第一篇：本科畢業設計(論文)外文翻譯基本規范

本科畢業設計（論文）外文翻譯基本規范

一、要求

1、與畢業論文分開單獨成文。

2、兩篇文獻。

二、基本格式

1、文獻應以英、美等國家公開發表的文獻為主（Journals from English speaking countries）。

2、畢業論文翻譯是相對獨立的，其中應該包括題目、作者（可以不翻譯）、譯文的出處（雜志的名稱）（5號宋體、寫在文稿左上角）、關鍵詞、摘要、前言、正文、總結等幾個部分。

3、文獻翻譯的字體、字號、序號等應與畢業論文格式要求完全一致。

4、文中所有的圖表、致謝及參考文獻均可以略去，但在文獻翻譯的末頁標注：圖表、致謝及參考文獻已略去(見原文)。（空一行，字體同正文）

5、原文中出現的專用名詞及人名、地名、參考文獻可不翻譯，并同原文一樣在正文中標明出處。

二、畢業論文（設計）外文翻譯

（一）畢業論文（設計）外文翻譯的內容要求

外文翻譯內容必須與所選課題相關，外文原文不少于6000個印刷符號。譯文末尾要用外文注明外文原文出處。

原文出處：期刊類文獻書寫方法：[序號]作者（不超過3人，多者用等或et al表示）.題（篇）名[J].刊名（版本）,出版年，卷次（期次）：起止頁次.原文出處：圖書類文獻書寫方法：[序號]作者.書名[M].版本.出版地：出版者,出版年.起止頁次.原文出處：論文集類文獻書寫方法：[序號]作者.篇名[A].編著者.論文集名

[C].出版地：出版者，出版年.起止頁次。

要求有外文原文復印件。

（二）畢業論文（設計）外文翻譯的撰寫與裝訂的格式規范

第一部分：封面

1.封面格式:見“畢業論文（設計）外文翻譯封面”。普通A4紙打印即可。第二部分：外文翻譯主題

1.標題

一級標題，三號字，宋體，頂格，加粗

二級標題，四號字，宋體，頂格，加粗

三級標題，小四號字，宋體，頂格，加粗

2.正文

小四號字，宋體。

第三部分：版面要求

論文開本大小：210mm×297mm（A4紙）

版芯要求：左邊距：25mm，右邊距：25mm，上邊距：30mm，下邊距：25mm，頁眉邊距：23mm，頁腳邊

距：18mm

字符間距：標準

行距：1.25倍

頁眉頁角：頁眉的奇數頁書寫—浙江師范大學學士學位論文外文翻譯。頁眉的偶數頁書寫—外文翻譯

題目。在每頁底部居中加頁碼。（宋體、五號、居中）

裝訂順序是：封皮、中文翻譯、英文原文復印件。

第二篇：建筑學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

本科畢業設計外文翻譯 題目： 德黑蘭城市發展

學 院: 專 業: 學 號: 學生姓名: 指導教師:

城市建設學院 建筑學

日 期: 二零一一年六月

First Chapter：Development of the city of Tehran

Ali Madanipour 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

Tehran :the making of a metropolis，First Chapter：Development of the city of Tehran，Ali Madanipour，ISBN：0471957798，Press： New York John Wiley，1998，page five to page eleven。

第一章：德黑蘭市的發展

阿里.馬丹妮普爾

德黑蘭：一個大都市的建造，第一章：德黑蘭市的發展，阿里.馬丹妮普爾，書號：0471957798，紐約John Wiley出版社，1998，第五頁到第十一頁。

德黑蘭市的發展

全市已長成了一定的規模性和復雜性，以這樣的程度，空間管理需要另外的手段來處理城市組織和不斷發展的復雜性，并為城市總體規劃做準備。

第二次世界大戰后，在盟軍占領國家的期間，有一個時期的民主化，在冷戰時開始的政治緊張局勢之后，它們互相斗爭對石油的控制權。這個時期已經結束于1953年，結果 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

是由政變產生了伊朗王，那個后來擔任了25年的行政君主的人。隨著高出生率和農村向城市遷移，德黑蘭和其他大城市增長加劇甚至比以前更快地。到1956年，德黑蘭的人口上升到150萬，到了1966至300萬，1976至450萬，其規模也從1934年46平方公里到1976年的250平方公里。

從石油行業的收入增長創造的盈余資源，需要流通和經濟的吸收。50年代中期，特別是在工業化的驅動下德黑蘭許多大城市有了新工作。20世紀60年代的土地改革釋放了大量來自農業的農村人口，這是不能吸收的指數人口增長。這種新的勞動力被吸引到城市：到新的產業，到似乎始終蓬勃發展建筑界，去服務不斷增長公共部門和官僚機構。德黑蘭的角色是國家的行政，經濟，文化中心，它堅定而鞏固地通往外面的世界。德黑蘭戰后的城市擴張，是在管制、私營部門的推動，投機性的發展下進行的。房屋一直供不應求，并有大量可用的富余勞動力和資本，因此在德黑蘭建筑行業蓬勃發展，土地和財產的價格不斷上漲。這個城市成長為一個在某種意義上道路對外脫節的，城鎮和鄉村一體化的，郊區不斷增長的新的定居點。這加強了社會的孤立性，破壞了郊區的花園和綠地，并使城市管理者的感到無能為力。1962年一位副市長在德黑蘭表示：“建筑物和居民點已經滿足人們所想要的無論何處何種樣子”，創造了一個“事實上城鎮相互連接的方式不當”的城市（Nafisi, 1964,第426頁）。有許多事情迫切需要做，但市政府并沒有法律上或經濟上有能力處理這進程。

1966年市政法第一次規定了城規最高委員會的法律體制和土地利用規劃公司的綜合計劃。還有他一系列法律，以支持德黑蘭市的新的法律和體制安排，使住房和其他管理工作在城市中發展起來。最重要的一步是策劃的德黑蘭綜合計劃于1968年被批準。它是由一個伊朗規劃師Fereydun Ghaffari領導下的美國的Victor Gruen和伊朗的Aziz Farmanfarmaian所共同產生的（Ardalan，1986）。該計劃確定的城市的問題是：城市密度過高特別是城市中心、主要道路沿線商業活動的膨脹、污染、不完善的基礎設施，貧困地區廣泛的失業和低收入群體不斷地遷移到德黑蘭。解決的辦法是城市自然社會和經濟結構的轉型。(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).不過該提案大多主張形態上的變化，試圖強調一個現代化的理念，強加這個復雜的都市的秩序。設想這個城市的未來可向西形成一個線性多中心的形式，減少密度和市中心的擠塞情況。全市將形成10個地區，其他各區由綠化帶隔開，每個地區約50萬居民，并設置擁有高樓的商業及工業中心。各個地區（mantagheh）將分為若干區域（nahyeh）和社區（mahalleh）。每個區域人口約1.5到3萬，有一所中學和商業中心以及其他必要設施。每個社區有大約5000居民，有一所小學和一個當地的商業中心。這些地區和區域將有相連的交通運輸網絡，包括高速公路，捷運路線及巴士路線。過境路線的站點會迅速發展為活動度高居住密度高的節點。重建及改善計劃中將有60萬人離開中心地區(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).。

幾乎所有這些措施可以追溯到那個擁有時尚規劃理念的時代，這主要是受英國新城鎮的影響。在Victor Gruen的《我們城市的心臟》（1965）書中，曾設想未來的中心大 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

都市會由10個城市包圍，每個國家都有它自己的中心。這很像Ebenezer Howard’s（1960年，第142頁）提到的，那個四周被園林城市群包圍著的中心城市：“社會的城市”。在德黑蘭的規劃中，這一概念的直譯版被使用。另一個在英國新城鎮被使用的概念，比如Redditch和 Runcorn，是把公共交通路線作為城市的骨架的重要性，其停車點是它的重點服務中心。使用鄰里中心和小學來限制鄰里單元人口，這被廣泛應用于這些新市鎮，這是一個曾在20世紀20年代在美國發展的想法(Mumford, 1954)。這些思想依然存在，但是，主要是在紙面上。該計劃已執行，已在美國城市規劃中有根深蒂固的想法，包括了用高速公路網的不斷延伸去連接城市的脫節部分;在不同地區的社會管理和物理性質的基礎上進行區劃;引進容積率的控制發展的密度。

在20世紀70年代進行的其他主要規劃工作包括Shahrak Gharb的局部發展新城鎮，以及Shahestan依照英國顧問Llewelyn–Davies提出的規劃新的城市行政中心，雖然這被當做正在上升的革命浪潮后來從未實施過。

革命和后革命時期可分為三個階段：革命（1979-1988年），重建（1989-1996年）和改革（1997-2004），每個都展示了德黑蘭城市規劃中不同的做法。

德黑蘭和其他城市經過兩年大量實證，1979年有代表性的是一個革命的到來推翻了伊朗君主，由議會共和制和神父統治的不穩定結合所取代。其原因可以追溯到在國王的發展模式導致了許多沖突，現代與傳統，經濟發展與政治發展，全球市場力量和地方資產階級力量，外國勢力和民族主義，腐敗和自滿中堅分子與不滿的群眾。像1906年的革命一樣，許多隱藏意見的累積使1979的革命成為可能。在第一次革命，維新已占了上風，而在第二次，傳統主義者贏得了領導。然而，無論革命的態度還是他們掌握政權之后的一系列重大問題，包括城市發展都顯示出現代化的偏好。從這個意義上講，該國的這兩個爆炸革命事件可以被看作是在動蕩中逐步轉型所作的努力（Madanipour，1998，2003）。革命是在與伊拉克長期戰爭（1980-1988）之后，其間停止了經濟的發展。在城市發展方面的投資減少，而農村地區和省城受到革命政府的青睞，同時遏制從農村向城市遷移并與大城市公平對待。在此期間主要規劃干預是對白天城市中心的私家車活動的限制。同時，戰爭和新政府的免費或低費用的設施，吸引了更多的人承諾向首都城市移民，到1986年人口達600萬。從20世紀50年代城市人口的增長速度已開始減慢，而直到80年代中期首都的增長都更快，但是它的增長率也開始下降（Khatam, 1993）。在革命和戰爭后，正常化和重建時期開始了，其中大部分持續到上世紀90年代。這期間見證了德黑蘭城市規劃的若干努力。但是沒有一個有效的框架來管理劇烈的城市發展。綜合計劃在革命后遭到攻擊，因為它被認為無法適應變化。1998年，市長批評它主要是形態上的發展規劃、植根于前政權的政治框架、并沒有足夠重視實際操作問題（Dehaghani，1995）。

綜合計劃的25年壽命在1991年結束。一個伊朗顧問公司（A-Tech）受委托于1985年籌備1986-1996期間的規劃。經過多次延遲，在1993年，該計劃最終被城市規劃高級理事會批準。該計劃還注重增長的管理和線性空間戰略，利用了城市區域，次區域，地 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

區，小區和鄰里尺度。它促進保護、權力下放、多中心發展，有五個衛星新市鎮，并發展住宅增加城市密度。該協會建議，城市在5個亞區中被劃分成22個區，每個區都擁有自己的服務中心（Shahrdari-e Tehran, 2004）。

1993年的計劃不受市政當局歡迎，不同意它的估價和優先次序，認為它不現實、昂貴、無法實施。1996-2001年期間市政當局自己做了一個戰略規劃，它被認為是德黑蘭市政的第一個規劃或是德黑蘭80。它強調對一個城市提出戰略和政策來實現他們的第一個規劃，而不是以介紹土地利用規劃為目標。它把城市的主要問題確定為能提供服務的資源短缺、城市發展模式和速度、環境污染、缺乏有效的公共交通工具、效率低下和官僚主義。然后市政府對城市的未來遠景概述了六個主要特征：一個清潔的城市，建設便于運動的城市公園和綠化帶，新的文化和體育設施，改革發展的城市組織，以及對城市空間的改善，包括土地利用和保護的全面和詳細的計劃的編制規劃(Shahrdari-e Tehran, 1996)。

全市實施了1968年的計劃中提出的一部分建議，諸如增加南方的綠色開放空間，或是興建高速公路網;開放城市的大部分地區使之得到新的發展以緩解全城的運作。繼承1993年計劃的意見，市政府放寬容積率限制，并允許熱鬧地帶有更高的密度。然而，這并非基于規劃的考慮，主要是為了使市政當局的財政獨立。這在發展產業區廣受歡迎，但受到公民的爭議。開發者可以通過向市政府繳納罰款建立更高的建筑物，而不必考慮對周圍環境的影響，這個政策俗稱“密度銷售”。該城市的面貌，特別是在其北部地區，是在短期內改變的，其中包括中通過寬闊的街道和高速公路連接高樓大廈。在較貧窮的南部，一個大型的重建項目Navab穿過密集而破舊的建筑物建造高速公路，建立龐大的上層建筑的各個方面。這個城市的行政邊界擴大了兩次，一次向外，一次向西，涵蓋了700平方公里的22個區市。

這個時期的重建爭議隨著民主的改革而產生，它重新啟動了城市市議會的選舉，這首先造成了市長和市政府關系的制度混亂。該會于2001年公布了自己的城市構想作為德黑蘭憲章，這總結了大會上安理會成員、非政府組織和市政專家之間原則上同意的問題。該憲章主要采納了可持續性和民主性原則，被用于開發自然和處理環境、交通、社會、文化、經濟問題、城市管理戰略、區域性城市，國家和國際角色。

Development of the city of Tehran The city had grown in size and complexity to such an extent thatits spatial managementneeded additional tools, which resulted in the growing complexity of municipalorganization, and in the preparation of a comprehensive plan for the city.After the Second World War, during which the Allied forces occupied the country, there was a period of democratization, followed by political tensions of the start of the cold war, 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

and struggles over the control of oil.This period was ended in 1953 by a coup detat that returned the Shah to power, who then acted as an executive monarch for the next 25 years.With high birth rates and an intensification of rural–urban migration, Tehran— and other large cities—grew even faster than before.By 1956, Tehran’s population rose to 1.5 million, by 1966 to 3 million, and by 1976 to 4.5 million;its size grew from 46 km2 in 1934 to 250 km2 in 1976(Kariman, 1976;Vezarat-e Barnameh va Budgeh, 1987).Revenues from the oil industry rose, creating surplus resources that needed to be circulated and absorbed in the economy.An industrialization drive from the mid-1950s created many new jobs in big cities, particularly in Tehran.The land reforms of the 1960s released large numbers of rural population from agriculture, which was not able to absorb the exponential demographic growth.This new labour force was attracted to cities: to the new industries, to the construction sector which seemed to be always booming, to services and the constantly growing public sector bureaucracy.Tehran’s role as the administrative, economic, and cultural centre of the country, and its gateway to the outside world, was firmly consolidated.Urban expansion in postwar Tehran was based on under-regulated, private-sector driven, speculative development.Demand for housing always exceeded supply, and a surplus of labor and capital was always available;hence the flourishing construction industry and the rising prices of land and property in Tehran.The city grew in a disjointed manner in all directions along the outgoing roads, integrating the surrounding towns and villages, and growing new suburban settlements.This intensified social segregation, destroyed suburban gardens and green spaces, and left the city managers feeling powerless.A deputy mayor of the city in 1962 commented that in Tehran, ‘‘the buildings and settlements have been developed by whomever has wanted in whatever way and wherever they have wanted’’, creating a city that was ‘‘in fact a number of towns connected to each other in an inappropriate way’’(Nafisi, 1964, p.426).There was a feeling that something urgently needed to be done, but the municipality was not legally or financially capable of dealing with this process.The 1966 Municipality Act provided, for the first time, a legal framework for the formation of the Urban Planning High Council and for the establishment of land-use planning in the form of comprehensive plans.A series of other laws followed, underpinning new legal and institutional arrangements for the Tehran municipality, allowing the Ministry of Housing and others to work together in managing the growth of the city.The most important step taken in planning was the approval of the Tehran Comprehensive Plan in 1968.It was produced by a consortium of Aziz Farmanfarmaian Associates of Iran and Victor Gruen Associates of the 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

United States, under the direction of Fereydun Ghaffari, an Iranian city planner(Ardalan, 1986).The plan identified the city’s problems as high density, especially in the city centre;expansion of commercial activities along the main roads;pollution;inefficient infrastructure;widespread unemployment in the poorer areas, and the continuous migration of low-income groups to Tehran.The solution was to be found in the transformation of the city’s physical, social and economic fabric(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).The proposals were, nevertheless, mostly advocating physical change, attempting, in a modernist spirit, to impose a new order onto this complex metropolis.The future of the city was envisaged to be growing westward in a linear polycentric form, reducing the density and congestion of the city centre.The city would be formed of 10 large urban districts, separated from each other by green belts,each with about 500,000 inhabitants, a commercial and an industrial centre with high-rise buildings.Each district(mantagheh)would be subdivided into a number of areas(nahyeh)and neighborhoods(mahalleh).An area, with a population of about 15–30,000, would have a high school and a commercial centre and other necessary facilities.A neighborhood, with its 5000 inhabitants, would have a primary school and a local commercial centre.These districts and areas would be linked by a transportation network, which included motorways, a rapid transit route and a bus route.The stops on the rapid transit route would be developed as the nodes for concentration of activities with a high residential density.A number of redevelopment and improvement schemes in the existing urban areas would relocate 600,000 people out of the central areas(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).Almost all these measures can be traced to the fashionable planning ideas of the time, which were largely influenced by the British New Towns.In his book, The Heart of Our Cities, Victor Gruen(1965)had envisaged the metropolis of tomorrow as a central city surrounded by 10 additional cities,each with its own centre.This resembled Ebenezer Howard’s(1960, p.142)‘‘social cities’’, in which a central city was surrounded by a cluster of garden cities.In Tehran’s plan, a linear version of this concept was used.Another linear concept, which was used in the British New Towns of the time such as Redditch and Runcorn, was the importance of public transport routes as the town’s spine, with its stopping points serving as its foci.The use of neighborhood units of limited population, focused on a neighborhood centre and a primary school, was widely used in these New Towns, an idea that had been developed in the 1920s in the United States(Mumford, 1954).These ideas remained, however, largely on paper.Some of the plan’s ideas that were implemented, which were rooted in American city planning, included a network of freeways to connect the disjointed 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

parts of the sprawling metropolis;zoning as the basis for managing the social and physical character of different areas;and the introduction of Floor Area Ratios for controlling development densities.Other major planning exercises, undertaken in the 1970s, included the partial development of a New Town, Shahrak Gharb, and the planning of a new administrative centre for the city—Shahestan—by the British consultants Llewelyn–Davies, although there was never time to implement the latter, as the tides of revolution were rising.Planning through policy development: reconstruction after the revolution and war The revolutionary and post-revolutionary period can be divided into three phases: revolution(1979–1988), reconstruction(1989–1996), and reform(1997–2004), each demonstrating different approaches to urban planning in Tehran.After two years of mass demonstrations in Tehran and other cities, the year 1979 was marked by the advent of a revolution that toppled the monarchy in Iran, to be replaced by a state which uneasily combined the rule of the clergy with parliamentary republicanism.Its causes can be traced in the shortcomings of the Shah’s model of development, which led to clashes between modernization and traditions, between economic development and political underdevelopment, between global market forces and local bourgeoisie, between foreign influence and nationalism, between a corrupt and complacent elite and discontented masses.Like the revolution of 1906, a coalition of many shades of opinion made the revolution of 1979 possible.In the first revolution, the modernizers had the upper hand, while in the second the traditionalists won the leadership.However, the attitudes of both revolutions—and the regimes that followed them—to a number of major issues, including urban development, show a preference for modernization.In this sense, both revolutions can be seen as explosive episodes in the country’s troubled efforts at progressive transformation(Madanipour, 1998, 2003).The revolution was followed by a long war(1980–1988)with Iraq, which halted economic development.Investment in urban development dwindled, while rural areas and provincial towns were favoured by the revolutionary government, both to curb rural–urban migration and to strike a balance with large cities.The key planning intervention in this period was to impose daytime restrictions on the movement of private cars in the city centre.Meanwhile, the war and the promise of free or low-cost facilities by the new government attracted more migrants to the capital city, its population reaching 6 million by 1986.The rate of population growth in the city had started to slow down from the 1950s, while the metropolitan region was growing faster until the mid-1980s, when its growth rate also started to decline(Khatam, 1993).After the revolution and war, a period of normalization and reconstruction started, which 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

lasted for most of the 1990s.This period witnessed a number of efforts at urban planning in Tehran.Once again, urban development had intensified without an effective framework to manage it.The comprehensive plan came under attack after the revolution, as it was considered unable to cope with change.In 1998, the Mayor criticized it for being mainly a physical development plan, for being rooted in the political framework of the previous regime, and for not paying enough attention to the problems of implementation(Dehaghani, 1995).The comprehensive plan’s 25-year lifespan came to an end in 1991.A firm of Iranian consultants(A-Tech)was commissioned in 1985 to prepare a plan for the period of 1986–1996.After much delay, it was only in 1993 that the plan was finally approved by the Urban Planning High Council.This plan also focused on growth management and a linear spatial strategy, using the scales of urban region, subregion, district, area and neighbourhood.It promoted conservation, decentralization, polycentric development, development of five satellite new towns, and increasing residential densities in the city.It proposed that the city be divided into 22 districts within five sub-regions, each with its own service centre(Shahrdari-e Tehran, 2004).The 1993 plan was not welcomed by the municipality, which disagreed with its assessments and priorities, finding it unrealistic, expensive, and impossible to implement.The municipality produced its own strategic plan for the period 1996–2001, known as Tehran Municipalty’s First Plan, or Tehran 80.Rather than introducing a land-use plan as its goal, this was the first plan for the city that emphasized a set of strategies and propose d policies to achieve them.It identified the city’s main problems as shortage of resources to deliver its services;the pace and pattern of urban growth;environmental pollution;the absence of effective public transport, and inefficient bureaucracy.The municipality’s vision for the future of the city was then outlined to have six major characteristics: a clean city, ease of movement in the city, the creation of parks and green spaces, the development of new cultural and sports facilities, reform of the municipal organization, and planning for the improvement of urban space, including preparation of comprehensive and detailed plans for land use and conservation(Shahrdari-e Tehran, 1996).The municipality implemented part of the proposals, such as increasing the amount of green open spaces in the south, or constructing new parts of the motorway network, which was proposed by the 1968 plan;opening large parts of the city to new development, and easing movement across the city.Following the advice of the 1993 plan, the municipality relaxed FAR limits and allowed higher densities through bonus zoning.This, however, was not based on planning considerations, but was mainly to bring financial autonomy to the municipality.This proved to be popular with the development industry, but controversial with citizens.Developers could build taller buildings by paying fines to the municipality, in a 武漢科技大學本科畢業設計外文翻譯

policy popularly known as ‘‘selling density’’, without having to show their impacts on the surrounding environment.The face of the city, particularly in its northern parts, was transformed in a short period, consisting of medium to high-rise buildings connected through wide streets and motorways.In the poorer south, a major redevelopment project, Navab, cut a motorway through the dense and decayed fabric, building gigantic superstructures on each side.The city’s administrative boundaries were expanded twice, once outward and then westward, to encompass 22 district municipalities in 700 km2.This controversial period of reconstruction was followed by a period of democratic reform, which re-launched an elected city council for the city, which at first caused institutional confusion about its relationship with the mayor and the municipality.The council published its own vision of the city as Tehran Charter in 2001, which was the summary of the principles agreed between council members, non-governmental organizations, and urban experts at a congress about the subject.The Charter adopted sustainability and democracy as its key principles, which were used to develop strategies for natural and built environments, transport, social, cultural and economic issues, urban management, and the city’s regional, national and international roles.

第三篇：畢業設計(論文)外文翻譯(原文)

畢業設計（論文）——外文翻譯（原文）

NEWAPPLICATIONOFDATABASE

Relational databases have been in use for over two decades.A large portion of the applications of relational databases have been in the commercial world, supporting such tasks as transaction processing for banks and stock exchanges, sales and reservations for a variety of businesses, and inventory and payroll for almost of all companies.We study several new applications, which have become increasingly important in recent years.First.Decision-support system

As the online availability of data has grown, businesses have begun to exploit the available data to make better decisions about increase sales.We can extract much information for decision support by using simple SQL queries.Recently however, people have felt the need for better decision support based on data analysis and data mining, or knowledge discovery, using data from a variety of sources.Database applications can be broadly classified into transaction processing and decision support.Transaction-processing systems are widely used today, and companies have accumulated a vast amount of information generated by these systems.The term data mining refers loosely to finding relevant information, or “discovering knowledge,” from a large volume of data.Like knowledge discovery in artificial intelligence, data mining attempts to discover statistical rules and patterns automatically from data.However, data mining differs from machine learning in that it deals with large volumes of data, stored primarily on disk.Knowledge discovered from a database can be represented by a set of rules.We can discover rules from database using one of two models:

In the first model, the user is involved directly in the process of knowledge discovery.In the second model, the system is responsible for automatically discovering knowledge from the database, by detecting patterns and correlations in the data.Work on automatic discovery of rules has been influenced strongly by work in the artificial-intelligence community on machine learning.The main differences lie in the volume of data handled in databases, and in the need to access disk.Specialized data-mining algorithms have been developed to handle large volumes of disk-resident data efficiently.The manner in which rules are discovered depends on the class of data-mining application.We illustrate rule discovery using two application classes: classification and associations.Second.Spatial and Geographic Databases

Spatial databases store information related to spatial locations, and provide support for efficient querying and indexing based on spatial locations.Two types of spatial databases are particularly important:

Design databases, or computer-aided-design(CAD)databases, are spatial databases used to store design information about how objects---such as buildings, cars or aircraft---are constructed.Other important examples of computer-aided-design databases are integrated-circuit and electronic-device layouts.Geographic databases are spatial databases used to store geographic information, such as maps.Geographic databases are often called geographic information systems.Geographic data are spatial in nature, but differ from design data in certain ways.Maps and satellite images are typical examples of geographic data.Maps may provide not only location information-such

as boundaries, rivers and roads---but also much more detailed information associated with locations, such as elevation, soil type, land usage, and annual rainfall.Geographic data can be categorized into two types: raster data(such data consist a bit maps or pixel maps, in two or more dimensions.), vector data(vector data are constructed from basic geographic objects).Map data are often represented in vector format.Third.Multimedia Databases

Recently, there has been much interest in databases that store multimedia data, such as images, audio, and video.Today multimedia data typically are stored outside the database, in files systems.When the number of multimedia objects is relatively small, features provided by databases are usually not important.Database functionality becomes important when the number of multimedia objects stored is large.Issues such as transactional updates, querying facilities, and indexing then become important.Multimedia objects often have descriptive attributes, such as those indicating when they were created, who created them, and to what category they belong.One approach to building a database for such multimedia objects is to use database for storing the descriptive attributes, and for keeping track of the files in which the multimedia objects are stored.However, storing multimedia outside the database makes it harder to provide database functionality, such as indexing on the basis of actual multimedia data content.It can also lead to inconsistencies, such a file that is noted in the database, but whose contents are missing, or vice versa.It is therefore desirable to store the data themselves in the database.Forth.Mobility and Personal Databases

Large-scale commercial databases have traditionally been stored in central computing facilities.In the case of distributed database applications, there has usually been strong central database and network administration.Two technology trends have combined to create applications in which this assumption of central control and administration is not entirely correct:

1.The increasingly widespread use of personal computers, and, more important, of laptop or “notebook” computers.2.The development of a relatively low-cost wireless digital communication infrastructure, base on wireless local-area networks, cellular digital packet networks, and other technologies.Wireless computing creates a situation where machines no longer have fixed locations and network addresses.This complicates query processing, since it becomes difficult to determine the optimal location at which to materialize the result of a query.In some cases, the location of the user is a parameter of the query.A example is a traveler’s information system that provides data on hotels, roadside services, and the like to motorists.Queries about services that are ahead on the current route must be processed based on knowledge of the user’s location, direction of motion, and speed.Energy(battery power)is a scarce resource for mobile computers.This limitation influences many aspects of system design.Among the more interesting consequences of the need for energy efficiency is the use of scheduled data broadcasts to reduce the need for mobile system to transmit queries.Increasingly amounts of data may reside on machines administered by users, rather than by database administrators.Furthermore, these machines may, at times, be disconnected from the network.Summary

Decision-support systems are gaining importance, as companies realize the value of the on-line data collected by their on-line transaction-processing systems.Proposed extensions to SQL, such as the cube operation, help to support generation of summary data.Data mining seeks to discover

knowledge automatically, in the form of statistical rules and patterns from large databases.Data visualization systems help humans to discover such knowledge visually.Spatial databases are finding increasing use today to store computer-aided design data as well as geographic data.Design data are stored primarily as vector data;geographic data consist of a combination of vector and raster data.Multimedia databases are growing in importance.Issues such as similarity-based retrieval and delivery of data at guaranteed rates are topics of current research.Mobile computing systems have become common, leading to interest in database systems that can run on such systems.Query processing in such systems may involve lookups on server database.畢業設計（論文）——外文翻譯（譯文）

數據庫的新應用

我們使用關系數據庫已經有20多年了，關系數據庫應用中有很大一部分都用于商業領域支持諸如銀行和證券交易所的事務處理、各種業務的銷售和預約，以及幾乎所有公司都需要的財產目錄和工資單管理。下面我們要研究幾個新的應用，近年來它們變得越來越重要。

1、決策支持系統

由于越來越多的數據可聯機獲得，企業已開始利用這些可獲得的數據來對自己的行動做出更好的決策，比如進什么貨，以及如何最好的吸引顧客以提高銷售額。我們可以通過使用簡單的SQL查詢語句提供大量用于決策支持的信息。但是，人們最近感到需要使用多種數據源的數據，以便在數據分析和數據挖掘（或知識發現）的基礎上，更好的來做決策支持。

數據庫應用從廣義上可分為事務處理和決策支持兩類。事務處理系統現在正被廣泛使用，并且公司已經積累了大量由這類系統產生的信息。

數據挖掘這個概念廣義上講是指從大量數據中發現有關信息，或“發現知識”。與人工智能中的知識發現類似，數據挖掘試圖自動從數據中發現統計規則和模式。但是，數據挖掘和機器學習的不同在于它處理的是大量數據，它們主要存儲在磁盤上。

從數據庫中發現的知識可以用一個規則集表示。我們用如下兩個模型之一從數據庫中發現規則：

● 在第一個模型中，用戶直接參與知識發現的過程

● 在第二個模型中，系統通過檢測數據的模式和相互關系，自動從數據庫中發現知識。有關自動發現規則的研究很大程度上是受人工智能領域在知識學習方面研究的影響。其主要的區別在于數據庫中處理的數據量，以及是否需要訪問磁盤。已經有一些具體的數據挖掘算法用于高效地處理放在磁盤上的大量數據。

規則發現的方式依賴于數據挖掘應用的類型。我們用兩類應用闡述規則發現：分類和關聯。

2、空間和地理數據庫

空間數據庫存儲有關空間位置的信息，并且對高效查詢和基于空間位置的索引提供支持。有兩種空間數據庫特別重要：

● 設計數據庫或計算機輔助設計（CAD）數據庫是用于存儲設計信息的空間數據庫，這些信息主要是關于物體（如建筑、汽車或是飛機）是如何構造的。另一個計算機輔助設計數據庫的重要例子是整合電路和電子設備設計圖。

● 地理數據庫是用于存儲地理信息（如地圖）的空間數據庫。地理數據庫常稱為地理信息系統。

地理數據本質上是空間的，但與設計數據相比在幾個方面有所不同。地圖和衛星圖像是地理數據的典型例子。地圖不僅可提供位置信息，如邊界、河流和道路，而且還可以提供許多和位置相關的詳細信息，如海拔、土壤類型、土地使用和年降雨量。地理數據可以分為兩類：光柵數據（這種數據由二維或更高維的位圖或像素圖組成）、矢量數據（由基本幾何對象構成）。地圖數據常以矢量形式表示。

3、多媒體數據庫

最近，有關多媒體數據（如圖像、聲音和視頻）的數據庫的研究很熱門。現在多媒體數據通常存儲在數據庫以外的文件系統中。當多媒體對象的數目相對較少時，數據庫提供的特點往往不那么重要。但是當存儲的多媒體對象數目較多時，數據庫的功能就變得重要起來。總之，事務更新、查詢機制和索引也開始變的很重要。多媒體對象常常有描述屬性，如指明它們是何時創建的、誰創建的，以及它們屬于哪一類。構造這種多媒體對象的數據庫的方法之一是用數據存儲描述屬性，并且跟蹤存儲這些媒體對象的文件。

但是，將多媒體數據存儲在數據庫之外，使得難于提供數據庫的功能，譬如基于實際多媒體數據內容的索引。此外這種情況還會造成不一致，譬如一個文件在數據庫中做了記錄，但其內容卻丟失了；或其相反情況。因此我們更希望將數據本身存儲在數據庫中。

4、移動性和個人數據庫

大型商用數據庫傳統上是存儲在中央計算設備上的。在分布式數據庫應用中，通常有強大的中央數據庫和網絡管理。然而以下這兩個技術趨勢的結合產生了一些應用，這些應用使中央控制和管理不再完全正確：

● 個人計算機越來越廣泛的使用，其中更重要的 是便攜式或“筆記本”計算機的使用。● 基于無限局域網、蜂窩數字包網絡，以及其他技術成本相對低廉的無線數字通信基礎設

施的發展。

無線計算使得計算機不必有固定的位置和網絡地址這使得查詢處理更加復雜，因為它難于決定實體化查詢結果的最佳位置。某些情況下，用戶的位置是一個查詢參數。例如，一個旅客信息系統提供關于酒店、路邊服務的信息及類似信息給乘車的旅客。有關當前道路前放服務的查詢必須根據用戶的位置、移動的方向及速度進行處理。

能源（電池能源）對應動計算機來說是有限的資源，這一限制影響了系統設計的許多方面。能源效率需求最有趣的結果之一的使用計劃的數據廣播來減少傳輸查詢中移動系統的需求。越來越多的數據會放在由用戶管理、而不是由數據庫管理員管理的計算機上，并且這些計算機有時可能與網絡斷開連接。

5、總結

隨著企業認識到聯機事務處理系統收集的聯機數據的價值，決策支持系統也越發變得重要了。現已提出SQL擴展，如cube操作，能幫助系統生成匯總數據。數據挖掘致力于從大數據庫中自動發現統計規律和模式等知識。數據可視化系統幫助人們從視覺上發現這些知識。

目前，空間數據庫正越來越多的被應用于存儲計算機輔助設計數據和地理數據。設計數據基本上是以矢量數據的形式存儲，而地理數據則包含矢量數據和光柵數據。

多媒體數據庫正變得越來越重要。基于相似性的查詢以及按可以確保的速率傳送數據是當前研究的重要課題。

移動計算系統的普及使人們對這類系統上運行的數據庫產生了濃厚的興趣。在這類系統上的查詢處理可能會設計在服務器端數據庫上的查找。

第四篇：畢業設計外文翻譯

外文原文

Overview of JSp Technology

Benefits of JSp

JSp pages are translated into servlets.So, fundamentally, any task JSp pages can perform could also be accomplished by servlets.However, this underlying equivalence does not mean that servlets and JSp pages are equally appropriate in all scenarios.The issue is not the power of the technology, it is the convenience, productivity, and maintainability of one or the other.After all, anything you can do on a particular computer platform in the Java programming language you could also do in assembly language.But it still matters which you choose.JSp provides the following benefits over servlets alone:

?It is easier to write and maintain the HTML.Your static code is ordinary HTML: no extra backslashes, no double quotes, and no lurking Java syntax.?You can use standard Web-site development tools.Even HTML tools that know nothing about JSp can be used because they simply ignore the JSp tags.?You can divide up your development team.The Java programmers can work on the dynamic code.The Web developers can concentrate on the presentation layer.On large projects, this division is very important.Depending on the size of your team and the complexity of your project, you can enforce a weaker or stronger separation between the static HTML and the dynamic content.Now, this discussion is not to say that you should stop using servlets and use only JSp instead.By no means.Almost all projects will use both.For some requests in your project, you will use servlets.For others, you will use JSp.For still others, you will combine them with the MVC architecture.You want the appropriate tool for the job, and servlets, by themselves, do not complete your toolkit.Advantages of JSp Over Competing Technologies

A number of years ago, Marty was invited to attend a small 20-person industry roundtable discussion on software technology.Sitting in the seat next to Marty was James Gosling, inventor of the Java programming language.Sitting several seats away was a high-level manager from a very large software company in Redmond, Washington.During the discussion, the moderator brought up the subject of Jini, which at that time was a new Java technology.The moderator asked the manager what he thought of it, and the manager responded that it was too early to tell, but that it seemed to be an excellent idea.He went on to say that they would keep an eye on it, and if it seemed to be catching on, they would follow his company's usual “embrace and extend” strategy.At this point, Gosling lightheartedly interjected “You mean disgrace and distend.”

Now, the grievance that Gosling was airing was that he felt that this company would take technology from other companies and suborn it for their own purposes.But guess what? The shoe is on the other foot here.The Java community did not invent the idea of designing pages as a mixture of static HTML and dynamic code marked with special tags.For example, ColdFusion did it years earlier.Even ASp(a product from the very software company of the aforementioned manager)popularized this approach before JSp came along and decided to jump on the bandwagon.In fact, JSp not only adopted the general idea, it even used many of the same special tags as ASp did.So, the question becomes: why use JSp instead of one of these other technologies? Our first response is that we are not arguing that everyone should.Several of those other technologies are quite good and are reasonable options in some situations.In other situations, however, JSp is clearly better.Here are a few of the reasons.Versus.NET and Active Server pages(ASp)

.NET is well-designed technology from Microsoft.ASp.NET is the part that directly competes with servlets and JSp.The advantages of JSp are twofold.First, JSp is portable to multiple operating systems and Web servers;you aren't locked into deploying on Windows and IIS.Although the core.NET platform runs on a few non-Windows platforms, the ASp part does not.You cannot expect to deploy serious ASp.NET applications on multiple servers and operating systems.For some applications, this difference does not matter.For others, it matters greatly.Second, for some applications the choice of the underlying language matters greatly.For example, although.NET's C# language is very well designed and is similar to Java, fewer programmers are familiar with either the core C# syntax or the many auxiliary libraries.In addition, many developers still use the original version of ASp.With this version, JSp has a clear advantage for the dynamic code.With JSp, the dynamic part is written in Java, not VBScript or another ASp-specific language, so JSp is more powerful and better suited to complex applications that require reusable components.You could make the same argument when comparing JSp to the previous version of ColdFusion;with JSp you can use Java for the “real code” and are not tied to a particular server product.However, the current release of ColdFusion is within the context of a J2EE server, allowing developers to easily mix ColdFusion and servlet/JSp code.Versus pHp

pHp(a recursive acronym for “pHp: Hypertext preprocessor”)is a free, open-source, HTML-embedded scripting language that is somewhat similar to both ASp and JSp.One advantage of JSp is that the dynamic part is written in Java, which already has an extensive ApI for networking, database access, distributed objects, and the like, whereas pHp requires learning an entirely new, less widely used language.A second advantage is that JSp is much more widely supported by tool and server vendors than is pHp.Versus pure Servlets

JSp doesn't provide any capabilities that couldn't, in principle, be accomplished with servlets.In fact, JSp documents are automatically translated into servlets behind the scenes.But it is more convenient to write(and to modify!)regular HTML than to use a zillion println statements to generate the HTML.plus, by separating the presentation from the content, you can put different people on different tasks: your Web page design experts can build the HTML by using familiar tools and either leave places for your servlet programmers to insert the dynamic content or invoke the dynamic content indirectly by means of XML tags.Does this mean that you can just learn JSp and forget about servlets? Absolutely not!JSp developers need to know servlets for four reasons:

1.JSp pages get translated into servlets.You can't understand how JSp works without understanding servlets.2.JSp consists of static HTML, special-purpose JSp tags, and Java code.What kind of Java code? Servlet code!You can't write that code if you don't understand servlet programming.3.Some tasks are better accomplished by servlets than by JSp.JSp is good at generating pages that consist of large sections of fairly well structured HTML or other character data.Servlets are better for generating binary data, building pages with highly variable structure, and performing tasks(such as redirection)that involve little or no output.4.Some tasks are better accomplished by a combination of servlets and JSp than by either servlets or JSp alone.Versus JavaScript

JavaScript, which is completely distinct from the Java programming language, is normally used to dynamically generate HTML on the client, building parts of the Web page as the browser loads the document.This is a useful capability and does not normally overlap with the capabilities of JSp(which runs only on the server).JSp pages still include SCRIpT tags for JavaScript, just as normal HTML pages do.In fact, JSp can even be used to dynamically generate the JavaScript that will be sent to the client.So, JavaScript is not a competing technology;it is a complementary one.It is also possible to use JavaScript on the server, most notably on Sun ONE(formerly iplanet), IIS, and BroadVision servers.However, Java is more powerful, flexible, reliable, and portable.Versus WebMacro or Velocity

JSp is by no means perfect.Many people have pointed out features that could be improved.This is a good thing, and one of the advantages of JSp is that the specification is controlled by a community that draws from many different companies.So, the technology can incorporate improvements in successive releases.However, some groups have developed alternative Java-based technologies to try to address these deficiencies.This, in our judgment, is a mistake.Using a third-party tool like Apache Struts that augments JSp and servlet technology is a good idea when that tool adds sufficient benefit to compensate for the additional complexity.But using a nonstandard tool that tries to replace JSp is a bad idea.When choosing a technology, you need to weigh many factors: standardization, portability, integration, industry support, and technical features.The arguments for JSp alternatives have focused almost exclusively on the technical features part.But portability, standardization, and integration are also very important.For example, the servlet and JSp specifications define a standard directory structure for Web applications and provide standard files(.war files)for deploying Web applications.All JSp-compatible servers must support these standards.Filters can be set up to apply to any number of servlets or JSp pages, but not to nonstandard resources.The same goes for Web application security settings.Besides, the tremendous industry support for JSp and servlet technology results in improvements that mitigate many of the criticisms of JSp.For example, the JSp Standard Tag Library and the JSp 2.0 expression language address two of the most well-founded criticisms: the lack of good iteration constructs and the difficulty of accessing dynamic results without using either explicit Java code or verbose jsp:useBean elements.10.4 Misconceptions About JSp

Forgetting JSp Is Server-Side Technology

Here are some typical questions Marty has received(most of them repeatedly).?Our server is running JDK 1.4.So, how do I put a Swing component in a JSp page?

?How do I put an image into a JSp page? I do not know the proper Java I/O commands to read image files.?Since Tomcat does not support JavaScript, how do I make images that are highlighted when the user moves the mouse over them?

?Our clients use older browsers that do not understand JSp.What should we do?

?When our clients use “View Source” in a browser, how can I prevent them from seeing the JSp tags?

All of these questions are based upon the assumption that browsers know something about the server-side process.But they do not.Thus:

?For putting applets with Swing components into Web pages, what matters is the browser's Java version—the server's version is irrelevant.If the browser supports the Java 2 platform, you use the normal AppLET(or Java plug-in)tag and would do so even if you were using non-Java technology on the server.?You do not need Java I/O to read image files;you just put the image in the directory for Web resources(i.e., two levels up from WEB-INF/classes)and output a normal IMG tag.?You create images that change under the mouse by using client-side JavaScript, referenced with the SCRIpT tag;this does not change just because the server is using JSp.?Browsers do not “support” JSp at all—they merely see the output of the JSp page.So, make sure your JSp outputs HTML compatible with the browser, just as you would do with static HTML pages.?And, of course you need not do anything to prevent clients from seeing JSp tags;those tags are processed on the server and are not part of the output that is sent to the client.Confusing Translation Time with Request Time

A JSp page is converted into a servlet.The servlet is compiled, loaded into the server's memory, initialized, and executed.But which step happens when? To answer that question, remember two points:

?The JSp page is translated into a servlet and compiled only the first time it is accessed after having been modified.?Loading into memory, initialization, and execution follow the normal rules for servlets.Table 1 gives some common scenarios and tells whether or not each step occurs in that scenario.The most frequently misunderstood entries are highlighted.When referring to the table, note that servlets resulting from JSp pages use the _jspService method(called for both GET and pOST requests), not doGet or dopost.Also, for initialization, they use the jspInit method, not the init method.Table 1.JSp Operations in Various Scenarios

JSp page translated into servletServlet compiledServlet loaded into server's memoryjspInit called_jspService called

page first written

Request 1YesYesYesYesYes

Request 2NoNoNoNoYes

Server restarted

Request 3NoNoYesYesYes

Request 4NoNoNoNoYes

page modified

Request 5YesYesYesYesYes

Request 6NoNoNoNoYes

中文翻譯

JSp技術概述

一、JSp的好處

JSp頁面最終會轉換成servler。因而，從根本上，JSp頁面能夠執行的任何任務都可以用servler來完成。然而，這種底層的等同性并不意味著servler和JSp頁面對于所有的情況都等同適用。問題不在于技術的能力，而是二者在便利性、生產率和可維護性上的不同。畢竟，在特定平臺上能夠用Java編程語言完成的事情，同樣可以用匯編語言來完成，但是選擇哪種語言依舊十分重要。

和單獨使用servler相比，JSp提供下述好處：

?JSp中HTML的編寫與維護更為簡單。JSp中可以使用常規的HTML：沒有額外的反斜杠，沒有額外的雙引號，也沒有暗含的Java語法。

?能夠使用標準的網站開發工具。即使對那些對JSp一無所知的HTML工具，我們也可以使用，因為它們會忽略JSp標簽（JSp tags）。

?可以對開發團隊進行劃分。Java程序員可以致力于動態代碼。Web開發人員可以將經理集中在表示層（presentation layer）上。對于大型的項目，這種劃分極為重要。依據開發團隊的大小，及項目的復雜程度，可以對靜態HTML和動態內容進行弱分離（weaker separation）和強分離（stronger separation）。

在此，這個討論并不是讓您停止使用servlets，只使用JSp。幾乎所有的項目都會同時用到這兩種技術。針對項目中的某些請求，您可能會在MVC構架下組合使用這兩項技術。我們總是希望用適當的工具完成相對應的工作，僅僅是servlet并不能填滿您的工具箱。

二、JSp相對于競爭技術的優勢

許多年前，Marty受到邀請,參加一個有關軟件技術的小型(20個人)研討會.做在Marty旁邊的人是James Gosling---Java編程語言的發明者。隔幾個位置,是來自華盛頓一家大型軟件公司的高級經理。在討論過程中,研討會的主席提出了Jini的議題,這在當時是一項新的Java技術.主席向該經理詢問他的想法.他繼續說,他們會持續關注這項技術,如果這項技術變得流行起來,他們會遵循公司的“接受并擴充(embrace and extend)”的策略.此時, Gosling隨意地插話說“你的意思其實就是不接受且不擴充(disgrace and distend)。”

在此, Gosling的抱怨顯示出，他感到這個公司會從其他公司那里拿走技術,用于他們自己的目的.但你猜這次怎么樣?這次鞋子穿在了另一只腳上。Java社團沒有發明這一思想----將頁面設計成由靜態HTML和用特殊標簽標記的動態代碼混合組成.。ColdFusion多年前就已經這樣做了。甚至ASp(來自于前述經理所在公司的一項產品)都在JSp出現之前推廣了這種方式。實際上,JSp不只采用了這種通用概念,它甚至使用許多和ASp相同的特殊標簽。

因此,問題變成:為什么使用JSp,而不使用其他技術呢?我們的第一反應是我們不是在爭論所有的人應該做什么。其他這些技術中,有一些也很不錯,在某些情況下也的確是合情合理的選擇.然而,在其他情形中,JSp明顯要更好一些。下面給出幾個理由。

與.NET和Active Server pages(ASp)相比

.NET是Microsoft精心設計的一項技術。ASp.NET是與servlets和JSp直接競爭的技術。JSp的優勢體現在兩個方面。

首先,JSp可以移植到多種操作系統和Web服務器,您不必僅僅局限于部署在Windows 和IIS上盡管核心.NET平臺可以在好幾種非Windows平臺上運行，但ASp這一部分不可以。您不能期望可以將重要的ASp.NET應用部署到多種服務器和操作系統。對于某些應用，這種差異沒有什么影響。但有些應用，這種差異卻非常重要。

其次，對于某些應用，底層語言的選擇至關重要。例如，盡管.NET的C#語言設計優良，且和Java類似，但熟悉核心C#語法和眾多工具庫的程序員很少。此外,許多開發者依舊使用最初版本的ASp。相對于這個版本,JSp在動態代碼方面擁有明顯的優勢。使用JSp,動態部分是用Java編寫的,而非VBScript過其他ASp專有的語言,因此JSp更為強勁,更適合于要求組件重用的復雜應用。

當將JSp與之前版本的ColdFusion對比時，您可能會得到相同的結論。應用JSp，您可以使用Java編寫“真正的代碼”，不必依賴于特定的服務器產品。然而，當前版本的ColdFusion滿足J2EE服務器的環境，允許開發者容易的混合使用ColdFusion和Servlet/JSp代碼。

與pHp相比

pHp（“pHp：Hypertext preprocessor”的遞歸字母縮寫詞）是免費的、開放源代碼的、HTML嵌入其中的腳本語言，與ASp和JSp都有某種程度的類似。JSp的一項優勢是動態部分用Java編寫，而Java已經在聯網、數據庫訪問、分布式對象等方面擁有廣泛的ApI，而pHp需要學習全新的、應用相對廣泛的語言。JSp的第二項優勢是，和pHp相比，JSp擁有極為廣泛的工具和服務器提供商的支持。

與純Servlet相比

原則上，JSp并沒有提供Servlet不能完成的功能。實際上，JSp文檔在后臺被自動轉換成Servlet。但是編寫（和修改）常規的HTML，要比無數println語句生成HTML要方便得多。另外，通過將表示與內容分離，可以為不同的人分配不同的任務：網頁設計人員使用熟悉的工具構建HTML，要么為Servlet程序員留出空間插入動態內容，要么通過XML標簽間接調用動態內容。

這是否表示您只可以學習JSp，將Servlet丟到一邊呢？當然不是！由于以下4種原因，JSp開發人員需要了解Servlet：

（1）JSp頁面會轉換成Servlet。不了解Servlet就無法知道JSp如何工作。

（2）JSp由靜態HTML、專用的JSp標簽和Java代碼組成。哪種類型的Java代碼呢？當然是Servlet代碼！如果不了解Servlet編程，那么就無法編寫這種代碼。

（3）一些任務用Servlet完成比用JSp來完成要好。JSp擅長生成由大量組織有序的結構化HTML或其他字符數據組成的頁面。Servlet擅長生成二進制數據，構建結構多樣的頁面，以及執行輸出很少或者沒有輸出的任務（比如重定向）。

（4）有些任務更適合于組合使用Servlet和JSp來完成，而非單獨使用Servlet或JSp。

與JavaScript相比

JavaScript和Java編程語言完全是兩碼事，前者一般用于在客戶端動態生成HTML，在瀏覽器載入文檔時構建網頁的部分內容。這是一項有用的功能，一般與JSp的功能（只在服務器端運行）并不發生重疊。和常規HTML頁面一樣，JSp頁面依舊可以包括用于JavaScript的SCRIpT標簽。實際上，JSp甚至能夠用來動態生成發送到客戶端的JavaScript。因此，JavaScript不是一項競爭技術，它是一項補充技術。

JavaScript也可以用在服務器端，最因人注意的是SUN ONE（以前的iplanet）、IIS和BroadVision服務器。然而，Java更為強大靈活、可靠且可移植。

與WebMacro和Velocity相比

JSp決非完美。許多人都曾指出過JSp中能夠改進的功能。這是一件好事，JSp的優勢之一是該規范由許多不同公司組成的社團控制。因此，在后續版本中，這項技術能夠得到協調的改進。

但是，一些組織已經開發出了基于Java的替代技術，試圖彌補這些不足。據我們的判斷，這樣做是錯誤的。使用擴充JSp和Servlet技術的第三方工具，如Apache Structs，是一種很好的思路，只要該工具帶來的好處能夠補償工具帶來的額外復雜性。但是，試圖使用非標準的工具代替JSp則不理想。在選擇一項技術時，需要權衡許多方面的因素：標準化、可移植性、集成性、行業支持和技術特性。對于JSp替代技術的爭論幾乎只是集中在技術特性上，而可移植性、標準化和集成性也十分重要。例如，Servlet和JSp規范為Web應用定義了一個標準的目錄結構，并提供用于部署Web應用的標準文件（.war文件）。所有JSp兼容的服務器必須支持這些標準。我們可以建立過濾器作用到任意樹木的Servlet和JSp頁面上，但不能用于非標準資源。Web應用安全設置也同樣如此。

此外，業界對JSp和Servlet技術的巨大支持使得這兩項技術都有了巨大的進步，從而減輕了對JSp的許多批評。例如，JSp標準標簽庫和JSp 2.0表達式語言解決了兩種最廣泛的批評：缺乏良好的迭代結構；不使用顯式的Java代碼或冗長的jsp:useBean元素難以訪問動態結果。

三、對JSp的誤解

忘記JSp技術是服務器端技術

下面是Marty收到的一些典型問題（大部分問題不止一次的出現）。

?我們的服務器正在運行JDK1.4。我如何將Swing組件用到JSp頁面中呢？

?我如何將圖像放到JSp頁面中？我不知道讀取圖像文件應該使用哪些Java I/O命令。

?Tomcat不支持JavaScript，當用戶在圖像上移動鼠標時，我如何使圖像突出顯示呢？

?我們的客戶使用不理解JSp的舊瀏覽器。我應該怎么做？

?當我們的客戶在瀏覽器中使用“View Source”（查看源代碼）時，如何阻止他們看到JSp標簽？

所有這些問題都基于瀏覽器對服務器端的過程在有所了解的假定之上。但事實上瀏覽器并不了解服務器端的過程。因此：

?如果要將使用Swing組件的applet放到網頁中，重要的是瀏覽器的Java版本，和服務器的Java版本無關。如果瀏覽器支持Java 2平臺，您可以使用正常的AppLET（或Java插件）標簽，即使在服務器上使用了非Java技術也須如此。

?您不需要Java I/O來讀取圖像文件，您只需將圖像放在存儲Web資源的目錄中（即WEB-INF/classes向上兩級的目錄），并輸出一個正常的IMG標簽。

?您應該用SCRIpT標簽，使用客戶端JavaScript創建在鼠標下會更改的圖像，這不會由于服務器使用JSp而改變。

?瀏覽器根本不“支持”JSp----它們看到的只是JSp頁面的輸出。因此，如同對待靜態HTML頁面一樣，只需確保JSp輸出的HTML與瀏覽器兼容。

?當然，您不需要采取什么措施來阻止客戶看到JSp標簽，這些標簽在服務器上進行處理，發送給客戶的輸出中并不出現。

混淆轉換期間和請求期間

JSp頁面需要轉換成servlet。Servlet在編譯后，載入到服務器的內容中，初始化并執行。但是每一步發生在什么時候呢？要回答這個問題，要記住以下兩點：

?JSp頁面僅在修改后第一次被訪問時，才會被轉換成servlet并進行編譯；

?載入到內存中、初始化和執行遵循servlet的一般規則。

表1列出一些常見的情形，講述在該種情況下每一步是否發生。最常被誤解的項已經突出標示出來。在參考該表時，要注意，由JSp頁面生成的servlet使用_jspService方法（GET和pOST請求都調用該函數），不是doGet或dopost方法。同樣，對于初始化，它們使用jspInit方法，而非init方法。

表1 各種情況下的JSp操作

將JSp 頁面轉換成servlet編譯Servlet 將Servlet 載入到服務器內存中調用jspInit 調用_jspService

頁面初次創建

請求 1有有有有有

請求 2無無無無有

服務器重啟后

請求3無無有有有

請求 4無無無無有

頁面修改后

請求 5有有有有有

請求 6無無無無有

第五篇：本科畢業設計（論文）規范

畢業設計（論文）是人才培養過程中的一個重要環節。加強對本科畢業設計（論文）全過程的組織與管理，建立規范化的管理制度，是保證畢業設計（論文）質量的重要前提。

一、畢業設計（論文）的組織管理

（一）畢業設計（論文）工作的組織與管理職責

....學校、系、專業教研室三級分工負責畢業設計工作的管理、指導、檢查、考核和總結。

1．教務處的職責

....教務處作為學校教學管理的職能部門，負責畢業設計（論文）的總體管理工作。其主要職責是：

（1）制定本校畢業設計（論文）工作的有關政策、制度及規定；

（2）組織對畢業設計（論文）工作的檢查和監督；

（3）審核畢業設計（論文）答辯委員會名單；

（4）負責全校畢業設計（論文）經費的分配；

（5）協調校內有關部門，為畢業設計（論文）工作的順利進行提供保證；

（6）組織對畢業設計（論文）工作的考核、總結、評估等。

2．各系的職責

....各系負責本系畢業設計（論文）全過程的管理。明確一名系主任負責畢業設計（論文）的領導工作，教學秘書負責畢業設計（論文）過程中的日常管理工作。各系的主要職責是：

（1）組織有關教研室根據教學計劃和本系具體情況擬定畢業設計（論文）工作計劃和具體實施措施，組織落實本系畢業設計（論文）的具體工作，如確定下達畢業設計（論文）任務的時間、本系對畢業設計（論文）的具體要求等；

（2）組織對畢業設計（論文）工作的中期檢查；

（3）確定本系各專業畢業設計（論文）答辯委員會名單上報教務處；

（4）負責本系學生畢業設計（論文）的成績管理；

（5）檢查本系畢業設計（論文）答辯工作；

（6）負責本系畢業設計（論文）經費的管理。

3．專業教研室的職責

....專業教研室作為直接組織和指導學生進行畢業設計（論文）的基層單位，其主要任務是：

（1）審核確定畢業設計（論文）題目及指導教師；

（2）負責組織學生的選題工作；

（3）按要求審定畢業設計任務書；

（4）檢查學生畢業設計（論文）進度、質量和紀律，檢查指導教師對學生的指導情況；

（5）提出畢業設計（論文）答辯委員會組成；

（6）組織對學生答辯資格的審查和畢業設計（論文）的評閱、答辯及成績評定工作；

（7）收集、整理、保存畢業設計（論文）有關資料及畢業論文、圖紙等，評選優秀畢業設計（論文），總結畢業設計（論文）工作。

4．其它

....在校外進行的畢業設計（論文），各系視具體情況可以指派指導教師，也可單獨委托對方單位具有中級及以上職稱的技術人員指導，但畢業答辯必須按學校的統一要求安排在校內進行。

（二）畢業設計（論文）工作程序

....畢業設計（論文）工作的程序是：

選題---下達畢業設計（論文）任務書---中期檢查---評閱、答辯資格審查---答辯---評定成績---論文收存

1．畢業設計（論文）的選題

....選題關系到畢業設計工作的質量，它是保證教學基本要求的重要環節。

我校理工類畢業設計（論文）主要有以下幾種類型：工程設計型、產品開發型、實驗研究型、軟件開發與仿真型、綜合型等。文科、管理類專業本科畢業論文可以是理論性論文、應用軟件設計或調查報告。

....無論何種類型的畢業設計（論文），必須符合“華北電力大學畢業設計（論文）工作暫行規定”中有關選題的要求。

選題程序：

....指導教師選定畢業設計（論文）題目報專業教研室---專業教研室集體研究審定畢業設計（論文）題目---教研室組織學生選題---教研室主任批準---畢業設計（論文）題目報系、教務處備案。

2．指導教師下達畢業設計（論文）任務

....指導教師應提前做好畢業設計（論文）的準備工作，為指導的每個學生認真填寫畢業設計（論文）任務書，經教研室審定后，在畢業設計（論文）開始前發給學生，并提供有關的參考資料。

....為了充分發揮畢業設計（論文）在人才培養中的作用，各系及教研室根據具體情況或學校要求，可提前半年及以上下達畢業設計（論文）任務。

3．中期檢查

....為確保畢業設計（論文）質量，使其真正達到預期目的，校、系、專業教研室三級都要加強對畢業設計（論文）全過程的管理，尤其要進行畢業設計（論文）的中期檢查。教研室領導、系領導不定期地檢查畢業設計（論文）情況，教務處則隨機抽查。各級檢查的主要內容有：

（1）學生畢業設計（論文）進度是否正常；

（2）是否按畢業設計（論文）任務書安排的預定計劃進行；

（3）指導教師是否認真負責，是否經常親臨現場檢查、指導畢業設計（論文），聽取學生對畢業設計（論文）工作的匯報；

（4）學生畢業設計（論文）的態度和紀律如何；

（5）發現問題及時解決。

4．畢業設計（論文）評閱和答辯資格審查

....畢業論文或畢業設計說明書撰寫完后，學生應在畢業答辯前提前一周將自己的畢業論文、畢業設計說明書、圖紙等交指導教師審查、修改和評閱。指導教師結合畢業設計（論文）的全過程對學生進行全面考核，對每個學生的畢業設計（論文）作出事實求是的評價，寫出評語。考核的主要內容有：

（1）學生是否較好地掌握了課題所涉及到的基礎理論、基本技能和專業知識；

（2）學生是否按畢業設計（論文）指導書所提出的設計內容和時間，獨立完成了畢業設計（論文）各環節所必須完成的任務；

（3）畢業設計（論文）完成的質量和在完成過程中所表現的創造性工作情況，獨立思考、獨立工作、組織管理、文字及口頭表達能力、與他人合作能力等情況；

（4）畢業設計中所表現出的學習態度、學習紀律等情況。

畢業答辯資格審查按華北電力大學畢業設計（論文）工作的有關規定執行。

5．畢業設計（論文）答辯與成績評定

....畢業設計（論文）完成后要在規定的時間內組織答辯，以檢查學生是否達 到畢業設計（論文）的目的和基本要求。

....畢業答辯由各系按專業組成的答辯委員會負責組織，各專業答辯委員會名 單于答辯前張榜公布，同時公布答辯地點、時間和學生答辯順序。答辯委員會參考“華北電力大學畢業設計（論文）工作暫行規定”中畢業設計（論文）成績評定標準和比例評定學生的畢業設計（論文）成績并寫出評語。成績評定中，要注重體現學生的獨立見解、創新性和實踐能力。

畢業設計（論文）答辯委員會的職責：

（1）在系主任領導下組織并主持畢業答辯工作；

（2）討論和確定學生畢業設計（論文）的最后成績及評語。

為了把好畢業設計（論文）答辯關，系和專業教研室可根據本系的具體情況，從已進行了答辯的學生中再抽取不同成績層次的學生進行畢業設計（論文）質量監控性質的二次答辯。

6．畢業設計（論文）總結

....為客觀地反映畢業生在知識、能力、素質等方面的情況，改進教學工作，提高教學質量，規范教學管理，在每屆畢業設計（論文）工作

結束之后，各專業教研室應從畢業設計（論文）改革、選題情況、鞏固學生所學知識、提高基本技能、培養學生的創新意識和能力、科學的工作方法和工作態度、畢業設計（論文）反映出的學校的本科教育教學質量以及存在的問題、對今后教學工作的建議、本屆畢業生的水平等方面認真作好總結，不斷改進畢業設計（論文）工作。

二、畢業論文的撰寫規范及要求

（一）畢

責任者.出版地:出版者,出版年,文獻數量

示例:夏小華,高為柄.非線性系統控制及解耦.第2版.北京:科學出版社,1997

(2)期刊

順序號 作者.題名.其他責任者.刊名,年,卷(期):在原文獻中的位置

示例:高為柄,程勉,夏小華.非線性控制系統的發展.自動化學報,1991,17(4):513～52

3(3)論文集

順序號 作者.題名.見:編者.文集名.出版地:出版者,出版年.在原文獻中的位置

示例:Fox R L, Willmert K D.不等式約束的連桿曲線最優化設計.見:機構學譯文集編寫組.機構學譯文集.北京:機械工業出版社,1982.232～2

42(4)技術標準

順序號 標準代號 標準順序號—發布年 標準名稱

示例:GB3100～3102—93 量和單位

(5)學位論文

順序號 作者.題名:[學位論文].保存地:保存者,年份

示例:陳淮金.多機電力系統分散最優勵磁控制器的研究:[學位論文].北京:清華大學電機工程系,1988

(6)會議論文

順序號 作者.題名.會議名稱,會址,會議年份

示例:夏小華,高為柄.穩定設計中的分解和參數化方法.全國控制與決策會議,黃山,1993

文后參考文獻表式樣見附件六。

10．附錄

....未盡事宜可將其列在附錄中加以說明。原始測定結果、分析報告、圖表、測試報告單、譯文等，均可列在附錄中，附錄序號用“附錄A、附錄B”等字樣表示。式樣見附件七。

附 件1中文摘要式樣 附件2英文摘要式樣 附件3目錄式樣 附件4正文式樣

附件5圖表式樣 附件6參考文獻式樣 附件7附錄式樣