。

最出名的黃玉有各種顏色如深黃色、淡棕色、淺紅色等。黃 水晶是最堅硬的寶石礦中的一種。在礦石硬度表上,它的硬度為 8,這表明刀子不能割開

它而它可在石英上劃痕。金黃色的黃玉品種非常罕見。世界上大多數的黃水晶是白色或藍 色的。這些白色或藍色的黃水晶晶體很大,常常有數千克拉重。

由于這個原因,黃水晶的 價值不像鉆石和許多其它寶石那樣主要依賴于其大小,重量翻一番價值即上升約四倍。黃 水晶的價值很大程度上取決于其品質,但顏色也很重要。舉例來說,藍色的黃水晶常需放 射處理以加深和改善其顏色。

藍色的黃水晶常被作為海藍寶石出售,許多種棕色石英被當 作黃水晶廣為販賣。石英光亮度遠小于黃水晶,礦藏儲量也遠較黃水晶豐富。大多數石英

是一種紫水晶,高溫使其變?yōu)樽厣?/p>

>39 受到攻擊,大部分黑熊會以很快的速度爬上樹和奔跑。當發(fā)怒或受驚嚇時,黑熊會成為可 怕的對手。

黑熊以樹葉、草、樹根、水果、漿果、昆蟲、魚,甚至更大的動物為食。熊類,包括黑熊的最有趣的一個特點是他們的冬眠。

與松鼠、旱獺和其它別的林地動物不同,熊 并不真正地冬眠。雖然熊在冬天的幾個月中不吃東西,靠體內脂肪維持生命,但它們的體

溫保持正常,并有規(guī)律地一分鐘呼吸 4 或 5 次。除交配季節(jié)外,大多數黑熊獨自生活。他 們喜歡住在洞里、空心的大木頭里或茂密的樹叢里。經過 6

到 9 個月的懷孕期后一胎 1~4 個小熊在 1 月或 2 月出生。它們同母熊住在一起,直到它們完全長大,即 1 歲半左右。黑

熊在野外可以活到長達 30 年,在專門的保護區(qū)中甚至能活得更長。

>42 火力發(fā)電廠托馬斯?愛迪生 1879 年發(fā)明的白熾燈導致對便宜、易得、可生產大量電能 的燃料的需求。

煤似乎符合這個要求,并成為第一批電廠的燃料(正是愛迪生本人在 19 世 紀末建造了第一批電廠)。全國到處興建電廠時,對煤的依賴加深了。

自第一次世界大戰(zhàn) 以來,美國每年約有一半的電力是以煤為燃料的電廠提供的。1986 年這些電廠的總發(fā)電能 力達到 28,900

千瓦并且消耗了當年全國開采的九億噸煤的 83%。考慮到核能發(fā)展以及石 油、天然氣供應中的不確定因素,到本世紀末,火力發(fā)電廠仍可能為美國提供多達

70%的 電力。然而,盡管煤長期以來一直是電力的原料之一并且可能會繼續(xù)如此(煤占美國化石燃 料儲量的 80%),它卻不是電廠的理想燃料。

煤的單位能量含量低于石油和天然氣,而且會 導致包括酸雨在內的一系列環(huán)境問題。從 1960 年以來,排放控制和垃圾處理的問題極大地

削弱了燃煤電廠的魅力。由于減輕這些環(huán)境問題需要大量資金,而且建造龐大復雜的燃煤 電廠的費用不斷上漲,也使得這些電廠從經濟角度上不具備吸引力。

改變火力發(fā)電廠的基 礎技術卻可能恢復它們的吸引力。雖然某些技術改進是漸進的,其目的只是提高現(xiàn)有電廠 的生產率,但人們正在開發(fā)全新的清潔燃煤的技術。

>43 統(tǒng)計學

統(tǒng)計方法的早期發(fā)展受到兩種截然不同的影響。統(tǒng)計學有一個”母親“,她致力于井井

有條地記錄政府機構的文件(國家和統(tǒng)計學這兩個詞源于同一個拉丁語詞根,status),還有一 個有紳士般的賭博”父親“,他依靠數學來提高賭技,以便在幾率的游戲中取勝。”母親“對 其子女統(tǒng)計學的影響表現(xiàn)在計數、測量、描述、制表、歸類和人口普查。所有這些導致了 現(xiàn)代描述統(tǒng)計學的誕生。

由于”父親“的影響則產生了完全基于概率論原理的現(xiàn)代推理統(tǒng)計 學。描述統(tǒng)計學涉及對所收集數據的制表、制圖和描述。這些數據可以是數量性的數據,如高度、智商、或者是層級性的數據--具有連續(xù)性的變量--或數據也可以代表性質變量,如 性別、大學專業(yè)或性格類型等等。

數量龐大的數據通常必須經過概括或刪減的程序才能為 人所理解。描述統(tǒng)計學就是這樣一個工具,它對極其龐雜的數據進行描述、概括或刪減,使其變成能為人理解的東西。推理統(tǒng)計學是一套已定形了的方法體系,它解決的是光憑人 腦極難解決的另一類問題。

這類問題的顯著特點是試圖通過取樣調查來作出預測。例如,有一位教育督察想知道在一

個龐大的學校系統(tǒng)中,不吃早飯就上學的學生、已經做過防感冒

免疫的學生,或其它任何類型的學生占多大比例。若具備一些統(tǒng)計學的知識,這位督察應 明白,詢問每個孩子是沒有必要而且沒有效率的,只要用 100

個孩子為樣本,他就可以相當 精確地得出這些孩子占整個學區(qū)的比例了。因此,推理統(tǒng)計學的目的就是通過了解一個群 體中一些樣本的特性,從而對整個群體的特性進行推測和估算。

>44

從冰山中獲取淡水 把冰山拖到世界上人口稠密的地區(qū)和干旱地帶,再從中獲取淡水,這個想法曾一度被認

為是一個笑話,更適合于卡通畫,而非現(xiàn)實生活。然而現(xiàn)在,許多國家正相當認真地考慮 這件事情,特別是在科學家們發(fā)出警告之后。

科學家們認為人類將在耗盡糧食之前首先耗 盡淡水資源。冰川是一個直到最近以前一直被忽視的可能的淡水源。全球四分之三的淡水 還鎖在冰川的冰塊中。

冰川就是一個蓄水池,其中未開發(fā)的淡水量是如此巨大,足夠支持 全世界的江河 1000 年。每年有 7,659 萬億公噸冰漂流在海洋中。

它們包含在 10,000 座從極地冰帽中斷裂出來的冰山中。這些冰山的 90%以上來自南極。一年四季里,覆蓋

在淺層大陸架上的巨大冰川生成了眾多冰山。冰山和海水的冰不同,后者是海水自身結冰 形成的,而冰山則完全是在陸地上形成的。

當冰川伸展到海水中時,冰山就斷裂下來。當 漂離極地地區(qū)時,冰山有時會在底層洋流的推動下頗為神秘地逆風移動。由于冰山比小塊 的冰融化要慢,因此有的冰山在大西洋中向北飄到了赤道以南 35°的地方。把冰山蓄攔起 來并拖到世界上需要它們的地方將不會太困難。有困難的是其它的技術事宜。比如,如何 防止冰山在較暖的氣候中迅速融化以及如何把大量的淡水收集到岸上去。但是,即便在拖 的過程中冰山失去了一半體積,這樣做也遠比從海水中脫鹽取得淡水便宜。

>45

能量的來源

概說生命的物理和化學特性必須始于太陽--確切地說,是太陽的核心,而非地球。能 量來自太陽的核心。

在這里,太陽不停地以光和熱的形式向空間傾瀉出能量。數十億計的 氫原子核在太陽的核心碰撞并且聚變生成氦。在此過程中一部分原本儲存于原子核中的能

量被釋放出來。太陽所產生的光和熱需要每秒將六億噸氫轉化為氦。這樣的轉化在太陽中 已經持續(xù)幾十億年了。核能在太陽的核心被釋放為高能的伽馬射線。這是一種電磁射線,就象光波和無線電波一樣,只是波長要短得多。

這種伽瑪射線被太陽內的原子所吸收,然 后重新釋放為波長稍長一些的光波。這新的射線再次被吸收,而后釋放。在能量由太陽內

部一層層滲透出來的過程中,它經過了光譜中 X 射線部分,最后變成了光。在此階段,能

量到達我們所稱的太陽表層,并且離散到空間而不再被太陽原子所吸收。只有很小一部分 太陽的光和熱由此方向釋放出來,并且未被阻擋,穿越星空,來到地球。

>46視覺

人類的視覺,和其它靈長目動物的一樣,是在叢林環(huán)境中進化出來的。在稠密、復雜 的熱帶叢林里,好的視覺比靈敏的嗅覺更加重要。

在進化過程中,靈長目動物的眼睛變大,同時鼻子變小以使視野不受阻礙。在哺乳類動物中,只有人和一些靈長目動物能夠分辨顏 色。

紅旗在公牛看來是黑色的,馬則生活在一個單色的世界里。然而,人眼可見的光在整 個光譜中只占一個非常狹窄的頻段。人是看不到紫外線的,盡管螞蟻和蜜蜂可以感覺到。與 響尾蛇不同,人也不能直接感受到紅外線。

響尾蛇的感覺器可以感受波長超過 0.7 微米的 光線。如果人能感受到紅外線的話,這世界看上去將十分不同,而且恐怖。到那時,將與

夜的黑暗相反,我們能輕易地在一個奇異的沒有陰影的世界里走動。任何物體都強弱不等 地閃著光。然而,人眼在其它方面有優(yōu)越之處。

事實上,人眼對顏色梯度具有非凡的分辨 能力。普通人類的視覺感受色彩的靈敏程度,甚至連精密的技術裝備都很難超越。

>47

民間文化民間文化是小型的、孤立的、緊密的、保守的、近乎自給自足的群體,具有同 樣的習俗、同樣的人種和強有力的家庭或部族結構以及高度發(fā)展的宗教儀式。

秩序由宗教 或家庭的約束來維持,成員間的關系非常緊密,傳統(tǒng)至高無上,很少有變動且變動緩慢。勞 動專業(yè)分工相對較少。每個人都要做各類活計,盡管男女兩性分工不同。絕大多數物品是 手工制造的,經濟一般為自給自足型。個人主義和社會階層在民間文化群體中的發(fā)展十分

薄弱。在象美國和加拿大這樣的工業(yè)化國家里,一成不變的民間文化群體已不復存在了。在 當代美洲的英語區(qū),與民間文化最相似的群體也許算是 Amish。

Amish 是美國的德裔農耕 部落,他們基本上拒絕接受工業(yè)時代的大多數產品和節(jié)省勞力的設施。在 Amish 地區(qū),輕

便馬車仍是當地的交通工具,信徒們不允許擁有汽車。Amish 宗教中的核心觀念 Demut 即 謙卑典型地反映了在民間文化群中個人主義和階級的不發(fā)達。

而與此同時,Amish 對群體 的認同性卻十分強。Amish 人很少和他們宗派以外的人通婚。其宗教,作為 Mennonite 信

仰的一種,提供了維護秩序的主要機制。相反,大眾文化是包含不同種族的大群體,通常 高度個性化而且不斷在變化。

人際關系冷漠,勞動分工明確,由此產生了許多專門的職業(yè)。世俗的控制機構,比如警察和軍隊,取代了宗教和家庭來維持秩序,而且實行的是貨幣經濟。

由于存在著這些差異,”大眾的“與”民間的“可謂大相徑庭。在工業(yè)化國家以及許多發(fā)展中 國家里,大眾文化正在取代民間文化。

民間制造的物品正讓位于大眾化產品,這通常是因 為大眾化的物品制造起來更快、更便宜,用起來更容易、更方便或者是能給其所有者帶來更 多的威望。

>48 細菌細菌是極其微小的生物體。我們用英寸或厘米來測量自己的大小,而測量細菌卻 要用微米。一微米等于千分之一毫米。針頭直徑大約一毫米。

棒狀細菌通常有 2~4 微米 長,而圓形細菌的直徑一般只有 1 微米。因此,即使你把一個圓形細菌放大 1000 倍,它也 不過一個針頭那么大。

可是如果把一個成年人放大 1000 倍,就會變成 1 英里(或 1.6 公里)多高。用一般的顯微鏡觀察細菌時,你必須仔細觀察才能看見它們。使用

倍的顯微鏡 時,你會發(fā)現(xiàn)細菌不過是隱約可見的小細棒或小點點,而它們的結構你卻

根本看不出來。使

用特殊的著色劑后,你會發(fā)現(xiàn)有的細菌上長著不少波狀的”毛發(fā)“即鞭毛,而有的細菌只有一 根鞭毛。鞭毛的旋轉可以推動細菌在水中行進。

不少細菌沒有鞭毛,因而不能自己行進。還有些細菌卻能通過某些鮮為人知的機制沿物體表面滑動。我們所熟知的世界在細菌眼中 完全是另一個樣子。

對于細菌來說,水就同糖漿之于人類一樣稠密。細菌是如此的微小,周圍化學分子的一舉一動都會對它們產生影響。在顯微鏡下,細菌,甚至包括那些沒有鞭

毛的細菌,經常在水中跳來跳去。這是因為它們與水分子相撞后,被彈向各個方向。分子 移動很迅速,僅 0.1

秒之隔,一個細菌周圍的分子就會完全更新。因此,即使是沒有鞭毛 的細菌也暴露在一個不斷變化的環(huán)境中。>49 睡眠

睡眠是人每天日常活動循環(huán)的一部分。人的睡眠分幾個階段,而這些階段也是循環(huán)發(fā) 生的。如果你是一個正常的睡眠者,你的睡眠循環(huán)會這樣進行。

在你開始昏昏入睡時,你 的眼睛會滾動幾下,體溫略有下降,肌肉放松,呼吸變得緩慢而有節(jié)奏。除了開始幾分鐘 比較快的α節(jié)奏外,腦電波也稍有減緩。

這被稱為第一階段睡眠。在隨后約半小時內,你 進一步放松,進入第二和第三階段睡眠。睡眠越深入,腦電波就越緩慢。大約在開始睡眠 后的 40 到

分鐘,你將進入沉睡狀態(tài)。這時的腦電波表現(xiàn)為巨大的緩波,被稱為δ節(jié)奏。這就是

第四階段睡眠。但你并不是整夜都保持這種沉睡狀態(tài)。入睡后約

分鐘左右,你 的大腦運動水平會再度略有提高。δ節(jié)奏消失,并被腦電波的運動圖形取代。你的眼睛會

在閉著的眼瞼下迅速轉動,就好象你在看著眼前發(fā)生的什么事情。這種迅速的眼球運動持 續(xù)約 8~15 分鐘,這一階段睡眠被稱之為快速眼動(REM)睡眠。

在 REM 睡眠階段,你的肢 體會很快再度放松,呼吸也再次放慢并變得有節(jié)奏,你會輕松地從第一階段滑入第四階段睡 眠-直到大約 80

分鐘后重新接近清醒狀態(tài)。>50

細胞與溫度 細胞只能在一定的溫度范圍內存活,而進一步保證它們有效工作的溫度范圍就更小了。

哺乳動物和鳥類的酶系統(tǒng)只能在 37℃左右的很小范圍內才能有效工作。與此相差僅幾度的 溫度都會大大削弱它們的工作效率。

盡管溫度變化更大時細胞仍能存活,但機體系統(tǒng)的整 體運行能力卻被削弱了。其它動物對體溫的變化有更強的適應性。幾個世紀以來,人們就

認識到哺乳動物和鳥類調節(jié)體溫的方式與其它動物不同。隨著時間的推移,人們對這種差 異的描述越來越精確和有意義,但是”暖血動物“和”冷血動物"這一古老的分類方式至今仍在 大眾詞匯中有所反映。

暖血動物包括哺乳動物和鳥類,其它動物統(tǒng)統(tǒng)被視為冷血動物。但 是對更多物種進行的研究表明這種分類顯然是不適當的。美洲一種小型蜥蜴和沙漠鬣蜥同

屬冷血動物,但實際上它們的體溫通常只比人類的體溫低 1~2 度,因此并不是真正的冷血。因此又出現(xiàn)了恒溫動物(即保持恒定體溫的動物)和變溫動物(即體溫隨外界環(huán)境的變化而改 變的動物)這一區(qū)分方式。但這種分類也不恰當。

因為有不少哺乳動物在冬眠期間會改變 體溫,而許多生活在深海的無脊椎動物在寒冷的深

海水域中體溫并不變化,而是恒定的。

第三篇:優(yōu)美英文短文

優(yōu)美英文短文

nsiderable value Everybody should read it.It supplies us with a variety of news every day.of reading the newspaper, we shall(will)get enough knowledge to cope with our circu它每天提供我們各種類類的消息。它告訴我們世界政治局勢。如果我們養(yǎng)成看報的習慣,我們就能得到足夠的知識一兩個小時來看報。哪些,他們不但能增加知識而且也能趕上時代。總而言之,看報對學生很有益處。

---------monotonous, I try hard to adapt myself to it.Why? Because I intend to be a good stude.After I wash my face and brush my teeth, I begin to review my lessons.I go to schooe.We usually have supper at seven o’clock.want to finish it before I go to bed.去適應它。為什么?因為我打算做一個好學生,希望將來為國家服務。

課,七點鐘我就去上學。

餐,之后我就開始做家庭作業(yè),希望在睡覺前把它做完。

---------dent? Of course not.So far as I know, everybody intends to be(become)a model studen no means an easy thing.First, he must do his best to obtain knowledge.A man without sufve his health.Only a strong man can do great tasks.Thirdly, he should receive moral edus with him.每個人都打算做模范學生。

力獲得知識(求知)。一個沒有足夠知識的人是不會成功的。第二,他必須記住促進健康。只有強壯的人才能做大

---------何獲得快樂

is the most precious thing in the world.Without it, life will be empty and meanttention to the following two points.appiness(the key to happiness).Only a strong man can enjoy the pleasure of lifcontentment.A man who is dissatisfied with his present condition is always in d人生將是空虛的而且毫無意義的。如果你希望知道如何獲得快樂,你須注意下面兩點。

受人生的樂趣。

痛苦之中。

---------o learn life, truth, science and many other useful things.They increase our knowledgey are our good teachers and wise friends.This is the reason why our parents always ent pay great attention to the choice of books.It is true that we can derive benefits f學以及其它許多有用的東西。它們增加我們的知識,擴大我們的心胸并加強我們的品格。換句話說,它們是我們的。不錯,我們能從好書中獲得益處。然而,壞書卻對我們有害無益。

(made)me take my little young brother to the a trip to the country.She bade me take d, the sun was shining brightly and the breeze was blowing gently.We saw the beautifulir sweet songs on the trees.The scenery was indeed very pretty(beautiful).me.We saw Mother(our mother)wait(waiting)for us at the door.歷。她吩咐我要好好照料他。

著,微風輕輕地吹著。我們看見美麗的花兒對我們微笑著,并聽見鳥兒在樹上唱著悅耳的歌曲,風景實十分美麗。們看見母樣正在門口等候我們。

---------------make the country rich and powerful(To make the country rich and strong is...).In order consider this an unchangeable truth.(be patriotic)? I find my answer very simple and clear.He must study hard and store upudent can do according to what I said, the country will certainly be rich and powerful目的,必須愛國。我認為這是一條不易的定理。

明了。他必須用功讀書并積儲知識以便將來服務國家。如果每個學生能按照我所說的去做,國家一定會富強。

---------y.I consider it(this)wrong.Why? Because we all know that we can earn money be work bay(can)say that time is more valuable than money.of time.It(this)is indeed a great pity.We must bear(keep)in mind that wasting ti不對的。為什么?因為我們大家都知道我們能夠用工作賺錢,但無論如何卻無法把時間爭取回來。基于此種理由,必須記住浪費時間等于浪費生命。

---------么我們要學英文

y English, my answer will be simple and clear.Now let me enumerate the reasons one bycome an international language.If you know English, you van make a trip round the wor books, newspapers and magazines are written in English.If you wish(hope)to get kno復很簡單明了。現(xiàn)在讓我來把我的理由一一列舉在下面:

可以環(huán)游世界不會被人誤解。

寫的。如果你希望獲得知識,你必須學習英文。

---------classmates sent me presents.Mother prepared a tea party for me.I invited all of thex.There were cold drinks and refreshments.We ate, talked and laughed.We felt that we

g, the clock on the wall struck nine.We could not but say “Good-bye” to one another禮。母親給我準備一個茶會。我邀請他們都前來參加。

吃又談又笑。我們覺得是世界上最快樂的人。

我們不得不互道再見。

第四篇:羅素(優(yōu)美,勵志英文短文)

What I Have Lived For

——The Prologue to Bertrand Russell's Autobiography

Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.These passions, like great winds, have blown me hither and thither, in a wayward course, over a great ocean of anguish, reaching to the very verge of despair.I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy-ecstasy so great that I would often have sacrificed all the rest of life for a few hours of this joy.I have sought it, next, because it relieves loneliness--that terrible loneliness in which one shivering consciousness looks over the rim of the world into the cold unfathomable lifeless abyss.I have sought it finally, because in the union of love I have seen, in a mystic miniature, the prefiguring vision of the heaven that saints and poets have imagined.This is what I sought, and though it might seem too good for human life, this is what--at last--I have found.With equal passion I have sought knowledge.I have wished to understand the hearts of men.I have wished to know why the stars shine.And I have tried to apprehend the Pythagorean power by which number holds sway above the flux.A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.Love and knowledge, so far as they were possible, led upward toward the heavens.But always pity brought me back to earth.Echoes of cries of pain reverberate in my heart.Children in famine, victims tortured by oppressors, helpless old people a burden to their sons, and the whole world of loneliness, poverty, and pain make a mockery of what human life should be.I long to alleviate this evil, but I cannot, and I too suffer.This has been my life.I have found it worth living, and would gladly live it again if the chance were offered me.我的人生追求 對愛情的渴望,對知識的追求,對人類苦難不可遏制的同情,是支配我一生的單純而強烈的三種感情。這些感情如陣陣颶風,吹拂在我動蕩不定的生涯中,有時甚至吹過深沉痛苦的海

洋,直抵絕望的邊緣。

我所以追求愛情有三方面的原因。首先,愛情有時給我?guī)砜裣玻@種狂喜竟如此有力,以致使我常常會為了體驗幾小時的愛的喜悅,而寧愿犧牲生命中其他的一切。其次,愛情可以擺脫孤寂——身歷那種可怕孤寂的人的戰(zhàn)栗意識有時會由世界的邊緣,觀察到冷酷無生命的無底深淵。最后,在愛的結合中,我看到了古今圣賢以及詩人們所夢想的天堂的縮影,這正是我所追尋的人生境界。雖然它對一般的人類生活也許太美好,但這正是我透過愛情所得到的最終發(fā)現(xiàn)。

我曾以同樣的感情追求知識,我渴望去了解人類的心靈,也渴望知道星星為什么會發(fā)光,同時我還想理解數字賴以支配千變萬化的畢達哥拉斯力量。在這方面我有所收獲,然所獲不多。愛情與知識的可及領域,總是引領我到天堂的境界,可對人類苦難的同情卻經常把我?guī)Щ噩F(xiàn)實世界。那些痛苦的呼喚經常在我內心深處激起回響,饑餓中的孩子,被壓迫被折磨著,給子女造成重擔的孤苦無依的老人,以及全球無情的孤獨、貧窮和痛苦的存在,是對人類生活理想的無視和諷刺。我常常希望能盡自己的微薄之力去減輕這不必要的痛苦,但我發(fā)現(xiàn)我完

全失敗了,因此我自己也感到很痛苦。

這就是我的一生,我發(fā)現(xiàn)它是值得活的。如果有誰再給我一次生活的機會,我將欣然接受這

難得的賜予。

第五篇:背誦新概念心得體會

背誦新概念心得體會(轉)

看到大家那么熱烈地討論背誦新概念,不禁有一點湊湊熱鬧的沖動。

我本人學習英語新概念四已經有很多年了,從1997年把老版本的NC4作為閱讀材料,到1999年5月決心

背誦它,直到2004年才真正意義上的將NC4背熟(能把新版本48篇文章連續(xù)串背兩個多小時背完,基本不

出現(xiàn)大的錯誤)。歷時有7,8年的光景。期間經歷了多少的探索,苦悶辛酸,興奮,激情,迷狂,淡泊,總之學習新概念的過程也是我對學習英語一個探索思考的過程進而也是我的對自我教育乃至整個人生一種

感受至深、啟我思考的體驗。背誦新概念4給我的一點點看得到得回報是,我的4、6級考試都是在沒有專

門進行考前訓練的情況下考出了比較好的成績,4級94,6級92分。研究生英語考試88分(用背NC4的方法,選背了朱泰祺老先生的考研復習指南,作過少量的真題)。真正的回報卻遠不止于此。由于時間關系,我不能談得很詳細,只能很簡單地談談我背NC4的一點點歷程。

1、最開始,1999年5月-8月。大躍進似的激情——打算三個月搞定NC4。實際上三個月過去了,真正背過的文章也只有10多篇,而隨時能脫口而出的就僅有2、3篇了。大多背過的文章,都是模模糊糊不知所云了。那段時間具體投入的時間是很集中的,用的是李陽的方法,記得當時很多天晚上夢話都是背的英文,怎么效果會如此差呢?感覺打擊太大。2、1999-2001年,彷徨、懷疑的階段。嘗試了很多其他的方法,但學習焦點自問并沒有聚在NC4上。也還在背NC4,但是,陷入了背了忘,忘了又背,背了后面忘了前面的怪圈。能夠勉勉強強背下10多課,能隨時脫口而出的僅有5,6篇。只有安慰自己,因為是工科學生,并沒有太多時間花在英語上。3、2002年,充滿轉機的一年。這年的寒假,即2002年2月我沒回家在北京新東方學校學習GRE,說實在的GRE培訓讓我多多少少對新東方有些失望,但是在寒假的系列講座卻對我很有影響。第一,我發(fā)現(xiàn)江博在講座中引背新概念四的幾段還沒有我背得熟,背得標準。對自己背新概念又有了些許的信心。第二,杜子華老師演講時,講了學英語的幾大原則。對我很有啟發(fā),覺得背新概念四也需要以興趣引導順序。第三,俞敏洪演講中提到的學習英語初期就是“精深遠大于博大”。讓我不得不反思,我在背NC4中是不是真正做到了。另外,北外的熊德蘭教授,讓我知道“課文”的真正涵義。鐘道隆老師讓我知道習慣的力量,還有聽寫是一種最不易疲勞的綜合學習。(這里都不作展開講)仔細研究NC4,發(fā)現(xiàn)內容也并不多,不過750句。按李陽的比較機械的方法,一天2句話一年也就搞定了。何況,每篇文章都是一個和諧統(tǒng)一的整體,邏輯結構都很嚴謹,文字又是瑯瑯上口,優(yōu)美異常,相當多的文章還和現(xiàn)實生活息息相關,更易于記憶。經過一番思考,決定再下決心背誦NC4。并且規(guī)定自己,在這個較長的階段學習英語就是簡單的一件事——背誦NC4,學習英語=背誦NC4+大量泛讀自己想獲得信息的英文資料。目標明確了,給自己一個最低的標準,即每天最少2句NC4的句子。4、2003-2004年,完善方法的階段。一位在新東方兼職作老師的同學與我聊到新概念四,我給他背了幾課,覺得我確實比較熟。突然,他叫我把背過的文章一句一句翻譯成中文,并講解一番。我立馬伸嘴結舌。每一句的意思都無比清楚,但是用中文恰如其分地翻譯確實有很大問題。這時候,我才深切地體會到,學習NC4重在文化理解與文字翻譯上。于是,在背誦的同時,仔細品味譯文翻譯,進行英漢快速互譯,并且舉一反三進行造句或者復述,再把它們用在日常生活中就變成我消化背誦的主要方法了(當然,這時我開始背誦中文譯文了)。有趣的是,最終得出結論——“當教新概念四的英語老師”是促進你學習及活背NC4的最好方法。從這一點講,“在新東方得到最大培養(yǎng)和提高的主要是教師而非學生”,這種評價我是深以為然的。又一次,新東方學員的新概念班結課時有一個背誦大賽,我碰巧觀摩了一下,我發(fā)現(xiàn)能連續(xù)背誦5課以上的學員幾乎沒有。我自己試了試,也就能連續(xù)選背最熟的文章10多篇,其他的或多或少需要復習一些時間。于是,開始了連續(xù)5課串背的訓練。這樣在2004年的10月終于有了連續(xù)串背整本書的成績。死記是伴隨著活用的,這樣死記才會記的牢、記得有生命。活用沒有死記,總歸是無源之水,無根之木。如果沒有那個“一”,又談何舉一反三,聞一而知十,一通百通,萬法歸一呢?廣闊的生活空間就是你活用的場所是你體驗的場所。在沒有語言環(huán)境的情況下學習外語,“先死后活”的方法無疑是比較可行的“捷徑”。

5、現(xiàn)在,背誦NC4已經不是最初所認識的那種——一個快捷的學習方法,已經切切實實成了我的一種生活方式。每天晚上是在背誦NC4的過程中昏昏入睡,起床時是在背誦NC4的激情中度過。在看落日時會情不自禁背誦“beauty”,當不得不面臨必須要做的事情時對自己背一段“hobby”、“how to grow old”。在無數等車,坐車,閑暇的零碎時間,我可以根據自己的喜好選背一段NC4的文章。其實,時間已經過去7、8年了,也談不上是什么快捷了。但一切都慢慢變得自然,變得沒有刻意和偏執(zhí)(讓我又不得不想到第11課)。并且我知道我這一生都會不斷地背誦它、咀嚼它、品味它。學習英文的高一點的境界應該是,英文如同空氣與水,你根本意識不到它的存在,但你無時無刻不在使用它,用它傳遞思想、情感、知識信息。并且使用的熟練程度和習慣與母語沒有多大的區(qū)別。我們在這種環(huán)境中嗎?我們在主動營造這種環(huán)境并嘗試成為自己的生活方式嗎?現(xiàn)在想一想,有言道“讀書先需識字”,NC4不過是碰巧成為那部英文識字書罷了。真正的讀書道路還很長很長。建議聽錄音選擇英版的,在你買《新概念》時配套的磁帶就是英版,而且這是經典錄音。我聽的是美版的,但個人認為英版的好。除非你想學美式發(fā)音。

對于《新概念》的學習,首先要告訴你的是一定要下苦功夫,不能嫌煩,堅持下去。而且要從第一冊開始學起,這樣對于你以后的學習會有好處的。相對來說,第一冊簡單一些,基本上是一些日常對話,或者簡單的敘述性短文。別看簡單,如果你能脫口而出的話,就已經相當了不起了,而且,對于第二、三、四冊的改寫范文,能夠打下堅實的基礎。背誦二、三、四冊全文,理解性的去記憶,無須一字不落,你學英文的目的是為了能夠表達思想,而不是單純的背誦。機械式的背誦只能讓你打擊自信,失敗得更快。要理解性的去背誦,當明白課文的意思時,就要學會去改寫它,把范文中所有的文章改寫為自己的事情,讓自己成為第一人,而不是一個閱讀者。這樣,你的記憶才能深刻,才能積累語言,迅速的表達思想。書后的練習一定要做,同樣也是改寫成自己的事情,虛擬一個自己從未做過的事情也可以。只有理解性的記憶才是自己真實擁有的,別“傻背”。磁帶要天天聽,早、中、晚,各一次。就像你聽流行歌曲一樣,聽多了,記憶自然就深刻了。剛開始,要逐詞逐句的聽,聽出來的要默寫出來,不要看書。利用詞典去查每個單詞的音標、注解。自己寫出中文解釋,不要看書。最后都寫出來了,再和書上對照。準確無誤后,就去跟隨錄音大聲的朗讀,直到語氣、發(fā)音和錄音相同為止。要保證聽完的磁帶每隔5-7天就重新聽一遍。邊聽邊跟著說。每天不要過多的記憶,有5句話足以,多了什么也記不住,不要去考慮進度,當你對英語有了感覺后,速度是突飛猛進的。心不要太急,戒驕戒躁,就像一個人猛吸一口氣,他可以跑得很快,但他永遠跑不遠。就是這個道理。再背書時,每次都把要被的內容寫出來,再和原書去對照,拿著你默寫的去背。你的書翻得越少越好!磁帶越多聽越好。不要平凡更換教材,如果你下決心學《新概念》了,就把它學到底。用不著4冊都學完的時候,你就已經能夠輕松閱讀英文原著了。平時還要多注意創(chuàng)造語言環(huán)境,只要有英文的就看,是英文的就聽。這樣量變才能達到質變。開口說很重要,有朋友一起練更好,沒有的話就自己嘮叨,自己和自己對話。扮演書中的角色。

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