第一篇：土木工程畢業論文中英文翻譯

外文翻譯

班級：xxx 學號：xxx 姓名：xxx

一、外文原文：

Structural Systems to resist lateral loads Commonly Used structural Systems With loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts.Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts.Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved.Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows: 1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Core-interactive structures.6.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems.Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings.These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights.This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture.To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed

without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect.In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here.The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting Frames Perhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints.Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads.In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate computer programs;analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis.Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.Braced Frames The braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings.The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints.It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs.And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.Shear walls The shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems.The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally(but not always)concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width.Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element.Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high.The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade.The system has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls.Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.Framed or Braced Tubes The concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings.The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration.Because those columns that resist

lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two-dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes.The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories.Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses.This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher.However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall;the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems.Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers.Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided.Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.Tube-in-Tube Structures The tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces.The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube.The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness.The tubes need not be of the same character;that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy.In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders(i.e, the webs of the framed tube)while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns(i.e, the flanges of the framed tube).In a

braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane(i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube.However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring.This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems.This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced(i.e, shear-stiff)tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed(i.e, shear-flexible)tube.Core Interactive Structures Core interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame.Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero.The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well.Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure.Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations;these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core.Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about

5/8 of the height of the tube.The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building.The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements: 1.The structural system is 94 ft(28.6m)wide, 196ft(59.7m)long, and 601ft(183.3m)high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m)by 40 ft(12.2m), centered 90 ft(27.4m)apart in the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the long direction.4.A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for the center50ft(15.2m)of each of the long sides.6.A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7.A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building 8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.Cellular structures A classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes.While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening.The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression

△=ΣfL/E For buildings of 12 ft(3.66m)floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi(138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15(12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in(1.9mm)per story.At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in.(94mm)less than its unstressed length.Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between.the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations.In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress

the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.二、原文翻譯：

抗側向荷載的結構體系

常用的結構體系

若已測出荷載量達數千萬磅重，那么在高層建筑設計中就沒有多少可以進行極其復雜的構思余地了。確實，較好的高層建筑普遍具有構思簡單、表現明晰的特點。

這并不是說沒有進行宏觀構思的余地。實際上，正是因為有了這種宏觀的構思，新奇的高層建筑體系才得以發展，可能更重要的是：幾年以前才出現的一些新概念在今天的技術中已經變得平常了。

如果忽略一些與建筑材料密切相關的概念不談，高層建筑里最為常用的結構體系便可分為如下幾類：

1． 抗彎矩框架。

2． 支撐框架，包括偏心支撐框架。3． 剪力墻，包括鋼板剪力墻。4． 筒中框架。5． 筒中筒結構。6． 核心交互結構。

7． 框格體系或束筒體系。

特別是由于最近趨向于更復雜的建筑形式，同時也需要增加剛度以抵抗幾力和地震力，大多數高層建筑都具有由框架、支撐構架、剪力墻和相關體系相結合而構成的體系。而且，就較高的建筑物而言，大多數都是由交互式構件組成三維陳列。

將這些構件結合起來的方法正是高層建筑設計方法的本質。其結合方式需要在考慮環境、功能和費用后再發展，以便提供促使建筑發展達到新高度的有效結構。這并不是說富于想象力的結構設計就能夠創造出偉大建筑。正相反，有許多例優美的建筑僅得到結構工程師適當的支持就被創造出來了，然而，如果沒有天賦甚厚的建筑師的創造力的指導，那么，得以發展的就只能是好的結構，并非是偉大的建筑。無論如何，要想創造出高層建筑真正非凡的設計，兩者都需要最好的。

雖然在文獻中通常可以見到有關這七種體系的全面性討論，但是在這里還值得進一步討論。設計方法的本質貫穿于整個討論。設計方法的本質貫穿于整個討論中。

抗彎矩框架

抗彎矩框架也許是低，中高度的建筑中常用的體系，它具有線性水平構件和垂直構件在接頭處基本剛接之特點。這種框架用作獨立的體系，或者和其他體系結合起來使用，以便提供所需要水平荷載抵抗力。對于較高的高層建筑，可能會發現該本系不宜作為獨立體系，這是因為在側向力的作用下難以調動足夠的剛度。

我們可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合適的計算機程序進行結構分析。所謂的門架法分析或懸臂法分析在當今的技術中無一席之地，由于柱梁節點固有柔性，并且由于初步設計應該力求突出體系的弱點，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸設計是司空慣的。當然，在設計的后期階段，實際地評價結點的變形很有必要。

支撐框架

支撐框架實際上剛度比抗彎矩框架強，在高層建筑中也得到更廣泛的應用。這種體系以其結點處鉸接或則接的線性水平構件、垂直構件和斜撐構件而具特色，它通常與其他體系共同用于較高的建筑，并且作為一種獨立的體系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

尤其引人關注的是，在強震區使用偏心支撐框架。

此外，可以利用STRESS，STRUDL，或一系列二維或三維計算機分析程序中的任何一種進行結構分析。另外，初步分析中常用中心距尺寸。

剪力墻

剪力墻在加強結構體系剛性的發展過程中又前進了一步。該體系的特點是具有相當薄的，通常是（而不總是）混凝土的構件，這種構件既可提供結構強度，又可提供建筑物功能上的分隔。

在高層建筑中，剪力墻體系趨向于具有相對大的高寬經，即與寬度相比，其高度偏大。由于基礎體系缺少應力，任何一種結構構件抗傾覆彎矩的能力都受到體系的寬度和構件承受的重力荷載的限制。由于剪力墻寬度狹狹窄受限，所以需要以某種方式加以擴大，以便提從所需的抗傾覆能力。在窗戶需要量小的建筑物外墻中明顯地使用了這種確有所需要寬度的體系。

鋼結構剪力墻通常由混凝土覆蓋層來加強以抵抗失穩，這在剪切荷載大的地方已得到應用。這種體系實際上比鋼支撐經濟，對于使剪切荷載由位于地面正上方區域內比較高的樓層向下移特別有效。這種體系還具有高延性之優點，這種特性在強震區特別重要。

由于這些墻內必然出同一些大孔，使得剪力墻體系分析變得錯綜復雜。可以通過桁架模似法、有限元法，或者通過利用為考慮剪力墻的交互作用或扭轉功能設計的專門計處機程序進行初步分析

框架或支撐式筒體結構：

框架或支撐式筒體最先應用于IBM公司在Pittsburgh的一幢辦公樓，隨后立即被應用于紐約雙子座的110層世界貿易中心摩天大樓和其他的建筑中。這種系統有以下幾個顯著的特征：三維結構、支撐式結構、或由剪力墻形成的一個性質上差不多是圓柱體的閉合曲面，但又有任意的平面構成。由于這些抵抗側向荷載的柱子差不多都被設置在整個系統的中心，所以整體的慣性得到提高，剛度也是很大的。

在可能的情況下，通過三維概念的應用、二維的類比，我們可以進行筒體結構的分析。不管應用那種方法，都必須考慮剪力滯后的影響。

這種最先在航天器結構中研究的剪力滯后出現后，對筒體結構的剛度是一個很大的限制。這種觀念已經影響了筒體結構在60層以上建筑中的應用。設計者已經開發出了很多的技術，用以減小剪力滯后的影響，這其中最有名的是桁架的應用。框架或支撐式筒體在40層或稍高的建筑中找到了自己的用武之地。除了一些美觀的考慮外，桁架幾乎很少涉及與外

墻聯系的每個建筑功能，而懸索一般設置在機械的地板上，這就令機械體系設計師們很不贊成。但是，作為一個性價比較好的結構體系，桁架能充分發揮它的性能，所以它會得到設計師們持續的支持。由于其最佳位置正取決于所提供的桁架的數量，因此很多研究已經試圖完善這些構件的位置。實驗表明：由于這種結構體系的經濟性并不十分受桁架位置的影響，所以這些桁架的位置主要取決于機械系統的完善，審美的要求，筒中筒結構：

筒體結構系統能使外墻中的柱具有靈活性，用以抵抗顛覆和剪切力。“筒中筒”這個名字顧名思義就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包圍了第二層的一系列柱子，它們被當作是框架和支撐筒來使用。配置第二層柱的目的是增強抗顛覆能力和增大側移剛度。這些筒體不是同樣的功能，也就是說，有些筒體是結構的，而有些筒體是用來支撐的。

在考慮這種筒體時，清楚的認識和區別變形的剪切和彎曲分量是很重要的，這源于對梁的對比分析。在結構筒中，剪切構件的偏角和柱、縱梁（例如：結構筒中的網等）的彎曲有關，同時，彎曲構件的偏角取決于柱子的軸心壓縮和延伸（例如：結構筒的邊緣等）。在支撐筒中，剪切構件的偏角和對角線的軸心變形有關，而彎曲構件的偏角則與柱子的軸心壓縮和延伸有關。

根據梁的對比分析，如果平面保持原形（例如：厚樓板），那么外層筒中柱的軸心壓力就會與中心筒柱的軸心壓力相差甚遠，而且穩定的大于中心筒。但是在筒中筒結構的設計中，當發展到極限時，內部軸心壓力會很高的，甚至遠遠大于外部的柱子。這種反常的現象是由于兩種體系中的剪切構件的剛度不同。這很容易去理解，內筒可以看成是一個支撐（或者說是剪切剛性的）筒，而外筒可以看成是一個結構（或者說是剪切彈性的）筒。

核心交互式結構：

核心交互式結構屬于兩個筒與某些形式的三維空間框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情況。事實上，這種體系常用于那種外筒剪切剛度為零的結構。位于Pittsburgh的美國鋼鐵大樓證實了這種體系是能很好的工作的。在核心交互式結構中，內筒是一個支撐結構，外筒沒有任何剪切剛度，而且兩種結構體系能通過一個空間結構或“帽”式結構共同起作用。需要指出的是，如果把外部的柱子看成是一種從“帽”到基礎的直線體系，這將是不合適的；根據支撐核心的彈性曲線，這些柱子只發揮了剛度的15%。同樣需要指出的是，內柱中與側向力有關的軸向力沿筒高度由拉力變為壓力，同時變化點位于筒高度的約5/8處。當然，外柱也傳

遞相同的軸向力，這種軸向力低于作用在整個柱子高度的側向荷載，因為這個體系的剪切剛度接近于零。

把內外筒相連接的空間結構、懸臂梁或桁架經常遵照一些規范來布置。美國電話電報總局就是一個布置交互式構件的生動例子。

1、結構體系長59.7米，寬28.6米，高183.3米。

2、布置了兩個筒，每個筒的尺寸是9.4米×12.2米，在長方向上有27.4米的間隔。

3、在短方向上內筒被支撐起來，但是在長方向上沒有剪切剛度。

4、環繞著建筑物布置了一個外筒。

5、外筒是一個瞬時抵抗結構，但是在每個長方向的中心15.2米都沒有剪切剛度。

6、在建筑的頂部布置了一個空間桁架構成的“帽式”結構。

7、在建筑的底部布置了一個相似的空間桁架結構。

8、由于外筒的剪切剛度在建筑的底部接近零，整個建筑基本上由兩個鋼板筒來支持。

框格體系或束筒體系結構：

位于美國芝加哥的西爾斯大廈是箱式結構的經典之作，它由九個相互獨立的筒組成的一個集中筒。由于西爾斯大廈包括九個幾乎垂直的筒，而且筒在平面上無須相似，基本的結構體系在不規則形狀的建筑中得到特別的應用。一些單個的筒高于建筑一點或很多是很常見的。事實上，這種體系的重要特征就在于它既有堅固的一面，也有脆弱的一面。

這種體系的脆弱，特別是在結構筒中，與柱子的壓縮變形有很大的關系，柱子的壓縮變形有下式計算：

△=ΣfL/E 對于那些層高為3.66米左右和平均壓力為138MPa的建筑，在荷載作用下每層柱子的壓縮變形為15（12）/29000或1.9毫米。在第50層柱子會壓縮94毫米，小于它未受壓的長度。這些柱子在50層的時候和100層的時候的變形是不一樣的，位于這兩種體系之間接近于邊緣的那些柱需要使這種不均勻的變形得以調解。

主要的結構工作都集中在布置中。在Melbourne的Rialto項目中，結構工程師發現至少有一幢建筑，很有必要垂直預壓低高度的柱子，以便使柱不均勻的變形差得以調解，調解的方法近似于后拉伸法，即較短的柱轉移重量到較高的鄰柱上。

第二篇：土木工程專業畢業論文中英文摘要

XX大學畢業設計（論文）

摘要

本文主要針對新建鐵路精伊線莫仁至阿恰勒段的初步設計及相關程序設計。設計的具體內容由以下幾個部分組成：結合地形、地質條件，在帶狀等高線地形圖上，按初步設計的步驟，選定線路的基本走向，并進行路基設計，包括線路的平面定線、平面設計、縱斷面設計、橫斷面設計、路基土石方計算程序設計、平面坐標計算程序設計、及相關外文科技文獻翻譯一篇。

平面定線過程中，根據坡度的變化，注意緊坡地段和緩坡地段的定線要求及定線技巧，在設計過程中，由于兩站之間有較大的高程差，所以為了減少挖方量和爭取最大高程，線路采用較大的坡度上坡，并注意使直線與曲線相互協調，充分考慮夾直線和緩和曲線長度的要求；縱斷面設計中，注意最大坡度、坡段長度、坡段連接與坡度折減等問題，在變坡點處應合理設置豎曲線 ；在平面坐標計算程序設計中，對兩種方法進行比較，采用Fortran語言編制計算程序；在橫斷面設計過程中，考慮曲線地段路基面加寬等問題。

整個設計分幾個階段進行，每一階段的工作都需要綜合考慮、精心設計。設計的前后都要進行必要的比較、檢算，符合標準以后，提交有關設計成果，完成設計。

關鍵詞：平面縱斷面豎曲線路基橫斷面

XX大學畢業設計（論文）

Abstract

The article aims in designing new-built railway preliminarily for JingYi line from Moren to Aqiale section and relevant programs.The concrete contents of the design are as follows : Following the procedures of preliminary design , combine the topography、geology condition , select the basic trend of the line on the topographic map of belt contour , and start the subgrade design，including level location、level section design、profile design、cross section design、subgrade cubic meter of earth and stone calculation program and design、level coordinate calculation program of line and design、translating a relevant foreign technological bibliography.During the course of level location, follow the gradient changes to locate the line;pays attention to the tight slope land sector and the gentle slope land sector decides the line request and decides the line skill, in design process between, because two stands has a bigger elevation difference, therefore in order to reduce the volume of excavation the quantity and strives for the maximum elevation, the line uses an greater slope uphill, and the attention causes the straight line and the curveinter coordination, the full consideration clamps the straight line to be gentle and the length of curve request;In profile design , we must pay attention to the maximum grade、the connection of grade section and compensation of gradient etc;On the grade change point, we should dispose the vertical curve reasonably.During the course of level coordinate calculation program and design, compare thee two methods and use the C Language to program;In the cross section design, consider the problems of broadening subgrade on curve section.The whole design is divided into several stages to conduct.Every stage requires integrated consideration and careful design.The essential comparison and checkout both are required to do before and after designing.When the design conforms to the standard, submit relevant achievements of design, and then finish the design

Key Words:Level section、Profile、Vertical curve、Subgrade、Cross Section-2-

第三篇：行政管理專業畢業論文中英文翻譯

新公共管理的現狀

歐文·E·休斯

(澳大利亞莫納什大學管理系)

毫無疑問,世界上許多國家,無論是發達國家還是發展中國家,在20世紀80年代后期和90年代初期都開始了一場持續的公共部門管理變革運動。這場改革運動至今仍在很多方面繼續對政府的組織和管理產生著影響。人們對于這些改革的看法眾說紛紜,莫衷一是。批評家尤其是英國和美國的批評家們認為,新模式存在著各種各樣的問題,而且也不具有國際普遍性的改革意義,公共管理不可能被稱為范式。批評幾乎涵蓋了變化的各個方面。大多數批評都屬于學術上的吹毛求疵。不同的思想流派討論著細枝末節;學術期刊上的文章也越來越抽象,遠離現實。同時,公共管理者在實踐中不斷推動和實施著這項變化和改革。正如我在其他文章中所認為的那樣,在大多數國家,傳統的公共行政模式已經為公共管理模式所取代。公共部門的變革回應了幾個相互聯系的重大現實問題,包括:職能公共部門提供公共服務的低效率;經濟理論的變化;私營部門相關變化產生的影響,尤其是全球化作為一種經濟力量的興起;技術變化使得分權同時又能更好地控制全局成為可能。行政管理可以分為三個鮮明的發展階段:前傳統階段、公共行政傳統模式階段和公共管理改革階段。每個階段都有自己的管理模式。從上一個階段過渡到下一個階段并非輕而易舉,從傳統的公共行政到公共管理的過渡至今尚未完成。但這只是時間的問題。因為新模式背后的理論基礎非常強大。這場變革運動以“新公共管理”著稱,盡管這個名稱引起了爭論,然而它不但在蓬勃發展著,而且是對大多數發達國家已經采取的管理模式的最佳表述。傳統的行政模式相對于它所處的時代是一項偉大的改革,但是,那個時代已經過去了。

一、前傳統模式

很顯然,在19世紀末官僚體制理論尚未健全之前,已經存在著某種形式的行政管理。公共行政已經有很長的歷史了,它與政府這一概念以及文明的興起一樣歷史悠久。正如格拉登(Glad2den)指出的那樣,行政的某種模式自從政府出現之后就一直存在著。首先是創始者或領導者賦予社會以可能,然后是組織者或行政者使之永恒。行政或事務管理是所有社會活動中的中間因素,雖然不是光彩奪目,但對社會的持續發展卻是至關重要的。公認的行政體制在古埃及就已經存在了,其管轄范圍從每年的尼羅河泛濫引起的灌溉事務到金字塔的建造。中國在漢朝就采用了儒家規范,認為政府應當是民選的,不是根據出身,而是根據品德和能力,政府的主要目標是謀取人民的福利。在歐洲,各種帝國——希臘、羅馬、神圣羅馬、西班牙等首先是行政帝國,它們由中央通過各種規則和程序進行管理。韋伯認為,中世紀“現代”國家的發展同時伴隨著“官僚治理結構的發展”。盡管這些國家以不同的方式進行管理,但它們具有共同的特點,這可以稱為前現代。也就是說,早期的行政體制本質上是人格化的,或者說是建立在韋伯所說的“裙帶關系”的基礎上,也就是說以效忠國王或大臣等某個特定的人為基礎,而不是非人格化的;以效忠組織或國家為基礎而不是以個人為基礎。盡管存在著這么一種觀點,即認為行政管理本身不為人贊許的特點僅僅來自于傳統模式,但早期的做法常常導致謀求個人利益的貪污行為或濫用職權。在早期行政體制下,我們現在看來覺得很奇怪的做法曾是當時執政政府職能的普遍行為。那些一心走仕途的人往往依靠朋友或親戚獲取工作或買官,這就是說先以錢來收買海關官員或稅收官員,然后再向客戶伸手要錢,從而既回收了最初的買官投資成本,又可以大賺一筆。美國19世紀的“政黨分肥制度”意味著在執政黨發生了變化的同時,政府中的所有行政職位也發生了變化。前現代官僚體制是“個人的、傳統的、擴散的、同類的和特殊的”,而按照韋伯的論證,現代官僚體制應當是“非人格化的、理性的、具體的、成就取向的和普遍的”。個人化政府往往是低效率的:裙帶關系意味著無能的而不是能干的人被安排到領導崗位上;政黨分肥制常常導致腐敗,此外還存在著嚴重的低效率。傳統行政模式的巨大成功使得早期做法看起來很奇怪。專業化、非政治化行政在我們看來是如此順理成章,以至難以想象到會有別的制度存在。西方的行政制度即使簡單到通過考試選拔官員的想法,也是直到1854年英國的諾思科特—屈維廉報告出臺后才開始建立,盡管這種制度在中國早已通行很久了。

二、傳統的公共行政模式

在19世紀末期,另外一種模式開始在全世界流行,這就是所謂的傳統行政模式。它的主要理論基礎來源于幾個國家的學者,即,美國的伍德羅·威爾遜和德國的馬克斯·韋伯,人們把他們和官僚制模式相聯系;弗雷德里克·泰勒系統地闡述了科學管理理論,該理論也來源于對美國私營部門的運用,為公共行政提供了方 法。與其他理論家不同,泰勒沒有著力關注公共部門,可是他的理論卻在該領域具有廣泛影響。這三位理論家是傳統公共行政模式的主要影響者。對于其他國家來說,還要加上諾思科特和屈維廉,他們對美國之外的國家的行政尤其是威爾遜的行政體制產生了重要影響。在19世紀中期,諾思科特和屈維廉最先提出了通過考試和品德來任命官員的主張,并提出了無偏見和行政中立的觀點。傳統的行政模式有以下幾個主要特點: 1.官僚制。政府應當根據等級、官僚原則進行組織。德國社會學家馬克斯·韋伯對官僚制度有一個經典的、清晰的分析。雖然這種官僚制思想在商業組織和其他組織中采用過,但它在公共部門得到了更好和更長久的執行。

2.最好的工作方式和程序都在詳盡全面的手冊中加以規定,以供行政人員遵循。嚴格地遵守這些原則將會為組織運行提供最好的方式。

3.官僚服務。一旦政府涉足政策領域,它將成為通過官僚體制提供公共產品和服務的提供者。

4.在政治、行政二者的關系中,行政管理者一般認為政治與行政事務是可以分開的。行政就是貫徹執行指令,而任何事關政策或戰略事務的決定都應當由政治領導者做出,這可以確保民主責任制。

5.公共利益被假定為公務員個人的惟一動機,為公眾服務是無私的付出。6.職業化官僚制。公共行政被看作是一種特殊活動,因而要求公務員保持中立、默默無聞、終身雇用以及平等地服務于任何一個政治領導人。

7.行政任務的書面含義是執行他人的指令而不承擔由此而致的個人責任。通過對比早期的行政模式,我們可以更好地理解韋伯體系的主要優點和不同點。韋伯制度和它以前的各種模式最重要的區別在于:以規則為基礎的非人格化的制度取代了人格化的行政管理制度。一個組織及其規則要比組織中的任何個人都重要。官僚制度就其運作以及如何對客戶做出反應方面必須是非人格化的。正如韋伯所論證的那樣“:將現代公職管理歸并為各種規定深深地觸及了它的本質。現代公共行政理論認為,以法令形式來命令執行某些事務的權威已被合法地授予了公共機關。這并沒有授予某機構具體情況下通過指令實施某種事務的權力。它只能是抽象地管制某種事務。與此形成鮮明對比的是,通過個人特權和賦予特許權管制所有事務。后者的情況完全是由世襲制支配的,至少就這些事務不是不可 3 被侵犯的傳統而言是這種情況。”

這一點非常重要。早期的行政管理以人際關系為基礎,個人要忠誠于親戚、保護人、領導人或政黨,而不是對體制負責。有時,早期行政管理在政治上是比較敏感的,因為行政機關的人員是任命的,他們更是政客的臂膀或主流階級。但是,它也常常是專制的,專制的行政可能是不公平的,特別是對那些不能夠或者不愿意投入個人政治游戲的人來說更是如此。一個以韋伯原則為基礎的非人格化的制度可以完全消除專制——至少在理想情況下是如此。檔案的存在、前例原則的參照和法律依據意味著在相同的環境中總是會做出相同的決策。在這種情況下不僅效率更高,而且公民和官僚等級制中的人員都知道自己所處的立場。

其他的差別均與此相聯系。在各種規定和非人格化的基礎上,會很自然地形成嚴格的等級制度。等級制度及其規定在個人離開組織后保持不變。雖然韋伯強調的是整個制度,但他也注意到了官僚制組織中的個人任期和條件。

傳統行政模式獲得了極大的成功,它為全世界各國政府所廣泛采用。無論是從理論上還是從實踐上看,它都顯示出了優勢。與以前腐敗盛行的制度相比,它更具效率,而且職業化公務員的思想對個人以及業余服務都是一個巨大的進步。然而,該模式現在也暴露出了問題,這些問題表明該模式即使不能說已經過時了,也可以說即將過時。

公共行政的理論支柱已經難以描述政府現實了。政治控制理論已經問題重重。行政意味著遵從他人的指令,因此要求有一個秩序井然的收發方法。指令的發出者與實施者之間有一個明確的劃分。但是這并不現實,并且隨著公共服務規模和領域的擴大而愈加不可能。傳統模式的另一理論支柱——官僚制理論也不再被認為是組織的特別有效形式。正式的官僚體制可能有它的優勢,但人們也認為它往往培養墨守成規者而不是創新者;鼓勵行政人員規避風險而不是勇于冒險,鼓勵他們浪費稀缺資源而不是有效利用。韋伯曾把官僚制看成是“理想類型”,但現在這種理想類型卻培養了惰性、喪失進取心、導致平庸和低效率,這些被認為是公共部門的特有病。它也由此遭受批評。實際上“,官僚”這個詞在今天更多地被看成是低效率的同義詞。

三、新公共管理模式

20世紀八九十年代,在公共部門出現了一種針對傳統行政模式的缺陷的新 管理方法。這種方法可以緩解傳統模式的某些問題,同時也意味著公共部門運轉方面發生了引人注目的變化。這種新的管理方法有很多名稱“:管理主義”、“新公共管理”“、以市場為基礎的公共行政”“、后官僚制典范”或“企業型政府”。到90年代后期,人們越來越傾向于使用“新公共管理”的概念。

盡管新公共管理的名稱眾多,但對于公共部門管理發生的實際變化而言,人們還是有一種共識。第一,無論這種模式叫什么,它都代表著一種與傳統公共行政不同的重大變化,它更為關注結果的實現和管理者的個人責任。第二,它明確表示要擺脫古典官僚制,從而使組織、人事、任期和條件更加靈活。第三,它明確規定了組織和人事目標,這就可以根據績效指標測量工作任務的完成情況。同樣,還可以對計劃方案進行更為系統的評估,也可以比以前更為嚴格地確定政府計劃是否實現了其預定目標。第四,高級行政管理人員更有可能帶有政治色彩地致力于政府工作,而不是無黨派或中立的。第五,政府更有可能受到市場的檢驗,將公共服務的購買者與提供者區分開,即將“掌舵者與劃槳者區分開”。政府介入并不一定總是指政府通過官僚手段行事。第六,出現了通過民營化和市場檢驗、簽訂合同等方式減少政府職能的趨勢。在某種情況下,這是根本性的。一旦發生了從過程向結果轉化的重要變革,所有與此相連的連續性步驟就都是必要的。

霍姆斯(Holmes)和尚德(Shand)對這次改革的特點作了一個特別有用的概括。他們把新公共管理視作范式,這種好的管理方法具有以下特點:(1)這是一種更加富有戰略性或結構導向型的決策方法(強調效率、結果和服務質量)。(2)分權式管理環境取代了高度集中的等級組織結構。這使資源分配和服務派送更加接近供應本身,由此可以得到更多相關的信息和來自客戶及其他利益團體的反饋。(3)可以更為靈活地探索代替直接供應公共產品的方法,從而提供成本節約的政策結果。(4)關注權威與責任的對應,以此作為提高績效的關鍵環節,這包括強調明確的績效合同的機制。(5)在公共部門之間和內部創造一個競爭性的環境。(6)加強中央戰略決策能力,使其能夠迅速、靈活和低成本地駕馭政府對外部變化和多元利益做出反應。(7)通過要求提供有關結果和全面成本的報告來提高責任度和透明度。(8)寬泛的服務預算和管理制度支持和鼓勵著這些變化的發生。

新公共管理并沒有認為實現某結果有一條最好的途徑。管理者在被賦予責任之前并沒有被告知如何獲得結果。決定工作方式是管理者的一個職責,如果沒有 5 實現預定的目標,管理者對此應當承擔責任。

四、結論

政府管理在過去的一百五十年里經歷了三種模式。首先是人格化或前現代行政模式,當該模式日益暴露其缺陷以及出于提高效率的目的,它就被第二種模式即傳統的官僚行政模式所取代。同樣,當傳統行政模式問題重重時,它就為第三種模式即新公共管理取代,從政府轉向替代性市場。20世紀80年代以來,市場的主導地位就如同20世紀20年代到60年代官僚制度居主導地位一樣。在任何一種政府制度中,官僚和市場都是共存的,只是在某個階段一種形式占主導地位,而在另一階段,另一種形式占主導地位。新公共管理時代是官僚制日益削弱而市場在公共行政領域占據統治地位的時期。

在現實中,市場和官僚體制相互需要,相互補充。新公共管理不可能完全代替官僚制,正如1989年以前的東歐,官僚制不可能代替市場一樣。但新公共管理運動表明的是,早期傳統官僚制的許多功能都可以而且現在經常由市場來執行。在一個官僚制作為組織原則日益削弱的環境下,市場解決方案就會被推出。當然不是所有的市場藥方都能成功,但這不是問題的核心。政府將從新公共管理這一工具箱中探尋到解決方案。如果這些方案行之無效,政府就會從同一來源中尋找其他方案。政府管理背后的理論基礎已經發生了變革,我們完全可以用“范式”這一術語來描述它。在公共行政學術界,有許多對新公共管理持否定態度的批評家。但是他們的批評對迅速開展的政府改革影響很小。在新公共管理模式之后,會出現另一種新的模式,但肯定不會回到傳統的行政模式。The New Public Management Situation

Owen E.Hughes Monash University Management(Australia)

No doubt, many countries in the world, and both developed countries and developing countries, in the late 1980s and early 1990s began a continuous public sector management reform movement.The reform movement is still in many aspects government continue to the organization and management of the influence.People in these reforms view repudiating them.Critics especially in Britain and the United States, critics say the new mode of various problems exist, but also does not have the international prevailing reform of public management, could not be called paradigm.Criticism from almost every aspect of the change.Most of the academic criticism belong to the mouth.Different schools of thought in detail discussion, The academic journal articles and abstraction, from reality.At the same time, in the practice of public management and implementation of the reform and the change.As I in other articles in the thought, in most countries, the traditional public administrative mode for public management mode has been replaced.The reform of public department responded to the realities of several interrelated problems, including: the function of public sector provide public services of low efficiency, Economic theory of change, Private sector related changes impact of globalization, especially as a kind of economic power, Technology changes made decentralization and better control globally becomes possible.The administrative management can be divided into three stages: the development of distinct phases, and public administration before traditional pattern and public management reform stage.Each stage has its own management mode.From a stage of transition to the next stage is not easy, from the traditional public administration to public administration has not yet completed the transition.But it was only a matter of time.Because the new mode of theoretical basis is very strong.The new public management movement “, ”although this name, but it is not only a debate in the booming, and in most developed countries have taken the best management mode of expression.The traditional administrative mode than it's age is a great reform, but that time has passed.A traditional pattern Obviously, in the late 19th century bureaucracy system theory, not sound already exists some form of administrative management.Public administration has a long history, and it is the concept of a government and the rise of civilization as history.As the case Glad2den Osama bin laden(point), a model of administrative since the government appears has existed.First is endowed with founder or leader, then is the social or administrative person to organizers of eternity.Administration management or business is all in social activities, although not among factors, but the glow of social sustainable development is of vital importance.Recognized administrative system in ancient Egypt is already exists, its jurisdiction from the Nile flooding caused by the year to build the pyramids irrigation affairs.China is adopted in the han dynasty, Confucian norms that government should be elected, not according to the background, but according to the character and ability, the government's main goal is to seek the welfare of the people.In Europe, various empirebegan to establish in China, although the system has long passage.The traditional public administrative pattern In the late 19th century, additionally one kind of pattern on the world popular, this is the so-called traditional administrative pattern.Its main theoretical basis from several countries, namely, the American scholars and Germany Woodrow Wilson of Max Weber's, people put their associated with bureaucracy model, Frederick Tyler systematically elaborated the scientific management theory, the theory of the private sector from America, for public administration method was provided.And the other theorists, Taylor without focusing on public sector, but his theory was influential in this field.The three traditional public administration mode is theorist of main effect.In other countries, plus G..M.Trevelyan and North America, the state administration of administrative system, especially the Wilson has produced important influence.In the 19th century, the north G..M.Trevelyan and put forward through the examination and character, and appointed officials put forward bias and administrative neutral point of view.The traditional administrative pattern has the following features: 1.The bureaucracy.The government shall, according to the principle of bureaucratic rank and organization.The German sociologist Max Weber bureaucracy system of a classic, and analysis.Although the bureaucracy in business organizations and other tissues, but it is in the public sector got better and longer.2.The best way of working and procedures are in full manual detail codes, for administrative personnel to follow.Strictly abide by these principles will run for the organization provides the best way.3.Bureaucratic service.Once the government policy areas in, it will be through the bureaucracy to provide public products and service providers.4.In political and administrative two relations, political and administrative managers generally think of administrative affairs can be separated.Administration is the implement instruction, and any matter policy or strategic affairs shall be decided by the political leaders, which can ensure that the democratic system.5.Public interests are assumed to individual civil servants, the only motive for public service is selfless paying.6.Professional bureaucracy.Public administration is viewed as a kind of special activities, thus requirements, obscure, civil servants neutral equal employment and lifelong service to any political leaders.7.The administrative task is to carry out the meaning of the written instructions and not others assume the personal responsibility.Through the comparison of the early administrative pattern, we can better understand the main advantages and Webber system differences.Webber system and it is the most important mode of various before the difference: the rule-based impersonal system replaced the personification of administrative management system.An organization and its rules than any of the people are important organization.Bureaucracy is its operation and how to respond to customer must is personified.As Weber has demonstrated that the modern office management “, will be incorporated into various regulations deeply touched it.The modern public administration by law theory, to command certain affairs authority has been awarded the legitimate public authority.This does not grant an institution specific cases through some instructions.It only matters is abstractly control some issues.In contrast, through personal privileges and give concession regulation of all affairs.The latter is completely dominated by the hereditary system, at least these affairs is not the traditional infringement is this situation.” It is very important.Early administration based on personal relationships, be loyal to relatives, protect, leaders or political, rather than on the system.Sometimes, the early administration is politically sensitive, because of the administrative organs of the staff is appointed, they also politicians arms or mainstream class.However, it is often autocratic, autocratic administration may be unfair, especially for those who can't or unwilling to input personal and political game.One of the basic principles for with weber impersonal system to completely eliminate autocraticbureaucracy theory is no longer considered particularly effective form of organization.Formal bureaucracy could have its advantages, but people think it often training to routineer and innovators, Encourage executives rather than risk aversion risk-taking, encourage them to waste instead of effective use of scarce resources.Webb was the bureaucracy is regarded as an ideal type “, ”but now this ideal type is inert, cultivate the progressive, leads to low efficiency, these mediocrity and is believed to be the public sector of the special disease.It is also criticized.Actually, the word “bureaucracy in today's more likely as low efficiency of synonyms.The new public management mode In the 1980s, the public sector is a traditional administrative pattern of new management methods of defects.This method can alleviate some of the problems of traditional pattern, also means that the public sector operation aspects has changed significantly.The new management method has many names: management of ”individualism“, ”the new public administration“, based on the market of public administration ”, after the bureaucracy model “or” entrepreneurial government “.To the late 1990s, people tend to use ”and the concept of new public administration“.Although the new public management, but for many of the names of public management of department of actual changes happened, people still have a consensus.First, no matter what, it is called mode with traditional represents a significant change of public administration, different more attention and managers of the individual responsibility.Second, it is clear to get rid of the classical bureaucracy, thereby organization, personnel, term and conditions more flexible.Third, it stipulates the organization and personnel, and it can target according to the performance indicators measuring task completion.Also, to plan the assessment system for more than ever before, and also can be more strictly determine whether the government plans to achieve its objectives.Fourth, the senior executives are more likely to color with political government work, rather than independent or neutral.Fifth, the more likely the inspection by the market, buyers of public service provider and distinguish ”helmsman, with the rower to distinguish“.Government intervention is not always refers to the government by means of bureaucracy.Sixth, appeared through privatization and market means such as inspection, contract of government function reduce trend.In some cases, it is fundamental.Once happened during the transformation from the important changes to all connected with this, the continuity of the steps are necessary.Holmes and Shand as a useful characteristics of generalization.They put the new public management paradigm, the good as management method has the following features:(1)it is a more strategic or structure of decision-making method(around the efficiency, quality and service).(2)decentralization type management environment replaced concentration level structure.The resource allocation and service delivery closer to supply, we can get more itself from the customers and related information and other interest groups.(3)can be more flexible to replace the method of public products supply directly, so as to provide cost savings of the policy.(4)concerned with the responsibility, authority as the key link of improving performance, including emphasize clear performance contract mechanism.(5)in the public sector, and between internal to create a competitive environment.(6)strengthen the strategic decision-making ability, which can quickly, flexible and low cost to manage multiple interests outside change and the response.(7)by request relevant results and comprehensive cost reports to improve transparency and responsibility.(8)general service budget and management system to support and encourage the change.The new public management and realize a result that no one in the best way.Managers in endowed with responsibility and without being told to get results.Decision is a management job duties, if not for achieving goals, managers should assume responsibility.Conclusion The government management over the past 150 years experienced three modes.First is the personification of modern administrative mode, or when the pattern of its defects and increasingly exposed to improve efficiency, it is the second mode of traditional bureaucracy model is replaced.Similarly, when the traditional administrative mode problems, it is the third model is the new public management, from the government to alternative market.Since 1980s, the dominance of the market as the 1920s to 1960s dominant bureaucracy.In any kind of government, market and bureaucratic system are coexisting, just a form at some stage dominant, and in another stage of another kind of form, the dominant.The new public management is increasingly weakened and bureaucracy in the public administration field market dominant period.In reality, the market and bureaucracy, mutual complement each other.The new public management may not be completely replace the bureaucracy, as in 1989, the eastern Europe before bureaucracy could not instead of the market.But the new public management movement is early traditional bureaucracy, many functions can be and often by market now.In a bureaucracy system for organizational principle is weakened environment, market solutions will be launched.Of course not all market prescription can succeed, but this is not the issue.The government of new public management will be a toolbox dowsed solutions.If the scheme of the ineffective, the government will from the same source for other solutions.The theory behind the government management has already happened, we can use the term ”paradigm" to describe it.In public administration academia, many of the new public management denial of critics.But their criticism of the government reform quickly.In the new public management mode, another a kind of new mode, but certainly not returned to the traditional administrative pattern.

第四篇：土木工程畢業論文摘要(中英文)

摘要

隨著社會經濟的不斷發展，房地產的開發處于上升空間。伴隨而來的是人們對商業用房、住宅越來越高的要求，這主要表現在環境、經濟、功能和舒服度等方面。所以現在對項目編制者來說有了更高的要求。工程項目的開發一般分為項目前期計劃階段，項目實施階段和項目竣工交付使用段。在編制項目策劃書過程中，我們要詳細介紹這三個階段考慮的問題以及解決方案。項目的前期策劃主要是識別項目的需要，確定項目的方向，對項目作出決策，是項目的孕育階段。工程項目前期策劃過程中可以按以下方法：項目構思的產生和選擇、項目目標設計和項目定義、可行性研究、評價和決策。同時在這個階段中對項目實施的成本和工期有一定的計劃。項目實施階段是把平面實現立體復雜的過程，里面包含了項目的管理模式和技術要領。確立這些關鍵性的事物才能高效的實現目標。項目實施過程中主要考慮到工程進度控制、工程成本控制以及工程項目質量管理。最后，項目經過各方驗收達到標準以后交付使用。在接下去的章節中詳細項目策劃書的各個過程。

關鍵字：項目概況；項目計劃；工作目標；成本控制；工作程序；工程管理；

Abstract

With the continuous development of the socio-economic, the real estate development is raising space.Accompanied by the pursuit of commercial buildings, residential increasing, this was reflected in the environmental, economic, functional and comfortable degree.So now,on project preparation for higher requirements.Project development generally divided into pre-project planning phase, the project implementation stage and project complete consign is used section.In the process of compiling project planning book, we will detail the three stage considering problems and solutions.The planning stage of the project is to identify the needs of the project, to determine the direction of the project, to make decisions on the project, is a nascent stage of the project.Project early in the planning process by the following methods: idea generation and selection of the project, the design of the project objectives and the project definition, feasibility study, evaluation and decision-making.At the same time in the stages of project implementation cost and time limit for a project has a certain plan.The project implementation phase plane dimensional complex process, contains the project management mode and technical main point.We establish these critical things to achieve goals efficiently.In the process of project implementation main consideration to project progress control, engineering cost control and project quality management.Finally, project delivered after the acceptance of all parties to achieve the standard.Project planning book described in detail in the next chapter.Key words：Project Overview；Project plan；Work target； Cost control；Working procedures； Project management；

第五篇：室內設計中英文翻譯【適用于畢業論文外文翻譯】

畢業設計英文資料翻譯

Translation of the English Documents for Graduation Design

課題名稱

院（系）專 業 姓 名 學 號 起訖日期 指導教師

2011 年 02 月 20 日

Interior Design

Susan Yelavich

Interior design embraces not only the decoration and furnishing of space, but also considerations of space planning, lighting, and programmatic issues pertaining to user behaviors, ranging from specific issues of accessibility to the nature of the activities to be conducted in the space.The hallmark of interior design today is a new elasticity in typologies, seen most dramatically in the domestication of commercial and public spaces.Interior design encompasses both the programmatic planning and physical treatment of interior space: the projection of its use and the nature of its furnishings and surfaces, that is, walls, floors, and ceilings.Interior design is distinguished from interior decoration in the scope of its purview.Decorators are primarily concerned with the selection of furnishings, while designers integrate the discrete elements of décor into programmatic concerns of space and use.Interior designers generally practice collaboratively with architects on the interiors of spaces built from the ground up, but they also work independently, particularly in the case of renovations.There is also a strong history of architect-designed interiors, rooted in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, the total work of art, that came out of the Arts & Crafts movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.It is no accident that its strongest proponents(from Frank Lloyd Wright to Mies van der Rohe)extended their practices to include the realm of interiors during the nascency of the interior-design profession.Indeed, it was a defensive measure taken by architects who viewed formal intervention by an interior decorator or designer as a threat to the integrity of their aesthetic.Today, apart from strict modernists like Richard Meier who place a premium on homogeneity, architects who take on the role of interior designer(and their numbers are growing)are more likely to be eclectic in philosophy and practice, paralleling the twenty-first century's valorization of plurality.Nonetheless, the bias against interior designers and the realm

of the interior itself continues to persist.Critical discussions of the interior have been hampered by its popular perception as a container of ephemera.Furthermore, conventional views of the interior have been fraught with biases: class biases related to centuries-old associations with tradesmen and gender biases related to the depiction of the decorating profession as primarily the domain of women and gay men.As a result, the credibility of the interior as an expression of cultural values has been seriously impaired.However, the conditions and the light in which culture-at-large is understood are changing under the impact of globalization.The distinctions between “high” culture and “low” culture are dissipating in a more tolerant climate that encourages the cross-fertilization between the two poles.Likewise, there are more frequent instances of productive borrowings among architecture, design, and decoration, once considered exclusive domains.And while the fields of architecture, interior design, and interior decoration still have different educational protocols and different concentrations of emphasis, they are showing a greater mutuality of interest.Another way to think of this emergent synthesis is to substitute the triad of “architecture, interior design, and decoration” with “modernity, technology, and history.” One of the hallmarks of the postmodern era is a heightened awareness of the role of the past in shaping the present.In the interior, this manifests itself in a renewed interest in ornament, in evidence of craft and materiality, and in spatial complexities, all running parallel to the ongoing project of modernity.Even more significantly, there is a new elasticity in typologies.Today, the traditional typologies of the interior—house, loft, office, restaurant, and so on—strain to control their borders.Evidence of programmatic convergences can clearly be seen in public and commercial spaces that aspire to be both more user-friendly and consumer-conscious.Growing numbers of private hospitals(in competition for patients)employ amenities and form languages inspired by luxury spas;at the same time, many gyms and health clubs are adopting the clinical mien of medical facilities to convince their clients of the value of their services.The same relaxation of interior protocols can be seen in offices that co-opt the informal, live-work ethic of the artist's loft, and in hotels that use the language(and contents)of galleries.Similarly, increasing numbers of grocery stores and bookstores include spaces and furniture for eating and socializing.Likewise, there is a new comfort with stylistic convergences in interiors that appropriate and recombine disparate quotations from design history.These are exemplified in spaces such as Rem Koolhaas' Casa da Musica(2005)in Porto, Portugal(with its inventive use of traditional Portuguese tiles), and Herzog & de Meuron's Walker Art Center(2005)in Minneapolis, Minnesota(where stylized acanthus-leaf patterns are used to mark gallery entrances).These interiors make an art out of hybridism.They do not simply mix and match period furnishings and styles, but refilter them through a contemporary lens.Another hallmark of the contemporary interior is the overt incorporation of narrative.Tightly themed environments persist in retail spaces such as Ralph Lauren's clothing stores and in entertainment spaces like Las Vegas casinos.However, a more playful and less linear approach to narrative is increasingly common.Of all the typologies of the interior, the residence has been least affected by change, apart from ephemeral trends such as outdoor kitchens and palatial bathrooms.However, the narrative of the residence dominates interior design at large.It has become the catalyst for rethinking a host of spaces once firmly isolated from it, ranging from the secretary's cubicle, to the nurse's station, to the librarian's reading room.Considerations such as the accommodation of personal accessories in the work space, the use of color in hospitals, and the provision of couches in libraries are increasingly common, to cite just three examples.The domestication of such environments(with curtains and wallpaper, among other residential elements)provides more comfort, more reassurance, and more pleasure to domains formerly defined by institutional prohibitions and social exclusions.Unquestionably, these changes in public and commercial spaces are indebted to the liberation movements of the late 1960s.The battles fought against barriers of race, class, gender, and physical ability laid the groundwork for a larger climate of hospitality and accommodation.It is also possible to detect a wholly other agenda in the popularity of the residential model.The introduction of domestic amenities into commercial spaces, such as recreation spaces in office interiors, can also be construed as part of a wider attempt to put a more acceptable face on the workings of free-market capitalism.In this view, interior design dons the mask of entertainment.There is nothing new about the charade.Every interior is fundamentally a stage set.Nor is it particularly insidious—as long as the conceit is transparent.Danger surfaces，however, when illusion becomes delusion—when design overcompensates for the realities of illness with patronizing sentiment, or when offices become surrogate apartments because of the relentless demands of a round-the-clock economy.In these instances, design relinquishes its potential to transform daily life in favor of what amounts to little more than a facile re-branding of space.Another force is driving the domestication of the interior and that is the enlarged public awareness of design and designers.There is a growing popular demand for design as amenity and status symbol, stimulated by the proliferation of shelter magazines, television shows devoted to home decorating, and the advertising campaigns of commercial entities such as Target and Ikea.In the Western world, prosperity, combined with the appetite of the media, has all but fetishized the interior, yielding yet another reflection of the narcissism of a consumer-driven society.On the one hand, there are positive, democratic outcomes of the growing public profile of design that can be seen in the rise of do-it-yourself web sites and enterprises like Home Depot that emphasize self-reliance.It can also be argued, more generally, that the reconsideration of beauty implicit in the valorization of design is an ameliorating social phenomenon by virtue of its propensity to inspire improvement.On the other hand, the popularization of interior design through personas such as Philippe Starck, Martha Stewart, and Barbara Barry has encouraged a superficial understanding of the interior that is more focused on objects than it is on behaviors and interactions among objects.For all the recent explosion of interest in interior design, it remains, however, a fundamentally conservative arena of design, rooted as it is in notions of enclosure, security, and comfort.This perception has been exacerbated by the growth of specialized practices focused, for example, on healthcare and hospitality.While such firms offer deep knowledge of the psychology, mechanics, and economies of particular environments, they also perpetuate distinctions that hinder a more integral approach to the interior as an extension of architecture and even the landscape outside.One notable exception is the growth of design and architecture firms accruing expertise in sustainable materials and their applications to the interior.At the same time that design firms are identifying themselves with sustainability and promoting themselves as environmentalists, a movement is building to incorporate environmental responsibility within normative practice.Over the past four decades, efforts have intensified to professionalize the field of interior design and to accord it a status equal to that of architecture.In the US and Canada the Council for Interior Design Accreditation, formerly known as FIDER, reviews interior design education programs at colleges and universities to regulate standards of practice.Furthermore, the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design(ICSID)embraces interior design within its purview, defining it as part of “intellectual profession, and not simply a trade or a service for enterprises.”

Yet, the education of interior designers remains tremendously variable, with no uniformity of pedagogy.Hence, interior design continues to be perceived as an arena open to the specialist and the amateur.This perception is indicative of both the relatively short history of the profession itself and the broader cultural forces of inclusion and interactivity that mark a global society.原文來源：

Board of International Research in Design，Design Dictionary Perspectives on Design Terminology，Birkh?user Verlag AG 2008