第一篇：英語語法教案 (Lecture 16 Subjunctive Mood)
Lecture 16 Subjunctive Mood
Teaching Aims(1)To understand the definition of mood and classification of mood(2)To grasp the use of subjunctive mood Teaching Process
(1)Definition and classification of mood(2)Use of subjunctive mood
a.subjunctive mood used in if conditionals
b.subjunctive mood used in that clause
c.subjunctive mood used in special patterns
1.Definition of mood
Different speaker may express different purpose.When he expresses different purposes, he may use different moods of expressions.2.Classification of moods 2.1 Indicative mood: expressing statements or facts.e.g.We are all students.China is in Asia.2.2 Imperative mood: putting forward demands or orders.e.g.Please be careful.Don?t smoke here.2.3 Subjunctive mood:
Definition: expressing subjective wishes or hypothetical and non-factual meaning 3.Classification of subjunctive mood 3.1 Be-subjunctive mood 1)be is used in “that clause” containing the meaning of order, decision, suggestion.a)used in “that clause” after the verbs: decide, decree, demand, insist, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, vote…
b)used in “that clause” after the adjectives: advisable, appropriate, desirable, essential, fitting, imperative, important, impossible, necessary, obligatory, proper…
c)used in “that clause” after the nouns: decision, decree, demand, instruction, order, requirement, resolution… 2)be is used in “that clause” introduced by “if, though”
be-subjunctive mood can be used in that clause introduced by “if, though, whatever, lest, so long as…”, such sentences have the meaning of “speculation, concession, or precaution…”
3)be is used in some formula sentence patterns to express “wish, curse, or prohibition”
e.g.Long live the People?s Republic of China!
God bless you!
God damn you！
Heaven forbid!
Devil take him!1
So be it!
Suffice it to say that…
Far be it from me to spoil the fun.He will remain here if need be.Home is home, be it ever so homely.3.2 were-Subjunctive mood 1)used in some adverbial clause used in conditional or concessive adverbial clause introduced by “if, if only, as though, though…” 2)used in some noun clause used in the clause introduced by “wish, would rather, suppose, imagine…
4.The use of subjunctive mood 4.1 subjunctive mood used in if-conditional A conditional sentence(or “conditional” for short)is commonly composed part: conditional clause + main clause.Despite the many possible sequences of verb forms in conditionals, the following four types represent perhaps the commonest and the most useful ones: If you heat ice, it melts.If we catch the 10 o?clock train, we will get there by lunch-time.If we caught the 10 o?clock train, we would get there by lunch time.If we had caught the 10 o?clock train, we would have got there by lunch-time.1)Real conditional
A.The first one called “whenever-type” in that “if” here is used in the sense of “whenever”.It can be used to denote the following meanings:
a.Universal truth or general validity
Statements of this type commonly appear in factual discussions and scientific or technical material.The sequence of verb forms is as follows:
If simple present + main simple present
E.g.If you pour oil on water, it floats.b.present habitual action
To denote present habitual action, it takes the same pattern.If simple present + main simple present
E.g.If it rains, I go to work by car.c.past habitual action
To denote past habitual action, the simple past is used in both the conditional and the main clause.If simple past + main simple past.E.g.If I made a promise, I kept it.B.The second falls into three forms: basic form, variant form, and alternative form.Basic forms:
a)(if)simple present +(mian)will, etc + infinitive
If it is fine tomorrow, we can have a picnic somewhere.(if)simple present +(main)imperative If you wake up before me, give me a call.Variant forms:
a)(if)should + infinitive +(main)will, would, etc + infinitive
If he should come tomorrow, I would tell him everything.b)(if)will + infinitive +(main)will, would, etc + infinitive
If you would read more carefully, you would understand what the author means.Alternative forms
a)imperative + and-clause
Set your alarm clock, and you won?t oversleep.b)imperative + or-clause.Set your alarm clock, or(else)you ?ll oversleep.What we have enumerate above only represent the commonest types of real conditionals, which are actually too variegated to be exhausted in a few patterns.As a matter of fact, there are far more possible sequences of verb forms for real conditionals.So long as they do not make unreal conditionals, almost all sequences of verb forms are possible.Thus, in addition to the above-mentioned types, we can also say, for example:
If he has finished his work, we shall be able to take him with us.If you?ve been traveling all night, you probably need a rest.Lecture 17 & 18 Auxiliary verb
Auxiliary verb can be divided into 3 types: basic auxiliary verb, mood auxiliary verb, semi-auxiliary verb.17.1 the means to express mood meanings 1)to express “Ability” and “possibility”: can, could, be able to 2)to express “ Permission”: can/could, may/might 3)to express “Obligation” or “Necessity”: should, ought to, must 4)to express “Prediction” or “Predictability”
5)to express “ Willingness”, “intention” or “Determination”: will/would, shall 6)other mood meanings: to express “pity, worry, happiness, surprise…”
17.2 Epistemic usage or non-epistemic usage of mood auxiliary verb 1)the mood auxiliary verbs serving as epistemic usage a)
auxiliary mood verb
non-epistemic usage
epistemic usage can/could
to express “Ability” “Permission”
to express “ Possibility”
may/might
to express “Permission”
to express “Possibility”
will/would
to express “Willingness”
to express “Predictability”
should/ought to
to express “Obligation”
to express “Necessity”
must
to express “Obligation”
to express “Necessity” b)degree of possibility Uncertain
might
That might be George.↓
may
↓
could
can
should
ought to
would
will
Certain
must
That must be George.2)syntax characters of mood auxiliary verb with epistemic meaning a)tense b)there –be c)static verb d)noun phrase of lifeless things 3)mood auxiliary verb with epistemic meaning and the referred time 18.1 semi-auxiliary verbs 1)the types of semi-auxiliary verb: focused on “be”;focused on “have”;focused on “seem”
can be transformed into “it…that”
cannot transformed
be about to
be certain to
be able to
be(un)likely to
be apt to
appear to
be bound to
chance to
be due to
happen to
be going to
seem to
be liable to
turn out to…
be obliged to
be supposed to
be sure to
be to
be willing to had better/best have to have got to come to fail to get to tend to…
2)semi-auxiliary and “it…that” structure Lecture 19 & 20 Infinitive Teaching Aims(1)To understand non-finite verbs(2)To grasp the form of infinitive verbs(3)To grasp the use of infinitive verb Teaching Content
(1)Classification of verb(2)Characteristics of non-finite verb and classification of non-finite verb
(3)Infinitive verb
a.the forms of infinitive verb
b.change of form in tense and aspect and voice c.the logical subject d.usage of infinitive verb e.transformation from infinitive into clause
(4)Notices
1.Grammatical forms
The infinitive has no tense distinctions, nor person or number contrast.But they can be passive and take the simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive forms.A negative infinitive is formed by adding not or never immediately before the infinitive sign to.2.Forms of the infinitive There are two types of infinitive: to-infinitive and bare infinitive.The bare infinitive just the infinitive without to, which is identical in form with the base of the verb.2.1 Infinitive commonly occurs with to, but in some contexts it is necessary to use the bare infinitive, and in some other cases the infinitive sign is optional.Following is summing up of the situations in which the bare infinitive is used.1)the bare infinitive is generally used to follow the modals including need and dare.2)the bare infinitive is used to follow semi-auxiliaries.3)the bare infinitive is used to combine with such modal idioms as would rather, would sooner, would(just)as soon, may/ might/(just)as well, cannot but, cannot help but, etc.4)the bare infinitive is commonly used to follow rather than and sooner than, especially when rather/ sooner than takes the initial position.e.g.Rather than cause trouble, he left.Sooner than marry that man, she would earn her living as a waitress.But when rather than takes other positions in the sentence, the following infinitive may be with or without to.e.g.He decided to go fishing rather than stay in the school.The manager believes it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to increase wages.5)the bare infinitive is often combined with a main verb to form some fixed combinations such as:
make believe let slip
let down
leave go
let fall
hear tell
6)the bare infinitive usually appears after “ causative verb + object”, but when the causative verb occurs in the passive, the bare infinitiv should be turned into a to-infinitive.e.g.Tom made Marry do the cleaning.Marry was made to do the cleaning.7)the bare infinitive usually occurs after “ sense verb + object”.The sense verbs include see, hear, observe, notice, feel, watch, look at, listen to.But when the sense verb occurs in the passive, it should be followed by a to-infinitive.8)the bare infinitive is used after “ have known + object”, e.g.I have never known that man smile.9)the bare infinitive often appears after help or “help +object”, but to-infinitive is also used.10)the bare infinitive usually appears after the preposition except/ but when there is a form of the main verb do before the preposition, which is otherwise followed by a to-infinitive.e.g.I did nothing but wait.Likewise, in some SVC constructions, if the subject contains a form of the main verb do, the infinitive in the complement may be with or without to.e.g.The only thing I can do now is(to)go on by myself.11)the bare infinitive also appears after “ why/ why not”?
12)the bare infinitive can also be used in the following idiomatic expressions.Go post a letter for me.Come have a chat with me.Try eat a little.I?ll try help him.13)the bare infinitive used in parallel construction.e.g.Tom has get up, wash his face and go to school.Tom likes to climb mountain more than fish.■Notice: when infinitive verb is omitted, the small word to should be given out.e.g.Would you like to have some coffee? Yes, I?d like to.2.2 Some few notes on the use of the infinitive sign
1)Infinitive sign used alone
To avoid repetition, the infinitive sign can sometimes be used alone, that is to say, the base in the to-infinitive can be committed, sometimes together with its complementation.This kind of omission is quite common in informal style.You may go if you wish to.If the base of the infinitive is the verb be or have, it should be retained, even though its complementation is omitted.A: Aren?t you the manager?
B: No, I don?t want to be.In some contexts, both the to-infinitive and its complementation can be omitted so that no trace remains of the infinitive.I?d like to do it now, but I haven?t got the time(to).2)Ellipsis of the infinitive sign
When two to-infinitives are coordinated by and or or, the second to is usually unless there is a contrastive meaning，e.g.I intend to call him and discuss this question again.When there is contrastive meaning, the second to must be retained.e.g.To be or not to be, that is the question.The infinitive sign cannot be omitted if there is no coordinator between the coordinate infinitives.e.g.Please go to the seaside to swim, to get suntanned.Nor can any infinitive sign be omitted if a sequence of infinitives occur in a parallel construction.e.g.The student must learn to read extensively, to analyze what he reads and to summarize the main points presented.2.3 infinitive to or preposition to
The word to often present a problem for Chinese students.For instance, in “object to” and “be used to”, is the word to a preposition or an infinitive sign? To solve this
problem, we may try to put a noun after it.If a noun or a noun equivalent is possible, it proves to be a preposition;otherwise, it is an infinitive sign.Following is a summary of the collocations in which the item to is a preposition, not an infinitive sign.1)verb + preposition to
add to, agree to, amount to, attend to and etc.2)verb + noun/pron.+ prep.to
apply…to, accustom … to, confine…to, devote…to, etc.3)verb +-ed particple + prep.to
be accustomed to, be used to, be devoted to,etc.4)verb + adverb particle + prep.to
look forward to, face up to, get down to, etc.5)adjective +prep.to
equal to, loyal to, similar to, etc.6)noun + prep.to
limit to, aid to, objection to, key to, etc.7)complex prepositions ending in to.Owing to, thanks to, preparatory to, previous to, prior to, in addition to, etc.3.Changes in tenses and aspects and voices
tenses and aspects
active voice
passive voice
simple
(to)do
to be done
progressive
(to)be doing
perfect
(to)have done
to have been done
perfect progressive
to have been doing
to have been being done 4.Logical subject
1)Found in the sentence(subject or object)
e.g.He likes to climb mountains.We asked him to do it.2)Caused by for in the sentence “It is/was + adjective + for + noun/pron + to infinitive”
3)Caused by of in the sentence “It is/was + adjective + of + noun/pron + to infinitive”
Adjectives: kind good
nice
unwise wise
clever
silly
wrong
right
foolish
stupid
careless
considerate
rude
naughty
impolite.5.Usage Adjective + infinitive 5.1 Type I
This type of STC pattern is characterized by the fact that the subject of main clause is the logical subject of the infinitive.The adjectives in this pattern are all dynamic adjectives, which can be subdivided into the following categories.Adjectives showing emotional feelings, e.g.: He is glad to help others.Adjectives showing good or bad luck, e.g.: He was lucky to be able to find a job.Adjectives showing mental state or persona lattitude, e.g.: We are ready to make the attempt.If the subject of the main clause is not the logical subject of the infinitive, the logical should be expressed with an introductory for:
I?m quite willing for your brother to come with me.Adjectives showing character or behavioral trait, eg: He is foolish to meet her again.5.2 Type II In this type of SVC pattern, the subject of the main clause is the logical object of the infinitive.Here, the adjectives are generally stative adjectives.e.g.That question is difficult to answer.She is pleasant to talk to.These sentences can be transformed into an anticipatory It-construction: It is difficult to answer that question.But there are constructions of the same type that cannot be so transformed.e.g.They are attractive to look at.The river is narrow to sail up.5.3 Type III In this type, the subject of the main clause may be the logical subject or logical object of the infinitive.e.g.These books are easy to sell.But in most cases, the adjective can be turned into a corresponding adverb in deep structure.e.g.He is quite to take offence.He was hesitant to take action.Noun(phrase)+ infinitive
Here, the infinitive is used as post modification in noun phrases.1)Semantic relations
Semantically, the noun(phrase)and the infinitive that follows may form different relations, for instance, a subject-verb relation, that is, the noun(phrase)is the logical subject of the infinitive.e.g.Jim was the last guest to arrive.Sometimes, the noun(phrase)is the logical object of the infinitive, e.g.He has a large family to suggest
in the case of an intransitive infinitive, an appropriate preposition should be added.e.g.The boy needs a friend to play with.Sometimes, the noun phrase is in apposition to the infinitive that follows.e.g.The boy had an impulse to jump over the fence.2)infinitive----active or passive
As post modification, the infinitive may appear in active or passive voice.In some contexts, both active and passive forms are possible.e.g.The man to consult / to be consulted is Mr.Johnson.But in other case, an active form seems more natural than the passive.e.g.I have got a lot of letters to write.In still other cases, a passive form sounds more appropriate.e.g.The question to be discussed at the next meeting will be a hard nut to crack.3)“Noun + infinitive” vs “noun + preposition +-ing”
with some nouns such as attempt, chance, effort, freedom, intention, necessity, opportunity, reason, time, way, etc, the post modifier may be an infinitive or a “preposition +-ing” with no difference in meaning.e.g.The doctor made a bold attempt to save/ of saving the child?s life.With some other nouns, it is appropriate to use an infinitive rather than a “preposition +-ing” as post modifier.e.g.They have the ability to produce nuclear weapons.These nouns include ability, agreement, ambition, anxiety, curiosity, disposition, mind, obligation, permission, refusal, reluctance, temptation, tendency, wish, etc.There are still other nouns which do not admit of an infinitive as post modifier;a “preposition +-ing” is normally used.e.g.there is no hope of winning the game.Other nouns in the same use include aptitude, delay, difficulty, excuse, experience, interest, genius, habit, idea, motive, objection, passion, plan, possibility, skill success, etc.Verb + infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive to form a verb object relation, that is, the
Infinitive functions as the object of the verb.These collocations fall into three groups;1)verb + infinitive, 2)verb + object + infinitive, and 3)verb +(object)+ infinitive.4)verb + infinitive There are verbs that can be directly followed by an infinitive rather than an –ing form as object.e.g.He demanded to be told everything.These verbs include agree, aim, apply, arrange, choose, claim, decide, demand, desire, determine, endeavor, expect, hope, learn, manage, offer, pledge, prepare, pretend, profess, promise, refuse, resolve, seek, swear, threaten, undertake, venture, volunteer, etc.Some of these verbs such as agree, arrange, promise, resolve, claim, decide, demand, determine, hope, pretend, profess, swear, threaten, etc can also be followed by a corresponding that-clause.2)Verb + object + infinitive There are verbs that cannot be directly followed by an infinitive unless the verb and the infinitive are intervened by a noun or pronoun..These verbs include five groups: a)Verbs of perception or sense verbs such as see ,hear, watch, feel, ect.e.g.: Did you see him enter the building? b)Causative verbs such as have , let ,make, etc, eg: Don?t forget to have your children come with you.c)Some phrasal verbs such as arrange foe , ask for, rely on, etc, eg: I?ll arrange for you to meet the manager.d)Verbs showing mental state such as consider, declare, find(= consider), prove ,think, believe, discover, feel(= think), imagine , judge, suppose, understand, etc, eg: I believe him to be reliable.e)Verbs having the force of “ advice” ,”permission” , “forbiddance”, etc such as advise , allow , forbid , permit, recommend, require, urge, etc ,eg: I advised him to give up smoking.There are a few points to note about the use of these verbs :First , the infinitive after verbs under “group d” is invariably “to be” ,eg:
We know him to be reliable.He declared himself to be innocent.Secondly, after such verbs as consider, declare, find prove, think, the infinitive “to be” can be committed, eg:
He proved himself(to be)innocent.If the infinitive “to be” is in the perfective form , then it cannot be committed,: We considered him to have been foolish.Thirdly? in view of the fact that the noun or pronoun in this context may be viewed as the object of the finite verb that goes before or as the logical subject of the infinitive that follows , an alternative construction with a that –clause is available for interpretation ,eg: They believed him to be insane.Some of the verbs of “group e? such as advise, allow, forbid, permit, recommend can also be followed directly by an-ing form as object.Compare:
She advised us to give up smoking.And some may also be followed by a that-clause: They required us to get there before nine.1)Verb +(object)+ infinitive
With some verbs such as ask, can?t bear, hate, intend, like, prefer, want, etc, the object is optional, that is these verbs can occur either in the “verb + infinitive” construction in the “verb +object + infinitive” pattern, eg:
Do you intend to make a long stay there?
Most of these verbs can also can be followed by that-clause, eg: She asked to do more work.Some may also be directly followed by an-ing form, eg:
I have troubling you about trifles.6.The passive voice of infinitive verb phrase
1)form: to be done
2)usage: when the logical subject of infinitive is the do of infinitive verb, we should use passive voice.e.g.He ordered the work to be started at once.How would you like to have been being scolded(挨罵)all day.3)in the following cases, we should not use passive voice.Lecture 21-ing Participle
Teaching Aims(1)To know the grammatical function of –ing participle(2)To grasp the use of –ing participle
(3)To the differences between infinitive and –ing participle as noun Teaching Content
(1)The classification of –ing participle(gerund and present participle traditionally)(2)The use of gerund
(3)The use of present participle
The “–ing participle” is used to include both the traditional “present participle” and the “gerund”.1.Collocation of –ing participle with verbs This section is concerned with two collocations: “verb +--ing form” and “verb +object +preposition +--ing form”.1.1 verb+--ing form There are verbs that can only be followed by an –ing form rather than an infinitive as object.These verbs include admit, acknowledge, anticipate, advocate, appreciate, avoid, can’t help, can’t resist, can’t stand, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, don’t mind, ensure, enjoy, escape, excuse, evade, facilitate, fancy, favor, finish, give up, imagine, include, keep(on), mind, miss, pardon, postpone, practice, put off, resent, report, risk, stop, suggest, and etc.Some of the verbs listed above such as admit, acknowledge, anticipate, advocate, appreciate, can also take a corresponding that –clause as object.1.2 verb + object + preposition +--ing form There are verbs that cannot be directly followed by an –ing form unless it is interrupted by an object and a preposition.These verbs include trick, mislead, shame, surprise, trap, stop, prevent, restrain, hinder, save, etc, and the prepositions commonly used in this collocation are into and from.e.g.A sailor saved him from drowning.In some of these collocations such as “prevent/stop somebody from doing something”, the preposition from can be omitted, except that the finite verb occurs in the passive.We must prevent the trouble spreading.Similar collocations such as “thank sb.for doing sth., congratulate sb.on doing sth.and so on.2.Verbs followed either by infinitive or by--ing participle There are verbs that be followed either by an-ing form or by an infinitive.With some of these verbs, the choice between the two makes no difference in meaning;with others, however, different choices result in different interpretations.Either infinitive or-ing participle without change of meaning Verbs that can take either an infinitive or an-ing form as object include attempt, begin, can?t bear, continue, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, start, etc.Following these verbs, an infinitive or an-ing participle can alternate without change in basic meaning.There are cases, however, where the transforms are not in free variation.a)After process verbs such as begin, cease, continue, start and emotive verbs such as can’t bear, deserve, dread, hate intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, the infinitive is commonly used, omit, plan, prefer, require, the infinitive is commonly used to refer to a specific act while the-ing participle is used is to refer to a general act, eg: I can?t bear living alone.I can?t bear to see the child so badly treated.Phil prefers doing it that way.He prefers to go by train this evening.b)After need, want, require, desire, an active –ing form can be used to denote a passive meaning which can also be expressed by a passive infinitive.e.g.This letter needs to be signed by the manager.This letter needs signing by the manager.c)After begin and start, either infinitive or –ing form is possible, but when the infinitive is stative verb, it normally goes with begin.e.g.We begin to see what he means.She began to believe his story.When begin/start is in the progressive, it is also an infiitive, not an –ing form that is normally used.e.g.It?s beginning to rain.I?m starting to work on my essay next week.2.2 Either infinitive or –ing form with different meanings
The verbs that admit of either of an infinitive or an-ing form with different mernings falls into five sub-classes:
a)After remember and forget, infinitive refers to a second act that follows the first , and the-ing participle to a previous venet ,eg: Can?t you remember telling me the story last night?
=You told me the story last night.Can?t you remember it? You must tell him all that.=You must tell him all that.Don?t foget it.The use of regret also presents such a contrast: I regret telling you that John stole it.=I regret that I told you.I regret to tell you that John stole it.=I?m sorry to tell you.But “I regret telling you…” can also be interpreted as: I regret that I am telling you …
b)After stop, leave off, go on, go on with, go on to, the –ing participle functions as object, and while the infinitive as adverbial of purpose.They stopped watching TV at 8:00.They stopped to watch TV at 8:00.c)After try, mean, can’t help, the choice between an infinitive and an-ing form depends on the meaning of the preceding verb itself.I didn?t mean to spend too much money on that project.Your plan would mean spending a lot of money.d)After agree, decide, there is a choice between the infinitive and “preposition +-ing” They agreed to share the apples.They agreed on sharing the apples.e)After encourage, permit, allow, recommend, advise, authorize，either the-ing participle or the infinitive with an expressed logical subject can be used.She doesn?t allow smoking here.She doesn?t allow us to smoke here
第二篇：英語語法 教案
教
案
課程名稱
英語語法
Lecture 1 Sentence Structure
教學重點及難點：
1.The classification of bound morpheme and the frequently applied bound morphemes;
2.The basic clause types and their transformation and expansion
教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Basic Concepts of morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences;2.Ways of word-formation: affixation, derivation and composition;3.Ways of sentence analysis: one ways is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.The other way is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.4.Basic clause types include SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SvoO.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;a statement into a question, and a active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.Lecture 1 Sentence structure Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 clause elements As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases;it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.1)Subject and predicate A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate.The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tell of what the sentence is about.The predicate says something about the subject and bear the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.2)Two ways of sentence analysis To facilitate description of how English language works, sentences can be analyzed in two ways.One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.The other ways of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation(object, complement or adverbial).1.2 basic clause types and their transformation and expansion In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven basic types.Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1)Basic clause types The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SVoO.These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complement.The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVA.The main verb in an SVO pattern us a monotranstitive which must be followed by an object, and with some monotransitives the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object+ object complement.The main verb in an SVoO pattern is a ditransitive verb which is to e followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.2)Transformation and expansion of basic clause types The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;s statement into a question;and an active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.Lectures 2&3 Subject-verb Concord
教學重點及難點： 1.The appliance of grammatical, notional and proximity concords in some special conditions;
2.Problems of subject-verb concord.教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.The concepts of three principles guiding subject-verb concord: grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity concord.2.Problems of concord with a coordinate subject: concord with ―and‖ or ―both…and‖, concord with ―or‖/ ―either…or‖, ―nor‖/ ―neither…nor‖, ―not only…but also‖;
3.Problems of concord with expressions of quality as subject: concord with expression of definite quality as subject, concord with expression of indefinite quality as subject;
4.Other problems of subject-verb concord: problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject, subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause or subject, subject-verb concord in relative clauses, cleft-sentences, and existential sentences.Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord(I)2.1 Guiding principles
1)Grammatical concord
2)Notional concord
3)Proximity 2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in-s Disease and game names ending in –s
They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Subject names ending in –ics
Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Geographical names ending in –s
Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.4)
Other nouns ending in –s Disease and game names ending in –s
They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Measles, mumps, rickets, shingles, diabetes, arthritis, phlebitis, AIDS, etc.Subject names ending in –ics
Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Acoustics, classics, electronics, informatics, linguistics, mechanics, optics, plastics, thermodynamics, etc.Geographical names ending in –s
Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.Other nouns ending in –s
Calipers, compasses, flares, forceps, glasses, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, shades, shorts, suspenders, spectacles, etc.2.3 problems of concord with collective nouns as subject 1)Collective nouns usually used as plural
People, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.2)Collective nouns usually used as singular
Foliage, cutlery, poetry, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular
Couple, crew, government, majority, opposition ,etc 4)A committee, etc + plural noun
A committee / board / panel of
Lecture 3
Subject-verb Concord(II)Teaching Contents 3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject 3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord
3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject Coordination by “and” or “both …and”
It is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is singular when referring to one person or thing.e.g.Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.Your friend and adviser has agreed to lend me his money.After “each… and each…” or “every… and every…”, the verb is also in the singular form: e.g.Each man and each woman is asked to help.Every flower and every bush is to be cut down.The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one, and somebody/someone combine with singular verb forms, even though co-referent pronouns and determiners may be plural forms.e.g.[Everybody]‘s doing what they think they‘re supposed to do.Nobody has their fridges repaired any more, they can‘t afford it.each/every… he/she/they
e.g.At the moment each of the girls was too busy thinking about her own personal safety to care much about the luggage.But ―each/every+ singular n.… they/their‖ is right as well.e.g.Each of the students should have his/their own books.Every member brings their own lunch.In such exams as TOEFL, the pronoun referring to
―nobody/everybody/everyone/someone/somebody/anybody/anyone/no one‖ can only be he/his instead of they/their.However, as English learners it must be known that ―everyone…they‖ is used more often than ―everyone…h(huán)e‖.e.g.Everyone warned you, didn‘t they?
Has anybody brought their camera? No one could have blamed themselves for that.Every one / each / each one /*every one of the students should have their/his own books.2)Coordination by “or” / “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “not only...but also” Here the problem is dealt with according to the principle of proximity.e.g.My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Informally we can have the following use: e.g.Neither he nor his wife have arrived.In formal cases, especially in exams, ―neither‖ is used with singular verb.e.g.Neither of them is bright.When used with plural nouns in informal cases, ―neither‖ can also be used with plural verb.e.g.Neither of the books are/is very interesting.---I can‘t swim.----Neither can I.---He didn‘t like the play.---Nor did we.Neither is usually in formal cases, but nor is often used in spoken English.3)Subject + as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, no less than;with, along with, together with, in addition to, except + Verb(determined by the form of the subject e.g.Some of the workers, as well as the manager, were working during the holidays.No one except two students was late for the dinner.3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 1)Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject
a)When regarded as a single unit, the verb is singular;when regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form.e.g.Twenty years in prison was the penalty he had to pay.b)a fraction/percentage + of-phrase+(<--)verb e.g.Thirty-five percent of the doctors were women.c)“A + B /A×B” + Verb(singular/plural);“A－B/A÷B”+ Verb(singular)e.g.Forty minus fifteen leaves twenty-five.40-15=25
d)one in/out of + Plural noun + Verb(fml.Singular;infml.plural)e.g.One in ten students has/have failed the exam.2)Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject.a)all of/some of/ none of /half of/most of + noun phrase of indefinite quantity +(<--)verb e.g.Most of the money was recovered by Deputy Player.Usage is fairly evenly divided between singular and plural concord with none of: e.g.None of us has been aboard except Vinck.None of us really believe it‘s ever going to happen not to us, she said at last.[Fiction] However, none alone shows a distinct preference for singular concord: e.g.[None] describes him/herself as such in the party‘s official literature.(NEWS)Plural concord is the norm in conversation, while in the written registers there is an overall preference for singular concord.None of + N.+ V 1)當none與不可數(shù)名詞連用或指代不可數(shù)名詞時，其謂語動詞總是用單數(shù)。e.g.I wanted some more coffee, but there was none left.2)當none與復數(shù)名詞連用或指代復數(shù)名詞時，傳統(tǒng)語法規(guī)定其謂語動詞必須用單數(shù)。此用法得到英語教材和各類英語實體的肯定和強調。但是，實際應用中人們往往使用―概念一致‖原則，用動詞的復數(shù)形式。所以，Quirk說：―用復數(shù)動詞較為常見，并且，在正式用法中也為人們普遍接受。‖ e.g.None of the books has/have been placed on the shelves.None but the brave deserves the fair.唯有勇者才配得上美女。
None are so deaf as those who will not hear.不愿聽從的人是最聾的人。
no one 單獨使用時只用于指人。
e.g.No one should pride themselves on this result.但是，no one之后接-of短語時，既可指人也可指物。e.g.No one of you could lift it.I reach three books on this subject, no one of which was helpful.None 既可指人也可指物。
e.g.How many elephants did you see? None.No one of them really understands the problems.No one 與no-one在英語里是并存的，目前尚未統(tǒng)一形式。No-one 為英國英語，而no one是美國英語
b)lots of/heaps of/loads of/scads of/plenty of + noun phrase +(<--)verb e.g.Lots of stuff is going to waste.c)a portion of/a series of/a pile of/a panel of + noun phrase + verb(singular)e.g.A substantial portion of reports is missing a collection of + pl.n.+ singular verb
There is a collection of pictures at the Town Hall.a great deal / a great many
a great(good)deal之后要加介詞of才能與名詞連用，而a great(good)many可以直接與名詞連用。另外，a great deal of跟不可數(shù)名詞連用，而a great many則與可數(shù)名詞連用。
e.g.The chest contained a great/good deal of money.A great deal還可作形容詞或副詞比較級的修飾語 e.g.That job was a great deal easier.a lot of 既可跟不可數(shù)名詞也可跟可數(shù)名詞，謂語動詞決定于名詞的單復數(shù)。e.g.There is a lot of beer in those bottles there.lots of 與amounts of , quantities of 不同，后兩者是中心詞而非修飾語。
e.g.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.Quantities of food were on the table.a variety of + n.做主語時，其謂語動詞決定于名詞的數(shù)，也就是說，此處起作用的是概念一致原則。
e.g.A great variety of books were recently published.a wide range of + pl.n.充當主語時，其謂語動詞應用單數(shù)；a bouquet of flowers也是用單數(shù)。
e.g.A wide range of washing-machines and refrigerators is displayed in our showroom.A bouquet of flowers was presented to the vicar‘s wife.a set of + pl.n.做主語時，人們使用謂語動詞的形式并不是很一致。
e.g.There is a set of rules that you must follow if you are going mountain-climbing.There are set of unscrupulous scoundrels.d)determiner + species nouns(kind/type/sort)of + noun phrase(singular countable noun/uncountable noun)+verb(singular)e.g.This kind of apples is highly priced.With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun(e.g.that kind of thing v.all kinds of things).But we also find: Singular species noun + pl.noun e.g.I don‘t know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.I mean, do we want these kind of people in our team?
Pl.species noun + singular noun e.g.Thieves tended to target certain types of car he said.e)many a + noun phrase + verb(singular)
more than one + singular noun + singular verb
more pl.noun + than one + pl.verb e.g.Many a man has sacrificed his life.More than one member has protested against the proposal.More persons than one have been involved.f)In “an average of/a majority of + noun phrase(pl.)+ verb”, when noun is regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form;otherwise, it is singular.e.g.A majority of the town's younger men are moving to the city.A majority of three votes to one was recorded.3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord 1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject When the subject is a nominal clause introduced
by what, which, how, why, whether, the verb usually takes the singular form.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both…and, a plural verb is used.e.g.What I saw was a car.What I saw and think are no business of yours.In SVC construction with a what-clause as subject，when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.e.g.What they want are promises.2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject Generally speaking, the verb is singular.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause is singular when the subject refers to one thing, and is plural when the
subject refers to separate things.e.g.To eat well is all he asks.3)Subject-verb concord in relative clauses one of + plural noun + relative clause(verb)the(only)one of + plural noun + relative clause(singular verb)4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences Here the verb is determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.I----am;me---third person singular number e.g.It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences Generally the verb is determined by the notional subject.When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject.But in informal style, esp.in spoken language, the verb is often singular.e.g.There is a book on the desk.There is many people in the street.There is more grace and less carelessness.American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British.The short term and the long term loan are handled differently.按英語慣用法，一個單數(shù)名詞受前置限定時，如果此名詞表示兩個或兩個以上的事物，根據(jù)概念一致的原則，其謂語動詞用復數(shù)；但是當此類名詞受后置限制時，其謂語動詞用單數(shù)。
e.g.Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.majority
許多英美出版的語法書和慣用法都指出，majority和minority不能與不可數(shù)名詞連用。T.Wood 的―Current English Usage‖(p161)說： ―Majority may be used only for number with countable nouns, not for amount or quantity with mass nouns: The majority of the eggs were bad is correct;The majority of the butter was bad is not.Similarly, we cannot speak of the majority of the land/time/one‘s wealth.We must use most, or the greater part‖.但是，Practical English Usage(1980)有一例： e.g.The majority of the damage is easy to repair.建議按照T.Wood的觀點來使用the majority of。
Majority雖然在語法上是個單數(shù)名詞，但在概念上卻具有復數(shù)的意義：most, almost all, many。因此一般與復數(shù)動詞連用。e.g.The majority of children like sweets.The majority of doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.若后面沒有-of短語時，the majority 作主語時。如果泛指多數(shù)（與少數(shù)相對），謂語單復數(shù)均可。Eg，The majority is /are doing its/their best。//in favor of the plan。//against him。
1．如果指整體、統(tǒng)一體，majority 常被看作單數(shù)。
The majority is always able to impose its will on the minority。// is for him。2.如果指多數(shù)中的各個成員, majority 被看成復數(shù)。
The majority are of different minds on the matter 3．如果指多出的數(shù)目，majority 看成單數(shù)。
Her Majority was 5 vote //His majority was a big(small)one..the rest(+of noun)+verb 遵循概念一致原則，而非語法一致原則。e.g.The rest are to wait for us.The rest needs no telling.the + adjective 做主語：
1）當表示一類人的整體時，e.g.the young, the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dead, 謂語動詞用復數(shù)。
e.g.The wise look to the wiser for advice.2）當表示具體的人，而不是某一類人的整體，謂語動詞用單數(shù)形式。e.g.The deceased is my uncle.3）表示抽象的概念或某種籠統(tǒng)的東西時，謂語動詞用單數(shù)形式。e.g.The best is yet to come.The unknown is always something to be feared.Worth + of + pl.noun , 其謂語動詞形式
取決于上下文和所表達的真正意思。當充當of賓語 的名詞具有重要意義時，謂語動詞用復數(shù)形式，當 所表達的價值具有重要意義時，則謂語動詞用單數(shù) 形式。
e.g.Nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes were stolen.（此處重要的是香煙被盜）大約價值1000英鎊的香煙被盜。
There is nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes on that shelf.（此處重要的是香煙的價值）在那個架子上的香煙價值大約為1000英鎊
Lesson 4
Noun and noun phrase
教學重點及難點：
Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun.教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Classification of nouns: simple, compound and derivative nouns, proper and common nouns, count and noncount nouns.2.Number forms of nouns: regular and irregular plural forms of nouns;
3.Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun: number forms of the collective noun, number forms of the material nouns, number forms of the abstract noun, number forms of the proper noun;
4.Partitives: the definition of partitives, general partitives, partitives related to the shape of things, partitives related to volume, partitives related to the state of action, Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks.Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase
Teaching Contents 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 4.2 Number forms of nouns 4.3 Partitives 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 1)Classification of nouns a)Simple, compound and derivative nouns: by word-formation b)Common and proper nouns: by lexical meaning C)Countable noun and uncountable noun This classification is based on the grammatical features of nouns instead of whether they are countable.Regarding grammatical features, uncountable nouns cannot have numeral before them(*two information), have no plural forms(*informations)and cannot be modified by ―how many‖ but by ―how much‖
2)Functions of noun phrases Nouns can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicative verb.e.g.They elected him chairman of the board.He returned last night.A photo is taken each time this button is pushed
The general pattern of noun phrase is
(Determiner)+(premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier)The premodifier of noun phrase can be noun as well as adj.or participle.e.g.a table leg, water supply, the life sciences When noun is used as premodifier, it can be either singular, plural, or both.(1)Singular noun as premodifier e.g.table legs = legs of a table / tables
a shoe store = a store that sells shoes
a car race = a race between cars
a kitchen sink = a sink in a kitchen When the plural noun in the postmodifier is changed into premodifier, it usually becomes singular.e.g.a cloth for dishes = a dish cloth
decay of teeth = tooth decay
a station for buses = a bus station
a pocket for trousers = a trouser pocket
a tray for ashes = an ash tray(2)Singular or plural noun as premodifier
a.There is ambiguity here.foreign language(s)department= department of foreign languages
(foreign language department = department of a foreign language)soft drinks manufacturer = manufacturer that produces several kinds of soft drink soft drink manufacturer = manufacturer that produces one kind of soft drink b.different meanings
e.g.an art degree = a degree in fine art an Arts degree = a degree in the humanities(3)Only plural noun as premodifier e.g.a customs officer, a goods train, clothes hanger, sales technique, contents bill, savings bank
It is more popular to use plural nouns as premodifiers in British English than in American English.Now it tends to increase.(4)When the head of the noun phrase is collective noun or name of an organization, the plural noun as the premodifier can have two forms, but the same meaning.e.g.Scientists(‘)Institute for Public Information But the singular noun is seldom used.e.g.Yibin Teachers/ Teachers‘/ *Teacher‘s College 4.2 Number forms of nouns
Number is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1)Regular and irregular plural The regular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base, while the irregular is formed by changing the internal vowel or by changing the ending of the noun.Irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French.Their plural forms are known as ―foreign plurals‖, e.g.basis—bases, criterion—criteria.Some borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English one.e.g.medium—media – mediums For some, their singular and plural number share the same form，A)Animal names Singular form and regular plural coexist: Antelope, elk, fish, flounder, herring, reindeer, shrimp, woodcock（羚羊，麋，魚，比目魚，鯡魚，馴鹿，蝦，丘鷸（別名山鷸）e.g.He caught several fish/three little fishes.They went catching shrimp/shrimps.I shot two elk/elks.b)Singular form is usually used: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine（野牛 , 松雞，鵪鶉，鮭（大麻哈魚），豬）e.g.The farmer raises many quail/quails and chickens.c)Singular form is always used: cod, deer, mackerel, trout, sheep.（鱈，鹿，鮐魚，真鱒）e.g.This is a deer.Those are deer.B).Nationality nouns Some words ending in sound /z/ or /s/ use singular form: Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, Sinhalese, Vietnamese, Swiss e.g.I am a Chinese.There are four Chinese in the training class.C)Quantitative nouns(hundred/thousand/million/billion)a)Cardinal numeral + hundred/thousand/million/billion +n.e.g.two hundred / *two hundred of years ago That‘s going to take hundreds of/*hundreds years.Cardinal numeral + million + n.Cardinal numeral + millions of + n.e.g.three millions of dollars
three million dollars When the noun is omitted, if it is not monetary unit, the singular form is more often used than the plural form;if it is, the regular plural form is used.e.g.The population rose to four million / millions.The firm had to pay three millions.b)several/many/a few + singular / plural(of)+ n.e.g.He has played the part several hundred times / several hundreds of times.some + regular plural + n.e.g.He has played the piano some hundreds of times / many, many times.(some hundred times = about a hundred times)c)dozen, score e.g.She bought three score(of)eggs.I have been there dozens of times.He has already asked me several dozens of/ many scores of times.2)Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouns a)Number forms of the collective noun Some are countable, while some are not.Countable nouns behave like individual nouns.An uncountable one has no plural form;if we want to count the number, we will use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective, e.g.poetry—poem.Some collective nouns can be used in either singular or plural sense.The following verb is determined by the singular or plural sense.b)Number forms of the material noun Generally they are [U] and have no plural form.However, some items can be used either uncountably or countably.Some material nouns can take plural endings to convey the large quantity or scope , e.g.sand/sands, snow/snows
Sometimes material nouns are [C] to express ―one type of‖ or ―various types of‖ this material.e.g.I n Britain tea is usually drunk with sugar in it.I‘d like to have a famous tea.We hardly bought wine at lunch time.We like wines and liquors.Some material nouns become [C] to express ―packet of ‖, ―cups of‖.e.g.How many beers were you wanting?
How many tins of beer were you wanting? When referring to the material itself, they are [U];otherwise, they are [C], e.g.stone, rubber
c)Number forms of the abstract noun Mostly they are [U] and cannot take such determiners as a/one or plural forms.A few are [C], e.g.victory—victories.Some are not [C], although they have plural endings, e.g.*several difficulties.The addition of a plural ending to some can change the meaning of the base, e.g.experience—experiences.Some can only use singular form with ―a‖, some only plural form, some both.e.g.He has a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love of cats.He had a good knowledge of mathematics.Give my best regards to your parents.He refused with much regret / many regrets.I have a suspicion / suspicions that he‘s right.Some abstract nouns can have indefinite article to express ―a type of‖ or ―an example of‖.a)Some can have an indefinite article only if modifier exists.e.g.They are doing *a business / a brisk business.I attach an exaggerated importance/importance to regular exercise.b)If modifier is implied, ―a/an‖ can appear.e.g.She has had an education(= a good education).c)Some can have ―a/an‖ regardless of modifier.e.g.A knowledge/ A good knowledge of English is essential.d)Number forms of the proper noun They have no plural forms, except for such proper name as the United States, the Philippines, the Netherlands.When one takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, e.g.the Browns
4.3 Partitives
They are also called unit nouns and used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass.1)general partitives: piece, bit, item, article 2)partitives related to the shape of things: cake, bar, drop, ear, flight, grain, head, loaf, lump 3)partitives related to volume: bottle, bowl, pail, bucket, handful, spoonful.4)partitives related to the state of action: a fit of anger/coughing/laughter/fever 5)partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks: pair, herd, litter, swarm, bench, troupe, shoal.Lesson 5 Genitive noun
教學重點及難點：
1.The differences between ?s genitive and of genitive;
2.The use of independent genitive and double genitive
教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Formation of genitive nouns, meanings of genitive nouns as possessive genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, time, distance, etc, descriptive genitive;
2.Use of genitive nouns: genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖;
3.Independent genitive and double genitive: independent genitive is used when the missing noun ahs occurred somewhere in the context, when the missing noun refers to somebody‘s house or residence, church, school, or other public buildings.The formation of double genitive and the difference between double genitive and of genitive.Lecture 5
Genitive Noun Teaching Contents 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns
5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive
Case is a grammatical category and denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.As modern English is basically an analytic language, English nouns have not a complicated case system like that of Latin, German, or modern Russian.The different grammatical functions of English nouns in a sentence are mostly determined by the word order, not by case form.It is in this sense that the genitive case may be viewed as a relic of the old case system.The genitive was traditionally labelled as the possessive case.Two Case systems: the unmarked common case and the marked genitive case: boy, boy‘s
The genitive case: the inflected genitive(the –s genitive)(屈折所屬格）and the periphrastic genitive(the of-genitive)（迂回所屬格）e.g.the children‘s toys，the toys of children 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns 1)Rules of formation of the –s genitive a)adding ‘s to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that don‘t end in –s , e.g.my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes
b)adding an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s, e.g.the teachers‘ college, the workers‘ achievements
c)adding ‘s to the compound nouns or to the end of a postmodified noun phrase, e.g.my brother-in-law‘s friend, a cat and dog‘s life, [the teacher of music]‘s room
d)In coordinate nouns, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective possession, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common possession, e.g.America‘s and England‘s problems(respective);
America and England‘s problems(in common)
Coordinated genitive
1.The head of the noun phrase is singular: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s child is really lovely.(The child is a joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)2.The head of the noun phrase is plural: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s children are really lovely.(The children are joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)
3.John‘s and Mary‘s children:
A.the children who are offspring of John and Mary B.John‘s child and Mary‘s child C.John‘s children and Mary‘s child D.John‘s child and Mary‘s children E.John‘s children and Mary‘s children Coordinated genitives are formal.Tom and his brother‘s children F
4.How to avoid ambiguity? a.I‘m interested in Henry and Herbert‘s book(s)/ the book(s)of Henry and Herbert.b.Henry‘s house and Mr.Jones‘s are not far from here.5.―Or‖ only connects coordinated genitive Is that a lady‘s or gentleman‘s wrist-watch? Is that a wrist-watch of a lady or gentleman? I wonder whether it is Tom‘s or Peter‘s house / the house of Tom or Peter.e)In the construction of ―noun phrase + appositive‖, the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive, e.g.Where is my classmate Nancy‘s car? Tom has gone to Basel‘s, the blacksmith‘s shop f)In personal names ending in sibilant /z/, the genitive ending can either be ‘s or an apostrophe only, but it can only be ‘s when personal names end in other sibilant sounds，e.g.Burns‘ / Burns‘s poem(sibilant /z/);
Ross‘s poem
2)Meanings of genitive nouns The genitive is chiefly used to denote possession, and therefore, is traditionally called ―possessive case‖.But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to possession, as shown in the following: a)Possessive genitive，e.g.my son‘s wife, Mrs.Johnson‘s passport
b)Subjective genitive, e.g.the student‘s application
c)Objective genitive e.g.the family‘s support d)Genitive of origin e.g.the girl‘s story
e)Descriptive(Classifying)genitive(not of-genitive)e.g.a women‘s college
(=college for women/*of women)f)Genitive of measure e.g.a four days‘ journey, two dollars‘ worth of apples
3)Uses of genitive nouns Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖,(traditionally called possessive pronouns), e.g.the boy‘s father= his father Mary‘s letter = her letter
a)As central determiners, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiner, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier.e.g.Mary‘s letter, * a Mary‘s letter;
Mary‘s interesting letter, * interesting Mary‘s letter
This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure.These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrases, e.g.a/the children‘s book, a pleasant three day‘s journey
Classifying genitive differ in a number of respects from specifying constructions.1)They respond to the question ―What kind of …?‖ rather than ―whose …?‖, which displays their similarity to adjectives and other such noun premodifiers, rather than to determiners.In fact, they cannot be replaced by possessive determiners.2)They can be preceded by determiners and modifiers of the whole noun phrase, rather than of the genitive noun alone: a new children‘s book.This again is true also for adjective and noun premodifiers of nouns.3)They form an inseparable combination with the following noun and do not usually allow an intervening adjective: *children‘s new book.4)They are frequently paraphrased by a for-phrase rather than an of construction, as in books for children.Compare again constructions with noun premodifier like baby clothes.These characteristics reflect the close bond between a classifying genitive and the following head noun.b)The choice of genitive
The –s genitive is favoured by the animate nouns in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics.The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns.The main factor governing the choice of the one or the other genitive form is the animate or rather the personal quality of the noun.But there is considerable overlap in the use of the two forms.The animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible in most cases.Inanimate nouns regularly take the of-genitive, but a great many occur with the –s genitive.The four classes of animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible a)Personal names---George Washington‘s statue, Susan‘s pupils b)Personal nouns---the boy‘s new shirt, my sister-in-law‘s hat
c)Collective nouns---the government‘s conviction, the majority‘s choice d)Higher animals
---the horse‘s neck, the tiger‘s strips
The –s genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns a)Geographical names---continents: Europe‘s future---countries: China‘s development
---states: Minnesota‘s immigrants
---cities/towns: Hollywood‘s studios, London‘s water supply
---universities: Harvard‘s Linguistics Department b)Locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions:---the world‘s economic organization, the moon‘s interior, the school‘s history c)Temporal nouns---a week‘s holiday
d)Nouns of special interest to human activity---my life‘s aim, love‘s spirit, the novel‘s structure, the wine‘s character, television‘s future
The use of the –s genitive and of-genitive(1)We must use the –s genitive when…
a)the noun modified is followed by a post-modifier or an appositive.---The monitor‘s brother, an actor was here then.b)it is a classifying genitive.---Have you a copy of the teacher‘s book?
c)the –s genitive is used in some set expressions:---a wolf in sheep‘s clothing
People don‘t get their money‘s worth.*People don‘t get the worth of their money.We must use the of-genitive when…
a)the noun in the of-phrase is followed by some modifiers or appositives---Some sentences have been changed at the suggestion of the teachers present in the meeting.b)the definite article +-ed participle or adjective denoting a class of people in the of-phrase structure---the life of the poor c)the prepositional complementation in the of-phrase expresses the origin of the headword modified
---the joy of his return(The joy derives from his return)
d)the genitive is used to express the possessive relationship between part and whole---the middle of the night---the back of the classroom---the top of the page---the bottom of the ladder e)there are determiners before the two nouns---their knowledge of her feeling---this dog of the country
The difference between the –s genitive and the of-genitive(a)The –s genitive : regularity and continuity
the of-genitive : contingency of things---my last week‘s article(每周一次的連載文章）---my article of last week(偶爾刊登的文章）(b)The –s genitive: informal
the of-genitive: formal---the woman next door‘s husband---the foreign policy of China
(c)The –s genitive: literal sense(字面意義）
the of-genitive: extended meaning(引申意義）and symbolic meaning(象征意義）
---the tree‘s top（樹梢）
---the top of the tree(出類拔萃）---the table‘s top(桌面）
---the top of the table（上座，首席）
5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive 1)Independent genitive When the genitive occurs without a following head, i.e.with the head of the noun phrase omitted, and functions independently as an element, it is called independent genitive.a)The noun occurring in the context can be retrieved---My car is faster than John‘s(car).b)Names and nouns referring to persons which denote residence:
See you at Harry‘s tomorrow.---Shall we meet at his brother‘s(house).c)Proper nouns for certain well-known buildings:
St.Paul‘s(Cathedral), Queen‘s(College)St.James‘s(Palace)The noun: church, school, public buildings---He lives near St.Paul‘s(Cathedral)in London.d)Words for shops denoted by the type of shopkeeper: the baker‘s/butcher‘s/grocer‘s/greengrocer‘s commercial firms---I buy my meat at Johnson‘s(shop).2)Double genitive An independent genitive when functioning as prepositional complementation is called post-genitive.The prepositional phrase with a post-genitive as complementation is called double genitive.---a friend of my father‘s 1)The use of the double genitive a)Partitive meaning denoting ―one of…‖---This is a book of my mother‘s.(one of …)
b.indefinite, definite, personal---a friend of the doctor‘s(*the cover of a book‘s)Attention to some points a)Noun head with ―this, these, that, those‖: it has emotional colouring : praise, disapproval, pleasure, displeasure---That child of his sister‘s is very clever.---That son of Henry‘s is a rascal.a boy of a girl 一般的of短語用來修飾或限制前面的名詞的，但是，在此處：限定詞+名詞1+of + a/an + 名詞2，of短語與前面的名詞構成同位關系，而且名詞2是概念的中心，of短語是對名詞2進行修飾的，就像一個形容詞：
an angel of a wife = an angelic wife;the fool of a policeman = the foolish policeman a boy of a girl 一個男孩氣的女孩子 *一個女孩氣的男孩 a palace of a house 宮殿般的房子
a great elephant of a woman 一個龐大如象的女人
此結構的特點是：名詞2前必須使用不定冠詞，而名詞1前可用任何限定詞(a, this, that, her, your)e.g.that dog of a landlord 狗地主
that great pig of a Louis XVIII 大肥豬路易十八
this / a / their palace of a house *these palaces of a house
b)Difference between double genitive and of phrase---He is a friend of my father‘s.(many, one of them)---He is a friend of my father.(in good terms)A: Who told you that? B: A friend of your father‘s.A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father.c)The noun head: picture, portrait, printing, photograph, bust, statue The double genitive---the picture that one keeps The of phrase---the picture of one‘s own---This is a portrait of Mr.Black‘s---This is a portrait of Mr.Black d)The noun head: criticism, opinion, judgment，---a criticism of William‘s = a criticism offered by William---a criticism of William = a criticism about William Correct the errors of the genitives if any: 1.Where‘s the dictionary of Cathy‘s?
2.I don‘t know whether this is a lady or a gentleman‘s wrist-watch.3.Her love of a child took the fancy of all of us.4.The poem of Shelly‘s he recited a hundred times was Ode to the West Wind.5.Andrew and Horatia‘s eyes met.1.that dictionary of Cathy‘s
2.a lady‘s or(a)gentleman‘s wristwatch 3.T 4.T 5.T
Lesson 6 Determiners(I)
教學重點及難點：
1.collocations between determiners: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.2.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: some, any, every ,much, etc.教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Collocations between determiners and nouns: determiners with all three classes of nouns, with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, noncount nouns, etc;
2.Collocations between three kind of determiners: the category of predeterminer ,central determiner and postdeterminer, word order of three subclasses of determiners: predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer;
3.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a few, a little, some, any, all, both, every, each, either, neither.Determiners, as a class of words, include: article(definite article, indefinite article, and zero article), possessive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers 6.1.Collocations between determiners and nouns
The choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three classes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural cont nouns and noucount nouns.These tree classes of nouns demand appropriate determiners to collocate with.Determiners with all three classes of nouns
Determiners such as possessive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some any, no, the other, and whom can go with all the three classes of nouns, eg: The car the cars the money His car his cars his money Some book some books some money No book no books no money Whose book whose books whose money Determiners with singular count nouns only Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a ,such a can only collocate with singular count nouns, eg: Each worker every student Either book neither book Another book such a book Determiners with plural count nouns only Determiners such as, two, three, etc, another, two/ three, many,(a)few, several, these, those, a(great)number of can only collocate with plural count nouns, eg: Both workers
(a)few words Several girls
these / those tourists A number of men
many students Determiners with noncount nouns only Determiners such as a(little)bit of ,a great amount of ,a great deal of ,(a)little, much, less ,least can only collocate with noncount nouns, eg: Much noise(a)little courage A bit of fun
a large amount of money Less oil
(the)least oil Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with wither singular or plurals count nouns, eg‖ The first rose/ roses The last man/ men The next meeting/ meetings Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only Determiners such as this that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns, eg: This/ that job
this / that work determiners with plural and noncount nouns only Determiners such as a lot of , lots of , plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns,eg: Enough copies
enough bread More essays
more time Most people
most work This class of determiners may also include less and least, which, as has been mentioned above, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present day English, especially in formal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns,eg: Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.This use of less and least is regarded by some as non-standard.6.2)Collocations between determiners
As has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun 0phrase contains more than one determiner.Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers According to their potential, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.Central determiners included: the article;demonstrative determiner;possessive determiners;genitive nouns;some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.Note that central determiners are mutually exclusive and that no two members of the above-cited items ever occur together in a noun phrase.Predeterminers are those hat precede central determiners.Predeterminers are also mutually exclusive.They include: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, etc.one-third, two-fifths, etc;what, such(a/an).Postdeterminers refer to those that follow central or predeterminers.Postdeterminers are not mutually exclusive, that is to say, two or more such items can co=occur in a noun phrase.This subclass includes: cardinal numerals;ordinal numerals;next, another ,etc;many much,(a_ few,(a)little, fewer,(the)fewest, less(the)least, more, most;several, plenty of , a lot of lots of , a great/large/good number of, a great/good deal of , a large/ small amount of ,such.Word order of three subclasses of determiners
When a noun phrase contains all three subclasses of determiners, their normal order is ―predetermine + central determiner + post determiner(s)‖: All the four students All these last few days Both his two sisters If the noun phrase contains only two of the subclassed, they follow the same order, ie ―predeterminer + central determiner‖:
Half his income Both his parents All the tourists ―central determiner+postdeterminer‖: the author‘s last books some such alloy his last few words ―predeterminer+postdeterminer‖: all three books all other students half such people
―postdeterminer+postdeterminer‖ several hundred tourists three other girls many more copies 6.3)A comparative study of some determiner usage many, much, a lot of ,lots of, plenty of
Lesson 7 Determiners(II)--Articles
教學重點及難點：
1.Articles in use with different classes of nouns;
2.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles
教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Generic and specific reference: generic reference, specific reference, anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference.2.Articles in use with different classes of noun: articles in use with the proper noun, articles in use with the common noun and other use of articles;
3.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles: phrases with zero articles as at anchor, in force, out of hand etc, phrases with definite articles as for the time being, on the spot, in the long run, etc, and examples with indefinite articles as before person‘s names, or before the non-finite element, etc.Lecture 7 Determiners(ii)---articles In the previous lecture we touched upon the fact that articles are the most typical of determiners.Now we will concentrate on this topic.English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article.As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article---the zero article.It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles---the definite, the indefinite, and the zero articles.7.1 generic and specific references In discussing the use of article, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.generic reference When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any membe4r representative of a class of people of things.All the three forms of article can be used generically to refer to members of a class as a whole.In certain contexts, the definite article followed by a singular count noun often performs a generic function.The same function can also be performed by the definite article combining with certain adjectives or adjectival participles.Generic reference can also be denoted by the indefinite article followed by a singular count noun.This is especially common in giving definitions.In so doing, we can also use plural and noncount nouns without the presence of any determiner.This may be referred to as the generic use of the zero article.specific reference Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a class of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the class.Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.Definite specific reference implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.The definite article is most frequently used in this sense.In the case of indefinite specific reference the person or thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified.This kind of referential meaning is most commonly expressed by the indefinite article.In certain contexts and situations the zero article can perform the same function.anaphoric, anaphoric and situational reference Definite specific reference can be anaphoric, anaphoric, or situational.The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖.When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖.The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖.Anaphoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference.The word means ―pointing forward‖.When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the articles and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shred by speaker and hearer on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear.Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero.Lesson 8 & 9 Pronouns(I, II)
教學重點及難點：
1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case;2.The usage of personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case.In number: pronoun concord with every-,some-, any-compounds as antecedent, with coordinate construction as antecedent, with collective nouns antecedent, and with ―plural noun/ pronoun +each‖ as antecedent.In gender, Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent, with common gender noun as antecedent, and with neutral gender noun as antecedent, etc;
2.Choice of pronoun forms: choice between subjective and objective case, choice between adjective and genitive case;
3.Possessive pronoun, reflexive pronoun, and generic use of personal pronouns;
4.Pronoun reference: anaphoric, cataphoric, situational reference, personal reference, and demonstrative reference.Teaching Contents 8.1 Pronoun concord in number 8.2 Pronoun concord in gender 8.3 Pronoun concord in person
Pronouns are a varied closed-class words with nominal function.English has a developed pronoun system, comprising:
1.personal pronouns 2.possessive pronouns 3.reflexive pronouns 4.reciprocal pronouns 5.demonstrative pronouns 6.interrogative pronouns 7.relative pronouns 8.indefinite pronouns 8.1 Pronoun concord in number Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms.The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I/we, he/they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy/boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.---They haven‘t yet made up their own mind.1)Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any-compounds as antecedent:
everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody，take the singular form(grammatical)---Everybody looked after himself.---Nobody wants to go there, does he? In informal style, the plural form, esp.everyone or everybody:---Everybody knows what they have to do.everything, something, anything, nothing: singular---Everything is ready, isn‘t?
2)Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent(notional concord)---I bought bread and butter at the shop, and they cost 50c.---She likes bread and butter, but this is too thick.3)Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent(notional concord)---The government is doing its best to boost production.---The government have discussed the matter for a long time but they have shown no sign of reaching an agreement.4)Pronoun concord with ―plural noun / pronoun + each‖ as antecedent
The choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive ―each‖: before the verb---plural form;
after the verb---singular form---We each are accountable for our own families.---We are each responsible for his own family.8.2 Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category.It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex.English nouns have four genders: masculine(man), feminine(woman), neutral(book)and common(student).But we do not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.1)Pronoun concord with male / female noun as antecedent---When Paul met Mary, he asked her to go to town.2)Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Some common gender nouns, such as doctor, teacher, engineer, lawyer, parent, student…… they can either be male or female.When they are used in the singular for generic
reference, these nouns are generally referred to as HE, a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists.---If a person breaks the law, he will be punished.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he went wrong.---Parents of teenage children often wonder where they went wrong.(plural form)---When a customer calls, ask him to leave his phone number.---When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.(No pronoun or determiner is used.)In formal writing as in legal documents, ―he or she‖, ―his or her‖ can also be used.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he or she went wrong.(2)Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child are intermediate between personal and non-personal.When the speaker does not know , or is not interested in the sex of the baby or infant, he may use the neutral IT:---The baby was sleeping in its cot.But if the speaker is the baby‘s mother, she is unlikely to refer to her baby as IT:---Watch out!The baby is trying to put the toy watch into his mouth.3)Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, a noun denoting an inanimate or non-personal object, the neutral pronoun or the corresponding determiner is generally used.(it / itself / its)---That book has lost its cover.I will put a new one on it.(2)Just as a baby may be designated it, so a number of nonhuman species may be designated he or she.(car, ship)---The car needs some petrol.Let‘s fill her / him up at the next garage.(3)When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in nonexpert contexts.If the anima is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she.---The cat is a useful animal because it eats rats.---The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas: sun, moon, earth, nature, history, war, death---The sun is shining in all his splendid beauty.---Nature, the greatest artist, makes her common flowers in the common view.(4)Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral.When used as geographical units, they are treated as inanimate and therefore neutral:---China is in East Asia.It is one of the largest countries in the world.If used as political or economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, she or her is generally used:---China has a history of over 5000 years.She is proud of her culture.8.3 Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: Pronoun concord in person on sentential level In a sentence, the person of a pronoun is determined by the person of its antecedent.---My brother has sold his car.If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first and second person in plural number.---My friend and I are reading the manuscript.We‘ll be through in half an hour.---You and the accountant are familiar with him.You can both see him.2)Pronoun concord in person on textual level In a text pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end.This is a matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker‘s or writer‘s point of view or from that of a third party.A consistent point of view is a guarantee of clarity in writing.Teaching Contents 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
9.2 Reflexive pronouns
9.3 Pronoun reference 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
9.2 Reflexive pronouns
9.3 Pronoun reference Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.When a pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or something.What is referred to is called antecedent.It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun.anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference According to the relative position of the antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric.When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference.---When she has finished her work, Mary left the office.If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an extra linguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.---How hard he studies English.When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent.If a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked after him when he was in hospital.---He introduced me to the pilot whom he had looked after in the hospital…
2)Personal reference Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners.Personal reference is generally anaphoric.It may occur within the sentence boundary or across sentences.---When Mary has finished her work, she left the office.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions.Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference canbe used instead, but not conversely.---When she had finished her work, Mary left the office.(cataphoric)---When Mary had finished her work, she left the office.(anaphoric)---Mary bought a new dress, but she didn‘t like it.---She bought a new dress, but Mary didn‘t like it.3)Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners.All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference.---The man gad been drinking too much;this explain his unsteady walk.A: I like the polar bears.These are my favorites.B: Those are my favorites too.---Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.That‘s why we couldn‘t come.As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a following clause or sentence or a group of sentences.---―The great difficulty is this,‖ said the psychologist, ―you can move about in all directions of space, but you can‘t move about in time.‖
―That‖ and ―these‖ are rarely used cataphorically.When occasionally so used, they often take on sarcastic meanings.---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend.Lesson 10 Verb and verb phrase
教學重點及難點：
1.The difference between finite and non-finite verb;
2.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs
教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Classification of verbs.According to different standards, verbs and verb phrases may falls into six types grammatically, semantically: Main verbs and auxiliaries, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs, dynamic verbs and stative verbs, single-word verbs and phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs;
2.A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood: tense and aspect, active and passive voice, finite and non-finite phrases.3.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs: V.+ Prep, V.+ adverb particle, V.+ adverb particle + prep.The usage of phrasal verbs as pride oneself on, take pride in and be proud of, etc.Lecture 10 Verb and Verb Phrase Teaching Contents 10.1 Classification of verbs(I)10.2 Classification of verbs(II)10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood
10.1 Classification of verbs(I)1)Main verbs and auxiliaries
According to different roles played in the formation of verb phrases verbs are divided into two classes: main verbs and auxiliaries.As we know, a verb phrase may consist of a main verb only;this is called a simple verb phrase.A verb phrase may also take the form of a verb preceded by one or more auxiliaries;this is called a complex verb phrase.Main verbs are also called notional verbs functioning as the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase.Auxiliaries fall into three categories: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.a)Primary auxiliaries: be, do, have.Without lexical meanings of their own, these auxiliaries have only grammatical functions or grammatical meanings.Be is usually used to help the main verb to form the progressive aspect or the expressive voice.Auxiliary do is used to help the main verb to express negative meanings or to form question, and sometimes to help express the emphatic affirmative.The function of auxiliary have is to help the main verb to form the perfective or the perfective progressive aspect.b)Modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to.They express modal meanings.In a finite verb phrase, we can use only one modal auxiliary which is invariably followed by the bare infinitive or the base form.c)Semi-auxiliaries: have to, seem to.They can help the main verb to form the complex verb phrase and express the modal meaning on the one hand, and can, when preceded by other auxiliaries, function as main verbs on the other.2)Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs Verbs are divided in accordance with whether or not they must be followed by obligatory elements functioning as complementation and what kind of elements that must follow.a)Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.Some are followed by two objects, i.e.indirect object and direct object;.some by an object and an object complement;some by an object and an obligatory adverbial b)Intransitive verbs do not require an object.c)Linking verbs are followed by a subject complement.3)Dynamic and stative verbs a)Dynamic verbs refer to actions.They can be subclassified into three categories:
durative verbs, transitional verbs and momentary verbs.b)Stative verbs refer to present or past states, i.e.to a relatively stable state of affairs.They are normally incompatible with the progressive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.They can be classified into four categories.The first includes main verbs ―be‖ and ―have‖.The second includes verbs that include, as part of their meaning, the notion of being and having, such as apply to, belong to, differ from, cost, weigh, measure.The third includes verbs that refer to a sense perception, such as hear, see, feel, taste, smell.The fourth subclass includes verbs that refer to a feeling, a state of mind or an opinion, such as assume, believe, consider, detest, wish.Stative verbs are not used in progressive aspect, otherwise, they will be changed into dynamic verbs, such as be, have.e.g.He is being foolish(=is acting foolishly).We‘re having a wonderful time(= are enjoying ourselves).The verbs resemble and cost are stative verbs when they are used to mean respectively ―be like‖ and ―be worth‖, but when used in other meanings, these two verbs just like dynamic verbs can occur in the progressive.e.g.He resembles his father.He is resembling his father(= is becoming more and more like his father)as the years go by.Perception verbs when used in a non-volitional sense are stative verb, but when used in a volitional sense are dynamic verbs.e.g.I can taste pepper in it.I‘m tasting this soup.Attitudinal verbs such as think, imagine, understand are stative verbs, but they can occasionally be used dynamically to express different meanings, e.g.Be quiet.I‘m thinking(= giving thought to a problem).There are also cases of a special polite use of the progressive with verbs like want, hope, wonder.e.g.Were you wanting to see me? 10.2 Classification of verbs(II)According to word formation and grammatical form, English verb may be divided into single-verbs and phrasal verbs, finite verbs and non-finite verb, regular verbs and irregular verbs.4)Single-word verbs and phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words.They can be classified into three categories: a)Verb + preposition e.g.The police are looking into the case.b)Verb + adverb particle e.g.The meeting has been called off.c)Verb + adverb particle + preposition e.g.I don‘t want to come down with the flu again.Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms which are equivalent to single-word verbs, transitive or intransitive, and which are different from simple verbal combination where the meanings are easily guessed from the parts.Some constructions such as verb + noun + preposition and verb + noun are also grouped under the category of phrasal verbs e.g.She soon realized that she was being made fun of.5)Finite and non-finite verbs Finite main verbs have tow finite forms and three non-finite forms.The two are the present tense and the past tense;the three are the infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle.Finite verbs are marked for tense, and non-finite verbs have no tense distinctions.Most auxiliaries have the present and past tense forms but not all the three non-finite forms except for the primary auxiliary be.The modals do not have the non-finite forms or the base.6)Regular and irregular verbs Verbs whose past tense and –ed participle forms are derived by adding –ed are regular verbs, and otherwise they are irregular verbs.10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1)Tense and aspect
Tense is a grammatical form associated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time;that is, tense and time are related and different.Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past, present and future times.The notion of time is common to all mankind, when expressed linguistically, it is tense.Chinese is not an inflectional language and has its own ways to express tense.Aspect is also a kind of verb form which represents the action or the process expressed by the verb as something going on or completed at a given time.English has two aspects: the progressive and the perfective aspects.The uses of tense and aspect Tense:
present
past Aspect: progressive
perfective 1.A tense can be used independently:
1)simple present, 2)simple past 2.A tense can be combined with an aspect:
3)present progressive, 4)past progressive
5)present perfective, 6)past perfective 3.A tense can be combined with two aspects:
7)Present perfective progressive
8)Past perfective progressive
2)Active voice and passive voice
Voice is a grammatical category, showing whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on.English has two voices: the active and passive voices.When the subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the active voice;if the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the passive voice and the sentence is called passive sentence.The passive voice is formed by the auxiliary be +-ed participle of the transitive verb.Since be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six passive forms: the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive, the past progressive, the present perfective and the past perfective.Of the three non-finite form, the infinitive and the –ing participle can occur in the passive, simple and perfective.―Modal auxiliary / semi-auxiliary + infinitive‖ are made passive by using a passive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.When the passive is formed by get +-ed participle, it is called get-passive, distinguished from be-passive.But get isn‘t an auxiliary and cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.Get-passive usually used to denote sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expressions as ―in the end, eventually, at last‖.3)Indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance expresses a fact(indicative mood), a command or request(imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis(subjunctive mood)
4)Finite and non-finite verb phrases Depending on whether the first element in a verb phrase is finite or non-finite, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.Lesson 11 Tense and aspect(I)教學重點及難點：
1.The difference between the present perfect and the present perfect progressive;
2.The use of simple present, the present progressive, and present perfect
教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Use of simple present.The simple present can be used to denote: timeless present, habitual present, momentary and instantaneous present, simple present referring to the future, simple present referring to the past;
2.Use of present Progressive.The present progressive has the following uses: to denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking, an action in progress at a period of time including the present, a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement and other meanings;
3.The two chief uses of the present perfective/progressive and how the present perfective/progressive distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect(I)In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expressed by the verb phrase.We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive and the past progressive.11.1 Uses of simple present The simple present is the present tense form which is not accompanied by the category of aspect, that is , which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs:
Timeless present
The most common use of the simple present is found in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time.This use of the simple present mostly applies to stative verbs, eg:
Honesty is the best policy.A rolling stone gathers no moss.London stands on the River Thames.Habitual present
A second use of the simple present, that of habitual or recurrent use, is typically associated with dynamic verbs, eg:
Percy often goes to his office by underground.Father doesn‘t smoke.Momentary and instantaneous present
The simple present can also be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.This phenomenon usually has some duration and therefore is mostly associated with stative verbs, eg:
What‘s the matter with you? What do you think, Jane?
A less common use.The simple present can be used to imply that the event takes place singly and once-for-all within the moment of speaking.Unlike momentary present, this kind of happening has little or no duration and therefore is confined to dynamic verbs denoting short actions.The use of the instantaneous present is rather restricted, occurring normally in certain speech situations such as radio and television commentaries of fast-moving sports, the running commentary of conjurors and demonstrators, and some formal declarations, eg:(page184)
Simple present referring to the future
The simple present can also be used to denote future time.This use is limited to future events conceived of as ―certain‖, either because they are determined in advance by calendar of timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable.This kind of future expression will be elaborated on in lecture 13.In the present lecture, we will just mention some subclauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense.These subclauses include the that-clause following ―I hope‖, ―I bet‖, etc;the that-clause following such constructions as ―see to it‖, ―make sure‖, ―make certain‖;and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if /when, eg: I hope you have a good time.I bet it rains tomorrow.I‘ll see(to it)/ make sure/ make certain(that)you don‘t get lost.Simple present referring to the past
In addition to the meanings discussed above, the simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time.This use of the simple present is usually found with ―communication verbs‖ such as tell, say, hear, learn, and write to express the present effect of information received in the past, eg:
Alice tells me you‘re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs.Smith has lost her son.Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividness to the description.This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call ―historic present‖, eg:
…I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire.11.2 Uses of simple past
The simple past is the past tense form which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.This tense form can be used to denote the following meanings:
Past event and past habit
The basic use of the simple past is to denote a simple event or state that happened or existed at a definite point or period of time in the past.This is what we call the event/state past, eg:
He left ten minutes ago.This town was once a beauty spot.The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past, eg: In those days they sowed wheat by hand.He worked in a bank all his life.Neither the event/state pas nor the habitual past has any connection with the present moment, so what is denoted by the simple past must be something no longer existent at the moment of speaking.Compare: His father was an English teacher all his life.(―He is now dead.‖)His father has been an English teacher all his life.(―He is still alive.‖)
Attitudinal and hypothetical past
In specific contexts, the simple past can also denote the present or the future time.There are two uses.One is known as the attitudinal past, that is , the past tense is associated with the present time in independent clauses expressing a question, request or suggestion.Its effect is to make the question / request/suggestion less direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker, eg:
A: Did you want me? B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help.The other is what we call the hypothetical past.In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a non-fact, and is typically found in that-clause following such constructions as ―It‘s time…‖, ―I wish…‖, ― I‘d rather…‖, etc., and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, i.e.a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled, eg:
It‘s time you had a holiday.I wish you lived closer to us.I‘d rather you went now.If I had the money now, I‘d buy a car.11.3 Uses of present progressive
The present progressive(am/is/are+-ing participle)has the following uses:
To denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking
To denote what is going on at the present moment, we commonly use the present progressive, generally associated with durative dynamic verbs, eg:
A: What are you doing? B: I‘m writing a letter.The difference between the simple present and the present progressive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning and the latter a temporary meaning.Compare:
He lives in shanghai(permanent residence)He is now living in Shanghai.(temporary residence)
To denote an action in progress at a period of time including the present
The present progressive can also express an action that is gong on over a period of time including the present but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, that is, a temporary habit as distinguished from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present.Compare:
He works in a chemical factory.He is working in a chemical factory these days.Note that the present progressive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional coloring, often of annoyance or disapproval.By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progressive and states a fact objectively.Compare: She complains about the house.She is constantly complaining about the house.To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement
The present progressive used to refer to the future, more often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement of program, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference, eg:
Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.I‘m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.The present progressive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clauses, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause, eg.:
I‘ll think about it while you‘re writing the report.If you are standing at the corner, I‘ll give you a lift.To denote other meanings
Apart from the above-mentioned meanings, the present progressive may also be used to denote an action in the immediate past which is generally expressed by communication verbs such as tell, talk, say, exaggerate, etc, eg: You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.I don‘t know what you are talking about.The present progressive may also be used to make even politer requests than does the attitudinal past with such few verbs as hope, wonder dealt with in 11,2.2, eg:
I‘m hoping you‘ll give us some advice.I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.As mentioned before, the present progressive is commonly associated with durative dynamic verbs.With momentary verbs, i.e.verbs denoting actions of very short duration, the use of the present progressive will be understood to express repetition or a series of momentary actions, rather than just a single action.11.4 Uses of past progressive
The use of the past progressive(was/were+-ing participle)has much in common with that of the present progressive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expressed by a time-when adverbial.The following are the uses of the past progressive.To denote an action in progress at a definite point or period of past time
This is the most common use of the past progressive.In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context.In the past progressive, the notion of incompleteness is more clearly indicated than in the present progressive, eg:
What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.? They were building a dam last winter.It is based on this use that the past progressive may have the effect of surrounding a particular event by a temporal frame, or serve, at the beginning of a text, as the background in past time narrative, eg:
The students were still laughing when the teacher stepped in.To denote a past habitual action
The habitual action denoted by the past progressive is most clearly characterized by its temporariness, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg:
George was getting up at five every day that week.As in the case of the present progressive, the past progressive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as always, constantly, continually, forever, to express emotional feelings, especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:
My brother was always losing his keys.To denote futurity in the past
In specific contexts, the past progressive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement.This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg:
They were leaving a few days later.He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.To make polite requests and express hypothetical meanings
The past progressive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progressive as described in 11.2.2 and 11.3.4.Of the three forms, the past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests.Compare: I hope you can send me some books.I hoped that you could send me some books.I am hoping you can send me some books.I was hoping you could send me some books.To express hypothetical meanings, the past progressive only occurs in certain conditional clauses and in subclauses after ―I wish‖, ―I‘d rather‖, ―it‘s time‖, etc:
I wish they were not talking so loudly.I‘d rather you were going at once.Would you stay a little longer, if you were enjoying yourself? If they were leaving tonight, I‘d like to go with them.It is time we were leaving.Contrast between past progressive and simple past
In the previous sections we have touched upon notional differences between the simple past and the past progressive.There are a few more points to note.To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past;to denote an action in progress, we use the past progressive.To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past;to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progressive.When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progressive.In colloquial speech, the past progressive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and aimless, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.Compare: I was talking to Margaret the other day.I talked to Margaret the other day.Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:
When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee.When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progress when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.Lesson 12 Tense and aspect(II)
教學重點及難點：
1.Differences between present/past perfective and present/past perfective progressive.2.Perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to.教 學 基 本 內(nèi) 容
1.Present perfective has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.The former refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment, while the latter one denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment.2.Past perfective progressive also has ―finished‖ and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment.3.There are a few more points that merit our attention concerning the use of the perfective aspect: perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to and perfective aspect in ―It is/will be the first time + that-clause‖.Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect(II)The perfective aspect can combine with the two tenses, forming present perfective and past perfective, which can again combine with the progressive aspect, resulting in present perfective progressive and past perfective progressive.12.1 uses of present perfective(progressive)
This section deals with the two chief uses of the present perfective(progressive)and how the present perfective(progressive)is distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Present perfective
Present perfective, a combination of the perfective aspect with the present tense(have / has+-ed participle), has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.This ―finished‖ use refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment.The ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment, possibly extending into the future as well.The difference between these two uses manifests itself in the fact that in the ―unfinished‖ use, the present perfective is commonly accompanied by an adverbial expressing duration, but no such accompanying adverbial is present in the ―finished‖ use.Compare:
He‘s turned off the light.(―The light is still off now.‖)
He‘s lived here since 1960.(―The period of residence extends either to the present—the usual interpretation—or to some specified date in the past.‖)
Present perfective progressive
The use of the present perfective progressive(have/has been +-ing participle)has much in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective.Compare:
I‘ve been writing letters for an hour(and I‘ve still got some more to do).I‘ve been sitting in the garden(and have just come indoors).There are cases, however, where these two forms are not interchangeable in that the present perfective progressive has also the meanings of continuousness, temporariness and incompleteness.Compare:
Who‘s been eating my dinner?(―Some of it is left.‖)Who‘s eaten my dinner?(―It‘s all gone.‖)
Contrast between present perfective(progressive)and simple past
As has been pointed out, the action or state denoted by the present perfective(progressive), though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present.Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expressed by the simple past or the past progressive.Compare:
His sister has been an invalid all her life.(―she is still alive.‖)His sister was an invalid all her life.(she is now dead.)
12.2.Uses of past perfective(progressive)
Let us now turn to the uses of the past perfective(progressive).Past perfective
The past perfective also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back –shifted to a specified past moment.In the ―finished‖ use, the past perfective denotes an action or state already in completion before a specified past，and in its ―unfinished‖ use, an action or state extending over a period up to a past moment and possibly into the future in the past, e.g.:
I had written the article when he came.By six o‘clock they had worked twelve hours.Past perfective progressive
The past perfective progressive is basically similar in use to the present perfective progressive, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past.The chief use of the past perfective progressive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfective, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfective progressive is more frequently used than the past perfective.Compare:
I‘d been working for three hours when he called.I‘d worked for three hour when he called
Past perfective in sentences with when-/ before-/after-/ until-clauses
Subordinators such as when, before, after, until can sometimes be used interchangeably when they connect clauses where two actions happen one after another.The general rule is that the earlier happenings are expressed by the past perfective and the later happening by the simple past.Compare:
When I reached the station, the train had already left.I reached the station after the train had left.I didn‘t reach the station until after the train had left.The train had left before I reached the station.
第三篇：初四英語語法教案
初四英語語法課教案 復習現(xiàn)在完成時
教學目標：
1.復習現(xiàn)在完成時的用法、構成及標志詞
2.常見的短暫性動詞及其連用的時間段的轉換。3.利用現(xiàn)在完成時解決實際問題。
教學重難點：
現(xiàn)在完成時中的非延續(xù)性詞在何種情況下轉化為延續(xù)性詞及如何轉化。
教學步驟：Step 1:Free talk
1.What are you doing now? 2.What did you do last night? 3.How do you like your English? 4.How are you gong to improve your English? 5.Have you ever been to Weihai? Step2: Revision by doing exercises 1.Listen!Who ________(knock)at the door? 2.It is 12 o’clock.The Greens ________(have)lunch.3.Where ________ Tom ________(come)from? 4.Bob _________(go)to school on foot every day.5.I ________(not do)my homework last night.Step3: Presentation Our winter vacation was over, what did you do in your vacation? How many places have you been to? Have you ever traveled to another country? Now this class we will revise the tense “ the present continue tense”.定義一:表示過去發(fā)生的動作對現(xiàn)在造成的影響或結果。
標志詞：just是剛剛, before是以前, ever是曾經(jīng), never是從不, already是已經(jīng)，用在肯定中, yet是仍還，用在否定句或疑問句中。例如： Tom has just come back.Tom剛剛回來了。
I have already finished my homework.我已經(jīng)完成我的作業(yè)。
Mary hasn’t finished her homework yet.Mary還沒完成她的作業(yè)。
In order to help the students understand the tense, and then let them do the following exercises: 1.My father ________(not come)back yet.2.I _______ never ________(be)to Beijing before.3.I _________(not have)my lunch yet.4.________ you _______(see)the film before? 5.Tom ________already ________(finish)his work.:
定義二：表示從過去開始一直延續(xù)到現(xiàn)在的動作或狀態(tài)。在此必須強調動詞必須是延續(xù)性動詞。這一點也是這一用法的重點和難點。常見的非延續(xù)動詞有come, start/ begin, buy, borrow, leave, die and so on.標志詞：for, since.即看到for或since時，動詞必須轉化成延續(xù)性動詞，轉化關系如下：come 轉化為be here 或be in;start/ begin 轉化為be on;buy轉化為 have;borrow 轉化為keep;leave轉化為 be away(from);die 轉化為be dead。例如：
我買這輛自行車兩年了。I have had the bike for two years.他爺爺死了十年了。His grandpa has been dead for ten years.電影上演十分鐘了。The film has been on for ten minutes.Let the students understand “for” or “since” by doing exercises.Tom has been in Beijing ______ ten years.Our country has changed a lot ________1980.He has made many friends _________ he came to this school.I have learned English _________ seven years.通過以上練習題，他們會發(fā)現(xiàn)后for跟時間段；而since后跟時間點或從句。注意：任何事物都不是一成不變的，通過上下文的理解來判斷時態(tài)也很重要。Step 4: Exercises:(一)用所給詞的適當形式填空。1.______ you ________(read)the book before? 2.Tom _______ just _______(come)back.3.I _______(have)an allergy since I ________(be)six.4.My father ________(be)much healthier since he _______-(give)up smoking.5.where is your father? He ________(go)to work.6.________ you ________(finish)your homework? Yes, I have.When _______ you ________(finish)it? Ten minutes ago.7.How long _______ you ________(collect)stamps?
（二）翻譯下列句子1.這位老人死了三年了。2.格林一家來中國十年多了。3.這部電影上演十分鐘了。4.我買這塊手表四年了。5.我爸爸畢業(yè)二十年了。
（三）改錯題1.The poor man has died for a long time.2.They have come to China for ten years.3.How long may I borrow the bike? 4.The movie has started for ten years.5.Tom has left school since ten years ago.6.My father has become much healthier since he gave up smoking.大量的練習是理解現(xiàn)在完成時的關鍵。
Homework:用現(xiàn)在完成時介紹一下你的假期生活。例如你去過哪些城市，參觀過哪些名勝古跡等等。
第四篇：英語語法教案.憲宗doc
高中英語語法教案[整理] http://www.tmdps.cn 中小學英語
名詞
(一)概述
名詞是表示人、地方、事物或抽象概念名稱的詞,可以說名詞是萬物之名稱。它們可以是：
學英語，請看生活英語簡易讀物，長知識，學英語 人的名字 Li Ming, Tom 資料：世界著名大學(Universities & Colleges)大全 地方名稱 China, London 資料：世界學校(K12 Schools)大全 職業(yè)稱呼 teacher, doctor 少女護膚(Skin Care)網(wǎng)上最好的幾篇文章，白皙清純，青春無限 物品名稱 pencil, dictionary 行為名稱 study, invention 抽象概念 history, grammar(二)普通名詞和專有名詞 1．普通名詞
凡不屬于特定的人名、地名、事物名稱或概念名稱的名詞,都屬于普通名詞。這類名詞在所有的名詞中占絕大多數(shù)。普通名詞大致有以下四種類型：
1)個體名詞
個體名詞指作為個體而存在的人或物。可以指具體的人或物,例如： He has two aunts.他有兩個姑姑。
Most classrooms have computers.多數(shù)教室里都有電腦。也可指抽象東西,例如： We’ve lived here for twenty years.我們在這里住了二十年了。I had a dream last night 我昨晚做了一個夢。
個體名詞有復數(shù)形式,如：weeks, problems;單數(shù)形式可以和a/an連用,如：a week, a problem, an old man.2)集體名詞
集體名詞表示由個體組成的集體,下面是一些常見的集體名詞：
family(家,家庭)army(軍隊)company(公司；全體船員)enemy(敵人)government(政府)group(小組,團體)public(公眾)team(隊；組)police(警方)作單數(shù)看待 作復數(shù)看待 His family isn't large.他家人不多。
The government is planning to build a dam here.政府打算在這里建一座水壩。The public was unlikely to support it.公眾支持它的可能性不大。His family are all music lovers.他家的人都喜歡音樂。
The government are discussing the plan.政府在討論這個計劃。
The public were deceived by the newspaper.公眾受到報紙的蒙騙。
集體名詞有時作單數(shù)看待,有時作復數(shù)看待。一般說來,視為整體時作單數(shù)看待,想到它的成員時作復數(shù)看待：
例如：
有的集體名詞通常用作單數(shù),例如： Our company is sending him to work in Berlin.我們公司將派他去柏林工作。有的集體名詞多作復數(shù)看待。例如： The police are looking for him.警察正在找他。3)物質名詞
物質名詞指無法分為個體的東西,我們學過的常見的物質名詞有：
beer, cloth, coal, coffee, coke, cotton, ice, ink, jam, juice, meat, medicine, metal, milk, oil paper, rain, salad, salt, sand, snow, soup, steel, sugar, tea, water, wine, wood, wool等。
一般說來,物質名詞是不可數(shù)折,因而沒有復數(shù)形式。但有一些特殊情況： a．有些物質名詞可用作可數(shù)名詞,表示“一份”,“一杯”： Tree beers, please.請來三杯啤酒。
A chocolate ice-cream for me.給我一份巧克力冰淇淋。
b．有此物質名詞可作可數(shù)名詞,表示“一種”： It was a special tea which tasted of orange blossoms.這是一種特別的茶,有桔子花葉。It was a delicious wine.那是一種美味的紅酒。
c．個別物質名詞可用于復數(shù)形式或有特殊意義： It was now the time of the spring rains.現(xiàn)在是春天雨季的時候。Here are the snows of last year.這是去看的積雪。d．抽象名詞
抽象名詞主要表示一些抽象概念,一般不可數(shù),因此沒有復形,前面也一般不加不定冠詞a/an。常見的抽象名詞有：
age, anger, beauty, childhood, death, duty, fear, fun, happiness, health, help, history, industry, joy, labour, love, luck, music, nature, peace, pleasure, power, safety, silence, sleep, time, training, travel, trust, truth, waste, weather, work, worth, youth等。
在多數(shù)情況下,這種名詞常用于單數(shù)形式,不加任何冠詞。例如： safety first!安全第一!It’s wonderful weather.天氣好極了。
但有時也加定冠詞the,或不定冠詞a/an.例如：
I shall never forget the beauty of that lake.我永遠不會忘記那個湖的美麗。There’s a beauty in simplicity.樸實之中有一種美。2．專有名詞
專有名詞主要指人名、地名及某些類人和事物專有的名稱。例如： 1)人名：Mary, Mrs Green, Zhanghua 2)地名：Beijing, West Lake 3)某類人的名稱：Americans, Russians 4)某些抽象事物的名稱：English, Chinese 5)月份、周日及節(jié)日名稱：May, Saturday, Easter 6)書名、電影及詩歌的名稱：Cone with the Wind 7)對家人等的稱呼：Mum, Dad, Uncle Tom 專有名詞的第一個字母要大寫。(三)可數(shù)名詞和不可數(shù)名詞
名詞按其所表示的事物的性質分為可數(shù)與不可數(shù)名詞兩類。可數(shù)名詞有復數(shù)形式,不可數(shù)名詞一般沒有復數(shù)形式。
單數(shù) 復數(shù) a country a class a sheep a tomato countries classes sheep tomatoes 普通名詞中的個體名詞和集體名詞一般是可數(shù)的,所以它們又可稱為可數(shù)名詞。可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)往往要同不定冠詞a或an連用,復數(shù)則要使用其復數(shù)形式。例如：
普通名詞中的物質名詞和抽象名詞及專有名詞一般是不可數(shù)的,這些名詞又可稱為不可數(shù)名詞。不可數(shù)名詞不能用不定冠詞修飾,也不存在復數(shù)形式,如ice(冰),water(水), rice(稻子)等。
在英語中個別名詞既可以作不可數(shù)名詞,又可以作可數(shù)名詞。但由于用法不同,它們的意思往往也不大相同,對這些名詞要特別注意。
例如
作不可數(shù)名詞 作可數(shù)名詞 glass 玻璃 paper 紙張 time 時間
work 消息 玻璃杯；鏡子；眼鏡 報紙；文件；考卷 次數(shù)；時代 單詞；話語
一般說來,漢語和英語對某一個名詞是否可數(shù)的看法基本上是一致的。但也有不少名詞在漢語中常被用作可數(shù)名詞,而在英語中卻絕對是不可數(shù)名詞,對這些名詞也要特別注意,發(fā)如：fun ,work ,advice ,weather ,homework ,news ,money ,information ,bread ,hair),chalk ,furniture 等。
(四)可數(shù)名詞復數(shù)形式的構成
可數(shù)名詞的復數(shù)形式通常是在單數(shù)形式后加-s或-es,現(xiàn)將其復數(shù)的一般構成方法及讀音列表如下：
情況 構成方法 例詞 讀音 一般情況 在詞尾加-s desk→desks map→maps-s在請輔音后發(fā)[s]音 day→days
girl→girls-s在元音私濁畏音后發(fā)[z] 以s, x, ch, sh結尾的詞 在詞尾加-es bus →buses box→boxes watch→watches fish→fishes es發(fā)[iz]音
以輔音字母加y結尾的詞 變y為I再加-es family→families factory→factories party→parties-ies發(fā)[iz]音
以元音字母y結尾的詞 在詞尾加-s day→days boy→boys
key→keys-s發(fā)[z]音
以f或fe 結尾的詞 變f或fe為v再加-es knife→knives life→lives wife→wives
half→halves-ves發(fā)[vz]音
以輔音字母加o結尾的詞 在詞尾加-es potato→potatoes tomato→tomatoes hero→heroes-es發(fā)[z]音
以元音字母加o結尾的詞 在詞尾加-s radio→radios zoo→zoos-s發(fā)[z]音 少數(shù)以輔音字母加o結尾的名詞變?yōu)閺蛿?shù)時只加-s。如：photo→photos, piano→pianos 等。
有些以f結尾的名詞變?yōu)閺蛿?shù)時也只加-s。如：handkerchief→handkerchiefs, roof→roofs等。
英語中還有不少名詞的復數(shù)形式是不規(guī)則的,必須把它們牢記在心。如：man→men, woman→women, Frenchman→Frenchmen, child→children, tooth→teeth, foot→feet, goose→geese, mouse→mice, sheep→sheep, deer→deer, fish→fish等。
(五)名詞的所有格
在英語中,有些名詞的詞尾 可以加上’s,用來表示所有關系,這種結構稱為名詞的所有格。1．名詞所有格的構成
名詞所有格的構成一般有以下三種情況： 1)如果名詞是單數(shù),只在詞尾加’s。例如：
the boy’s schoolbag 這男孩的書包 the worker’s shoes 這個二人的鞋
2)復數(shù)名詞如果以s結尾,只加’(在s的右上角)即可 如：
the teachers’ office 老師們的辦公室 the students’ classroom 學生們的教室 3)復數(shù)名詞如果不以s結尾,則在詞尾加’s 如：
Women’s Day 婦女節(jié) the People’s Park 人民公園 2．名詞所有格的用法 名詞的所有格主要有以下五種用法：
1)表示人成動物與其他的人、動物或事物的所有關系。例如：
He is Mary’s younger brother.他是瑪麗的弟弟。
They are reading Lei Feng’s Diaries.他們在讀雷鋒的日記。
2)表示時間、距離、國家、城市等名詞與其他事物的所有關系。例如：
Our school is half an hour’s walk from here.我們學校離這兒步行有半小時的距離。Beijing is China’s capital.北京是中國的首都。
3)表示無生命東西的名詞的所有關系,一般使用與of構成的短語結構。例如：
The front door of the house was painted red.那屋子的前門被漆成了紅色。
There is a map of the world on the front wall of our classroom.我們教室前面的墻上有一幅世界地圖。
4)名詞所有格后面跟地點,往往要將地點名詞省略。例如：
My sister often goes to my uncle’s.我的妹妹經(jīng)常到我叔叔家去。
You look ill.You’d better go to the doctor’s.你臉色不好,最好去看看病。
5)被名詞所有格所修飾的詞,如果前面已經(jīng)提出到過,一般可以省略。例如：
I am using my dictionary.You can use Tom’s.我們字典我正在用,你可以用湯姆的。
Our bedroom is much larger than John and Dick’s.我們的寢室比約翰私迪克的大得多,(六)可數(shù)名詞和不可數(shù)名詞的數(shù)量表達
1．兩種名詞都有能修飾的數(shù)量詞有：some, any, plenty of, a lot of, lots of等。例如：
Please give me some paper.請給我一些紙。
I don’t want to borrow any magazines.我不想借什么雜志。
2．用來修飾可數(shù)名詞的數(shù)量詞有：many, several.hundreds of, a number of, a pair of, a few, few等。
例如：
You have made quite a few spelling mistakes in your composition.你的俄文中有很多拼寫錯誤。
Several days later, a group of students went to help the old man.幾天以后,一群學生去幫助了那位老人。3．用來修飾不可數(shù)名詞的數(shù)量詞有：much, a great deal of, a bit of, a drop of, a piece of, quite a little, little,等。
例如：
I want a piece of red chalk.我想要一支紅粉筆。Please give her a bit of bread.請給她一點面包。(七)名詞的用法 1．作主語 例如：
The radio says that it may stop raining later.廣播說一會兒雨可能會停。2．作表語 例如：
Class 3 were the winners.三班獲勝了。3．作賓語 例如：
I told him a story.我給他講了個故事。4．作賓語補足語 例如：
He named her Jenny.他給她取名詹妮。5．作定語 例如：
We are discussing the population problem.我們正在討論人口問題。6．作狀語 例如：
He sat here a long time.他坐在這兒很久了。7．與介詞組成詞組 例如：
I am working hard on my Chinese.我正在努力學習漢語。8．作介詞賓語 例如：
Give the money to your sister.把錢給你姐姐。
三、隨堂監(jiān)測A組
I.寫出下列名詞的復數(shù)形式：
1.house _________ 2.village ___________ 3.map __________ 4.orange _________ 5.bag ___________ 6.exercise ___________ 7.brush __________ 8.family ___________ 9.bus ___________ 10.city __________ 11.box ___________ 12.baby __________ 13.class __________ 14.factory _________ 15.glass __________ 16.dictionary __________ 17.watch _________ 18.woman _________ 19.match __________ 20.man _________ 21.wish __________ 22.German __________ 23.tomato _________ 24.policeman ___________ 25.kilo __________ 26.human _________ 27.potato ___________ 28.Chinese __________ 29.shelf __________ 30.Japanese __________ 31.leaf ___________ 32.American __________33.life ___________ 34.tooth __________ 35.wife ___________ 36.foot ___________ 37.knife __________ 38.sheep __________ 39.half ___________ 40.child __________ II.將下列詞組譯成英語：
1、一群孩子
2、兩箱子蘋果
3、三籃子蔬菜
4、九塊面包
5、十杯牛奶
6、五塊肉
7、多種植物
8、一副眼鏡
9、兩塊冰
10、三張紙
11、四瓶橘汁
12、五杯茶
13、六碗米飯
14、七袋米
15、八塊木頭
16、九塊金屬 III.寫出下列各詞的名詞形式：
1.work _________ 2.teach _________ 3.sing ________ 4.ill ___________ 5.fight ___________ 6.invent ________ 7.wait ________ 8.woolen __________ 9.win ____________ 10.thankful ________ 11.foreign _________ 12.cloudy ________ 13.run __________ 14.dirty __________ 15.visit _________ 16.funny __________ 17.wooden ________ 18.medical ________ 19.operate ________ 20.hot __________ 21.invite __________22.worried ________ 23.build __________ 24.please ________ 25.help _________ 26.safe _________ 27.die _________ 28.dangerous _______ 29.draw ________ 30.noisy ________
四、隨堂監(jiān)測B組 Ⅳ.選擇填空：
1.I want to buy ________.A.two bottles of ink B.two bottle of ink C.two bottle of inks D.two bottles of inks 2.They don’t have to do _______ today.A.much homework B.many homeworks C.many homework D.much homeworks 3.The ______ of machine made us feel sick.A.voice B.noise C.sound D.noises 4.The blouse is made of ________.A.a wool B.these wood C.wools D.wool 5.There are three ______ and seven ______ in the picture.A.cows, sheeps B.cows, sheep C.cow, sheep D.cow, sheeps 6.June 1 is _______.A.children’s day B.children’s Day C.Children’s Day D.Children’s day 7.______ room is next to their parents’.A.Kate’s and Joan’s B.Kate’s and Joan C.Kate and Joan’s D.Kate and Joan 8.Miss Green is a friend of _______.A.Mary’s mother’s B.Mary’s mother C.Mary mother’s D.mother’s of Mary 9.Tom is ______.He will come to see me.A.my a friend B.a friend C.mine friend D.a friend of mine 10.Sheep _______ white and milk _______ also white.A.is, are B.are, is C.is, is D.are, are 11.I’d like to have a glass of milk and _______.A.two breads B.two pieces of breads C.two pieces of bread D.two piece of bread 12.It’s a long ______ to Paris.It’s two thousand kilometers.A.street B.road C.way D.end 13.Many ______ are singing over there.A.woman B.women C.girl D.child 14.He bought _______.A.two pairs of shoes B.two pair of shoes C.two pairs of shoe D.two pair of shoe 15.Mr.White has three _______.A.child B.children C.childs D.childrens 16.Beijing is one of the biggest _______ in the world.A.citys B.city C.cityes D.cities 17.---Where’s Mr.White?---He’s in _______.A.the room 202 B.Room 202 C.the Room 202 D.room 202 18.Shops, hospitals and schools are all _______.A.places B.homes C.rooms D.buildings 19.Every morning Mr.Smith takes a _______ to his office.A.20 minutes’ walks B.20 minute’s walk C.20-minutes walk D.20-minute walk 20.---Are these ______?---No, they aren’t.They’re _______.A.sheep, cows B.sheep, cow C.sheeps, cow D.sheeps, cows 21.There are many ______ in the fridge.A.fish B.fruit C.eggs D.bread 22.---Whose room is this?---It’s _______.A.Li Ming B.Li Ming’s C.Li Mings D.Li Mings’ 23.Here are ______ for you, Sue.A.potatos B.some potatoes C.three tomatos D.some tomato 24.Here are some birthday cards with our best ______ for her.A.wish B.hope C.wishes D.hopes 25.I always go to that ______ to buy food on Sunday.A.shop B.park C.zoo D.garden 26.What’s the Chinese for “ PRC”? A.中國人民解放軍 B.中華人民共和國 C.聯(lián)合國 D.中國共產(chǎn)黨 27.Sam gave Ann some _______ to look after Polly while he was away.A.picture-books B.inventions C.instructions D.messages 28.---Which of the following animals lives only in China?---The ________.A.monkey B.elephant C.panda D.cat 29.______ room is on the 5th floor.A.Lucy and Lily B.Lucy and Lily’s C.Lucy’s and Lily D.Lucy’s and Lily’s 30.The third month of the year is _______.A.March B.January C.February D.April 31.Mum, I’m quite thirsty.Please give me ________.A.two orange B.two bottle of oranges C.two bottles of orange D.two bottles of oranges 32.How wonderful!The ______ is made of _______.A.house, glass B.house, glasses C.houses, glass D.houses, glasses 33.I met some ______ in the park and talked with them the other day.A.Janpaneses B.American C.Chineses D.English 34._______ is the best time for planting trees.A.Summer B.Winter C.Spring D.Autumn 35.Tom was badly hurt in the match.They carried him to the ______ as quickly as possible.A.bank B.post office C.shop D.hospital 36.There are two ______ in the room.A.shelf B.shelfs C.shelfes D.shelves 37.There are seven ______ in a week.A.years B.months C.days D.minutes 38.My father is a ______.He works in a hospital.A.teacher B.doctor C.farmer D.writer 39.It’s very cold today.Why don’t you put on your ______? A.watch B.shirt C.sweater D.glasses 40.---Excuse me, are you ______?---Yes, I’m from ________.A.Japan, Japanese B.China, Chinese C.England, English D.American, America V.各地中考題選編：
1.---Where is Tom?---He’s left a ______ saying that he has something important to do.A.excuse B.message C.exercise D.news 2.There is no ______ in the bus so we have to wait for another bus.A.room B.a room C.rooms D.seats 3.---Would you like some ______?---Oh, yes.Just a little.A.pears B.oranges C.sugar D.apples 4.You can find the following INSTRUCTIONS on _______.KEEP IN A COLD PLACE A.food B.money C.clothes D.books 5.Mr.Green has lived in the _____ hotel since he came to China.A.five-star B.five-stars C.five star’s D.five stars
6.She was born in Wuhan, but Beijing has become her second _______.A.home B.family C.house D.place 7.---What’s the _____ today?---It’s June 26.A.day B.date C.time D.hour 8.English is spoken as a first language in ______.A.the USA B.India C.Japan D.China 9.______ comes from cows.A.Wool B.Chicken C.Pork D.Milk 10.Which of the following does paper burn in? A.B.C.D.11.Let the children go away.They’re making too much ______ here.A.noise B.voice C.noisy D.sounds 12.______ comes from sheep and some people like eating it.A.Wool B.Pork C.Mutton D.Milk 13.---Oh, there isn’t enough ______ for us in the lift.---It doesn’t matter, let’s wait for the next.A.ground B.floor C.place D.room 14._______ is the biggest city in China.A.Beijing B.Shanghai C.Guangzhou D.Kunming 15.The Englishman Stephenson(史蒂芬孫), invented _______.A.the ship B.the car C.the plane D.the train 冠詞
重點知識歸納及講解(一)概說
1．冠詞是一種虛詞,不能獨立擔任一個成分,只能附著在一個名詞上,幫助說明其詞義。英語中有兩個冠詞：
1)定冠詞the 2)不定冠詞a/an 定冠詞the通常讀作[],在元音前讀作[i],特別強調或單念時讀作[i:]。不定冠詞在元音音素開始的單詞前用an這個形式,讀作[n]；在其他情況下則使用a,讀作[]。
2．冠詞的基本意義
不定冠詞a/an與數(shù)詞one同源,表示“一個”的意思,用在可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)前。例如： She is a nurse.她是個護士。
He is an Englishman, with an Irish wife.他是一位英國人,有一個愛爾蘭妻子。
定冠詞the,與this同源,有“這(那)個”的意思,但比較弱,表示一(幾)個特定的人或東西,有時可譯作“這個(些)”或“那個(些)”。
例如：
That’s the book you want.這就是你要的那本書。Who’s the young man over there? 那邊那個年輕人是誰？
但在很多情況下,“這”或“那”這類詞在譯文中并不出現(xiàn)。例如：
Put it on the table.把它放在桌上。Shut the door, please.請把門關上。3．特指和泛指 一般來說,名詞有特指和泛指兩種情況,請比較下面的句子： A gentleman is asking to see you.有位先生要求見你。(泛指)Ask the gentleman to come in.請那位先生進來。(特指)在特指時一般前面要加定冠詞,而泛指時則有三種情況： 1)在可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)前加不定冠詞。例如：
She sent me a postcard 她寄給我一張明信片。
2)在可數(shù)名詞復數(shù)前可不加冠詞,可使用some, any這類詞。例如：
These are new words.這些是生詞。
She sent me some flowers.她送給我一些花。
3)在不可數(shù)名詞前多不加什么,有時也可加some, any等。例如：
It’s lovely weather.天氣真好。
Do you want any sugar in your tea? 你茶里要放點糖嗎？ Give us some help.給我們一些幫助。(二)不定冠詞的基本用法
1．泛指某一類人或事物中的一個,代表某一類別(不一定譯為“一”)例如：
His father is a doctor.他父親是醫(yī)生。
2．代表某一類人或事物,相當于any(+名詞)(不必譯為“一”,但必須用a,表示類別)例如：
A horse is a useful animal.馬是有用的動物。
3．指某人或某物(不是指某一類),但不具體說明何人或何物(一般譯為“一”)例如：
This book was written by a worker.這本書是一位工人寫的。
4．表示數(shù)量,有“一”的意思,但數(shù)的概念沒有one強烈(一般譯為“一”)例如： Wait a moment.等一下。
5．表示單位,相當于“每”的意思 例如：
We have three meals a day.我們每日吃三餐。6．用于某此固定詞組中 例如：
a few, a little, a bit(of), a lot of等。(三)定冠詞的基本用法 1．特指某(些)人或某(些)事物 例如：
Give me the book.把那本書給我。
2．指談話雙方都知道的人或事物 例如：
Where is the doctor? 醫(yī)生在哪兒？
3．再次提到上文提到過的人或事物 例如：
I bought a dictionary yesterday.The dictionary is at home.昨天我買了一本詞典。詞典在家里。
4．用在大家所熟悉的、世界上獨一無二的事物 例如：
The earth is bigger than the moon, but smaller than the sun.地球比月亮大,但比太陽小。5．用在序數(shù)詞和形容詞最高級前 例如：
Mr Wang teaches the first class.王先生上第一節(jié)課。
Of all the stars the sun is the nearest to the earth.在所有的恒星中,太陽離地球最近。6．用在單數(shù)可數(shù)名詞,表示某一類人或事物 例如：The horse is a useful animal.馬是有用的動物。7．與下列專有名詞連用
1)在江、河、湖、海、群島、山脈的名稱前 例如：
the Changjiang River, the Great Lake 2)在姓氏的復數(shù)名詞前,表示夫婦二人或全家人 例如：
The Greens are sitting at the breakfast table.格林一家人正圍坐在早餐桌旁。8．和某些形容詞連用,表示一類人 例如：
the old 老人 the young 年輕人 the rich 富人 the poor 窮人 the sick 病人 the dead 死人 9．在一些習慣說法中 the east(west, south, north)in the morning(afternoon, evening)on the left(right)in the end go to the cinema(四)不用冠詞的幾種情況
1．在專有名詞,抽象名詞和物質名詞前 例如：
Have you ever been to Shanghai? 你到過上海嗎？ We love science.我們愛好科學。
2．在表示一類人或事物的復數(shù)名詞前 例如：
Girls can be scientists.女孩子可以當科學家。
3．在季節(jié)、月份、星期、一日三餐的名稱前 例如：
It is hot in summer.夏天天氣熱。
It’s Tuesday, August the 22nd.今天是八月二十二日,星期三。Have you had breakfast? 你吃過早飯沒有？
4．稱呼語或表示頭銜,職務的名詞前 例如：
What’s the matter with you, Mike? 怎么啦,邁克？
He is headmaster of our school.他是我們學校的校長。5．學科和球類運動的名稱前 例如：
We study English.我們學習英語。
Do you like to play football? 你喜歡踢足球嗎？
6．名詞前已有用作定語的this, that my, your, some, any, no, whose, every, each等代詞時,不用冠詞
例如： That is her bike.那是她的自行車。
Each student in his class studies hard.這個班的每個學生都努力學習。7．在某些固定詞組的名詞前 例如： at home, at night, after school, by bus, in bed, in town, in front of, go to school, go to bed等。
三、隨堂監(jiān)測A組
I.在下列句子的空格中填上適當?shù)墓谠~,不需要的地方用“/”表示： 1.This is ______ old map.It is ______ useful map.2.We have no classes in ______ afternoon on _______ Saturday.3.______ spaceship flies at about eleven kilometers _______second.4.Beijing is ______ capital of ______ China.It is _______ beautiful city.5.Roman was not built in ______ day.6.Chinese is quite ______ difficult language for Mike.7.Many ______ students will take ______ active part in sports meet.8.There is ______ interesting picture on ______ wall.9.Jenny found ______ wallet lying on ______ground.______ wallet was Mr.Black’s.10.Which is ______ biggest, ______ sun, ______ moon, or ______ earth? 11.---Which picture is more beautiful?---______one on ______ left, I think.12.---Which is _____ way to ______ hospital?---Go down this road and turn left on ______ second crossing.13._______ more, _______ better.14._______ Turners are sitting at breakfast table.15.Joe Hill was _______ fighter for ______ working class.16.When was ______ People’s Republic of China founded? 17.In China ______ first English textbooks were published in _____late nineteenth century.18.After ______ breakfast he went to ______ school on ______ foot.19.______ Huanghe River lies in ______ north of China.20.He likes playing ______ football.His sister likes playing ______ piano.II.單項選擇：
1.上學 A.go to school B.go to the school C.go to a school 2.住院 A, in the hospital B.in a hospital C.in hospital 3.此刻 A.at the moment B.at a moment C.at moment 4.在課堂上 A.in class B.in a class C.in the class 5.在地球上 A.on earth B.on an earth C.on the earth 6.步行 A.on foot B.on the foot C.on feet 7.吃飯 A.at a table B.at the table C.at table 8.乘公共汽車A.take bus B.by bus C.by the bus 9.在家 A.at the home B.at a home C.at home 10.在工作 A.at work B.at the work C.at works 11.跳高 A.jump high B.high jump C.the high jump 12.坐飛機 A.by air B.by the air C.on air 13.乘火車 A.by the train B.by train C.on train 14.在校學習A.in the school B.in school C.in schools 15.睡覺 A.go to bed B.go to the bed C.go to a bed 16.感冒 A.have a cold B.have the cold C.have cold 17.乘船 A.by ship B.on ship C.by a ship 18.玩得痛快A.have good times B.have a good time C.have good times 19.事實上 A.in the fact B.in facts C.in fact 21.從早到晚A.from morning to the evening B.from morning to evening C.from a morning to an evening
四、隨堂監(jiān)測B組 III.選擇填空：
1.There is ______ old woman in the car.A./ B.the C.a D.an 2.Shanghai is in _______ east of China.A./ B.an C.the D.a 3.Bill is ______ English teacher.He likes playing ______ football.A.a, the B.an, the C.a, / D./, / 4.The museum is quite far.It will take you half _____ hour to go there by ______ bus.A.an, / B.an, a C.a, / D./, / 5.The story is ______ interesting.That means it is ______ interesting story.A.an, the B.the, a.C./, an D./, a 6.Let’s go for ______ walk, shall we? A.a B.an C.the D./ 7.This is ______ interesting story-book and it is also ______ useful one.A.a, a B.an, an C.an, a D.a, an 8._______ woman over there is ______ popular teacher in our school.A.A, an B.The, a C.The , the D.A, the 9.They passed our school ______ day before yesterday.A.an B.one C.a D.the 10.Australia is ______ English-speaking country.A.a B.an C.the D./ 11.Don’t play ______ basketball here.It’s dangerous.A.a B.an C./ D.the 12.This is ______ apple.It’s _______ big apple.A.an, a B.a, the C.a, an D.an, the 13.---Have you seen ______ bag? I left it here just now.---Is it ______ one on the chair near the door? A.a, a B.the, the C.a, the D.the, a 14.I have ______ blue coat.A.a B.an C.the D.some 15.This is _____ orange._______ orange is on the table.A.a, The B.an, The C.an, An D.the, An 16.Have you had ______ breakfast? A.a B.an C.the D./ 17.He wondered when the doctor could finish _____ operation.A.a B.an C.the D.any 18.After ______ supper, he stayed at home and played ______ violin.A.the, the B./, the C./, a D./, / 19.There is ______ apple on the plate.A.a B.an C.the D./ 20.He said that he got ______ “ C” in the test.A.a B.an C.the D./ 21.______ new bridge has been built over ______ Huangpu River.A.The, a B.A, / C.A, the D.An, an 22.English is _______ useful language in ______ world.A.an, the B.a, the C.the, the D.an, an 23.In the word “ cariage” _______ “ r” is lost.A.the B.an C.a D./ 24.With the help of his teacher he studied hard and got ______ “ A” in the test.A.a B.an C.the D.one 25.I have two dogs.______ black one is two years old and ______ yellow one is three years old.A.A, a B.The, a C.The, the D.A.the 26.Li Dan can play ______ piano very well.A./ B.a C.an D.the 27.What ______ interesting film it is!I like ______ film very much.A.a, the B.a, a C.an, the D.The, / 28.______ tall man over there is our ______ English teacher.A.A, the B.The, a C.A, an D.The, / 代詞
一、本周內(nèi)容概述 1．代詞的作用
嚴格地講,代詞是代替名詞的,在句子中起名詞的作用,可用作： 1)主語 例如：
This is our new home.這是我們的新家。Who is on the phone? 誰在打電話？ 2)賓語 例如：
Take good care of yourself.多多保重。
We should help each other.我們應互相幫助。3)表語 例如： That’s not mine.那不是我的。Who is it? —It’s me.誰呀？ —是我。4)同位語 例如：
We both live in the dormitory.我們兩人都住宿舍。He ate them all.他把它們?nèi)粤恕?)呼語 例如：
Be patient, everybody.大家都耐心點。2．代詞的分類
代詞通常可分為以下八類： 1)人稱代詞(I, you, he , we等)2)物主代詞(our, your, their, his等)3)反身代詞(myself, ourselves, yourself, itself等)4)相互代詞(each other, one another)5)指示代詞(this, that, these, those等)6)疑問代詞(who, what, which, whose等)7)關系代詞(who, that, which, whose等)8)不定代詞(both, all, some, any等)
二、重點知識歸納及講解(一)人稱代詞
1．人稱代詞的單數(shù)、復數(shù)和主格、賓格 數(shù) 格
人稱 單數(shù) 復數(shù) 主格 賓語 主格 賓格 第一人稱 I 我 me we 我們 us 第二人稱 you 你 you you 你們 you 第三人稱 he 他 she 她 it 它 him her it 他們 they 她們 它們 them 2．人稱代詞的用法
1)人稱代詞的主格在句子中充當主語 例如：
I am studying English now.我現(xiàn)在正在學英語。We love our country.我們熱愛我們的國家。
如果有幾個人稱代詞并列充當主語,它們的順序是： 單數(shù)形式 you, he and I 復數(shù)形式 we, you and they 2)人稱代詞的賓語在句子中充當賓語、介詞賓語或表語。例如： Can you help us? 你能幫助我們嗎？ We are waiting for them.我們正在等他們。Who is there? It’s me.是誰呀？是我。(二)物主代詞
物主代詞用來表示人和物之間的所有關系,這類代詞有形容詞性物主代詞和名詞性物主代詞兩種,并有不同的人稱和單復數(shù)之分。
2．形容詞性物主代詞與名詞性物主代詞的主要用法區(qū)別
1)形容詞性物主代詞不能獨立使用,只作定語,用來修飾后面的名詞。例如：
My parents are both doctors.我的父母都是醫(yī)生。
We saw a film yesterday.Its name was Speed.我們昨天看了一場電影,片名是《生死時速》。
2)名詞性物主代詞應獨立使用,后面不跟名詞,相當于形容詞性物主代詞+名詞,它們在句中可以作主語、賓語或表語。
例如：
Is this her pen? No, hers is red.(主語)這是她的鋼筆嗎？不,她的是紅色的。
Let’s clean their room first, and then clean ours.(賓語)咱們先打掃他們的房間,然后再打掃我們的。These letters are his.(表語)這些信是他的。(三)反身代詞
反身代詞用來表示反射或強調。1．反身代詞的形式 人稱 一 二 三
單數(shù) myself yourself himself herself itself 復數(shù) ourselves yourselves themselves 2．反身代詞的用法
1)在句子中作賓語,表示動作回射到動作的執(zhí)行者本身。例如：
My grandmother is too old to look after herself.我奶奶年紀太大了,照顧不了她自己。
Lei Feng was always ready to help others, he never thought of himself.雷鋒總是樂于幫助別人,從不考慮自己。
2)在句中作名詞或代詞的同位語,用來加強語氣,常可譯為“親自”、“本人”等。在這種情況下,反身代詞可以緊跟名詞或代詞之后,也可以放到句末。
例如：
We ourselves will build the factory.我們將自己建造這個工廠。He spoke to me myself.他對我本人說話。
3)反身代詞在實際運用中可構成許多常用詞組。例如：
by oneself 親自 for oneself 為自己 call oneself 稱自己 teach oneself 自學 help oneself to 隨意吃 lose oneself 迷路 speak to oneself 自言自語 seat oneself 就座 make oneself understood 讓別人懂得自己的意思(四)指示代詞
指示代詞是表示“這個”、“那個”、“這些”、“那些”等指示概念的代詞,如：this, that, these, those等。英語中指示代詞的用法同漢語中的情況相似。this和these一般用來指較近的事物,that和those則指較遠的事物。
指示代詞可以充當句子中的主語、定語、賓語或表語。例如：
This is a difficult question.這是個難題。
That basketball isn’t ours.那個籃球不是我們的。Do you like these? 你喜歡這些嗎？(五)不定代詞
不定代詞是不指明代替任何特定名詞的代詞。1．不定代詞有以下形式：
some, somebody, someone, something, any, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, nothing, all, both, neither, none, either, each, everybody, everyone, everything, other, another, much ,one 2．不定代詞在句子中的作用： 1)作主語 例如：
Everyone has come.Let’s begin.大家都到了,我們開始吧。Both of his parents are doctors.他的父母都是醫(yī)生。
One is the teacher, the others are students.一人是老師,其余的是學生。2)作賓語 例如：
This one is too small, please show me another.這個太小,請另外拿一個給我看看。Please introduce me to the others.請把我介紹給所有其他的人。3)作表語 例如：
That’s all for today.今天就到這兒吧。It’s too much for me.這件事非我力所能及。3．常見不定代詞的用法講解 1)some和any a．some常用于肯定句,any多用于否定句,疑問句或條件狀語從句,兩者都可以代替可數(shù)或不可數(shù)名詞。
例如：
Some say yes and some say no.有的人說是,有的人說不是。I don’t like any of them.我對他們一個也不喜歡。Does any of them know this? 他們當中有誰知道嗎？
b．如果在提問時期待對方肯定回答,或鼓勵別人說yes時,疑問句中的不定代詞要用some,不用any。
例如：
Would you like some of the tickets? 你想要些票嗎？
c．在強調“任何一個”意思的時候,any也可用于肯定句。例如：
You can take any of the newspapers here.你可以拿這兒任何一份報紙。2)either和neither either用于肯定,neither用于否定,二者均限于兩個個體的情況。例如：
You can see tall trees on either of the river banks.在河的兩岸你們能看到高大的樹。Neither of them wants to see the film with me.他們兩個誰也不想和我去看電影。3)one和ones(one的復數(shù)形式)one可以指某人,人人或某物,也可以用來代替上文中提及的可數(shù)名詞,以避免用詞的重復。當one指人時,其反身代詞為oneself,所有格形式是one’s。
例如：
One should follow the laws.人人應該遵守法律。The one in red is our monitor.穿紅衣服的那位是我們的班長。
Shanghai has a lot of new buildings, but it also has many old ones.上海有很多新的建筑物,也有不少老的建筑物。4)復合不定代詞
復合不定代詞是由some, any, no, every同body,one, thing等詞構成的代詞。復合不定代詞都可看作單數(shù),表示“某人”或“某物”,并在句中作主語、賓語或表語。同some和any在用法上的區(qū)別一樣,some, someone和something一般用于肯定句,anybody, anyone和anything一般用于否定句、疑問句和條件狀語從句中。
例如：
We want somebody to help us.我們想要有人來幫助我們。Have you found anything here? 你們在這兒發(fā)現(xiàn)什么了嗎？
If anyone comes to visit us, tell him we have gone to the cinema.如果有人來訪,就告訴他我們?nèi)ル娪霸毫恕１硎救说膹秃喜欢ù~后面都可以加’s構成所有格。例如：
Somebody’s wallet has just been stolen.有人的錢包剛剛被偷了。復合不定代詞要求后置定語。例如：
We will have something important to do this afternoon.今天下午我們有些重要事情要做。(六)疑問代詞
疑問代詞是用來構成特殊疑問句的代詞,如who, whom, whose, what和which等。在疑問句中,疑問代詞一般都放在句首,并在句中充當主語、賓語、表語或定語。例如：
Who is your maths teacher?(表語)誰是你們的數(shù)學老師？ Whose bag is that?(定語)那是誰的書包？
Who teaches you English?(主語)誰教你們英語？
Whom are you talking about?(賓語)你們在談論誰？(七)相互代詞
相互代詞是表示相互關系的代詞,其形式如下表。主格和賓格 所有格 each other one another each other’s one another’s
在當代英語中,each other和one another意思上沒有區(qū)別,它們在句中可以作賓語,其所有格可以作定語。
(互相)(彼此的)例如：
Do you often help each other? 你們經(jīng)常互相幫助嗎？
We are interested in one another’s work.我們對彼此的工作感興趣。
三、隨堂監(jiān)測A組 I.選擇填空：
1．This dictionary is not hers.It’s _______.A.I B.me C.mine D.my 2.---Is this ______ magazine?---No, it isn’t.It’s ________.A.your, her B.hers, mine C.yours, hers D.your, hers 3.There are two books on the desk.One is a maths book, _______ is an English book.A.others B.other C.the other D.another 4._______ of the girls plays tennis well.A.Neither B.Both C.All D.Some 5.Mary speaks very quickly._______ is difficult to understand what she is saying.A.That B.she C.It D.There 6.The school was built by the villagers _______.A.us B.ourselves C.them D.themselves 7.He put a finger into ______ mouth and sucked it.A.his B.he C.him D.his’s 8.He is always ready to help ______.A.another B.others C.the other D.other 9.Let _______ do this exercise myself.A.him B.her C.us D.me 10.Have you _______ to tell us? A.important something B.something important C.important anything D.anything important 11.I met an old friend of ______ on ______ way home.A.mine, my B.my, the C.mine, a D.mine, the 12.______ of the students in our class has a ticket.A.Every B.Both C.Each D.All 13.There are several books on the desk.._____ of them is English.A.All B.Both C.None D.Neither 14._______ live in Shanghai.A.We B.Our C.Ours D.Ourselves 15.---Is this ______ jacket?---Yes, it’s _______.A.her, her B.her, hers C.hers, her D.hers, hers 16.---_______ is that boy?---He’s my son.A.Who B.Whom C.What D.Which 17._______ humans ______ animals can live without air.A.Both, and B.Neither, nor C.Either, or D.Not only, but also 18.They have twenty-six desks in the classroom.One is for the teacher, ______ are for the students.A.the other B.other C.the others D.others 19.My dictionary is in my bag.Where is _______? A.yours B.you C.yourself D.your 20.I think you can do the job ______.A.yourself B.myself C.himself D.your 21.---Which jacket is Mary’s?---The red one is _______.A.she B.her C.hers D.his 22.My uncle was so angry that he was no ______ when he found I was beating his dog.A.him B.his C.himself D.he 23.There are many trees on ______ side of the street.A.all B.both C.every D.each 24._____ is important for us to keep the balance of nature.A.There B.That C.This D.It 25.She can’t find ______ watch.A.hers B.it C.her D.it’s
26.There is ______ milk in the glass.A.many B.little C.few D.a few 27.Please pass ______ the cap of tea.A.me B.my C.mine D.I 28.Have you heard from ______ recently? A.them B.they C.themselves D.their 29.There is _____water in the bottle.A.not B.some C.any D.many 30.There isn’t ______ food left on the table.A.many B.few C.much D.little 31.Sorry, I can’t answer your question.I know ______ about the news.A.a little B.little C.few D.a few 32.This is his schoolbag, ______ is on the desk.A.my B.yours C.your D.you 33.We made the radio ______.A.us B.ourselves C.myself D.our 34.Would please give me ______ hot tea? A.one B.little C.some D.any 35.---Would you like some milk in your tea?---Yes, just _______.A.a little B.little C.a few D.few 36.This question is so difficult that ______ students can answer it.A.few B.a few C.little D.a little 37.They have only _________ homework for Sunday.A.few B.a few C.little D.a little 38.They told us about their school and we told them about_______.A.we B.us C.our D.ours 39.This blue suit looks better than the green ________.A./ B.one C.suits D.ones 40._________ is your father ,a worker or a teacher? A.How B.Which C.What D.Who
四、隨堂監(jiān)測B組 II.中考題集：
1．---Whose painting is this? It’s really wonderful!---Oh, it’s not ________.It’s _________.A.hers;your B.mine;Elsa’s C.yours;he’s D.his;my
2．_________ of the twins went to watch Peking Opera last Sunday.They were staying at home all that day.A.Either B.Both C.Neither D.One 3．The English novel is quite easy for you.There are __________ new words in it.A.a little B.little C.a few D.few 4．This ruler is mine.__________ is over there.A.She B.She’s C.Her D.Hers
5．I’ll tell you ________ news about the sports meeting.A.many B.some C.a few 6．All the boys were very tired, but _______ of them would take a rest.A.all B.neither C.any D.none 7．Every day Mr.Hu checks _________ homework and corrects the mistakes we make.A.his B.her C.our D.its 8．---When shall we meet again, this afternoon or tonight?---I don’t mind._________ time is OK.A.Either B.Every C.Neither D.Both 9．The old man has two sons.One is a worker;________ is a teacher.A.another B.other C.others D.the other 10．Pass _________ the knife, please.My pencil is broken.A.I B.me C.my D.mine 11．---Which do you prefer, orange juice or coke?---_________, thanks.I’d like just a cup of tea.A.Either B.Neither C.Both D.None 12．Bob couldn’t buy the dictionary because he had _________ money with him.A.a few B.few C.a little D.little 13．This is not my dictionary.It’s ________.A.her B.his C.your D.their 14．---Oh!I came n a hurry and forgot to bring food.---Never mind.You can have _________.A.us B.ours C.you D.yours 15．---The watch is so nice!Is it for ________?---Yes.Happy birthday.Mary!---Thank you very much.A.his B.me C.my D.hers 16．---May I use your pen?---Yes, here are two and you can use ________ of them.A.both B.every C.any D.either 17．---Whose book is this?---It’s ________.A.my B.mine C.me D.I 18．---How many more oranges can I have ?---You can have one more.__________ are for Tom.A.The others B.Another C.Others D.The other 19．---Can I talk to you for a minute, Brain?---Sure, I have _______ time.A.a few B.little C.few D.a little 20．Their English teacher is from America, but ________ is from England.A.ours B.my C.your D.her 21．Anne has a son._______ name is Edward.A.Her B.His C.Hers D.Him 22．This isn’t my sweater.It’s __________ , I think.A.she B.her C.hers D.mine 23．Hurry up!There’s _________ time left.A.few B.a few C.little D.a little 24．---Could I have some milk?---Certainly.There’s ________ in the bottle.A.little B.a little C.a few D.few 25．You can’t see many of the stars in the sky because __________ are too far away.A.they B.their C.them D.theirs 26．Lei Feng asked _________ for return when he helped others.A.everything B.nothing C.anything D.something 27．---Is it your ticket?---No, _________ is in my pocket.It’s ________.A.mine;her B.my;his C.mine;hers D.my;hers 28．Can you tell me ________ she is waiting for? A.why B.whose C.whom D.which 29．Miss Brown will teach ________ English next term.A.us B.we C.our D.ours 30．There is _________ in today’s newspaper.A.new anything B.new something C.anything new D.something new 數(shù)詞
一、本周內(nèi)容概述
表示數(shù)目和順序的詞叫數(shù)詞。數(shù)詞可分為基數(shù)詞和序數(shù)詞兩類。
二、重點知識歸納及講解(一)基數(shù)詞 基數(shù)詞用來表示數(shù)目,或者說表示數(shù)量的詞叫基數(shù)詞。最基本的基數(shù)詞如下表所示。1 one 11 eleven 100 a hundred 2 two 12 twelve 20 twenty 1000 a thousand 3 three 13 thirteen 30 thirty 1,000,000 a million 4 four 14 fourteen 40 forty 10,000,000 ten million 5 five 15 fifteen 50 fifty 100,000,000 a hundred million 6 six 16 sixteen 60 sixty 1,000,000,000 a billion 7 seven 17 seventeen 70 seventy 8 eight 18 eighteen 80 eighty 9 nine 19 nineteen 90 ninety 10 ten 說明：
1．13—19是由個位數(shù)加后綴-teen構成。注意其中13、15的拼寫是thirteen和fifteen。2．20—90由個位數(shù)加后綴-ty構成,注意其中20—50的拼寫分別是twenty, thirty, forty 和fifty;80的拼寫是eighty。
3．其它非整十的兩位數(shù)21—99是由整十位數(shù)加連字符“-”,再加個位數(shù)構成。如： 81 eighty-one。
4．101—999的基數(shù)詞先寫百位數(shù),后加and再寫十位數(shù)和個位數(shù)。如： 691 six hundred and ninety-one。
5．1000以上的基數(shù)詞先寫千位數(shù),后寫百位數(shù),再加and,最后寫十位數(shù)和個位數(shù)。如：5893 five thousand eight hundred and ninety-three。在基數(shù)詞中只有表示“百”、“千”的單位詞,沒有單獨表示“萬”、“億”的單位詞,而是用thousand(千)和million(百萬)來表達,其換算關系為：1萬=10 thousand;1億=100 million;10億=a thousand million=a billion。
7．多位數(shù)的讀法：
第五篇：七年級英語語法教案
七年級英語語法雖然是從簡單的一些日常用語出發(fā)的，但語法中常會有一些知識點看起來很細小，容易被忽視，但這些知識點掌握不熟練，往往會造成一些語法應用上的錯誤。因此在學習七年級英語語法時，要認真、細心，不要覺得一些地方不重要而得過且過。
下面從幾個方面，總結出了七年級英語語法，如果要復習英語句法的同學，可以參考一下，一、七年級英語語法——詞法
1、名詞
A）、名詞的數(shù)
我們知道名詞可以分為可數(shù)名詞和不可數(shù)名詞，而不可數(shù)名詞它沒有復數(shù)形式，但可數(shù)名詞卻有單數(shù)和復數(shù)之分，復數(shù)的構成如下：
一）在后面加s。如：fathers, books, Americans, Germans, apples, bananas 二）x, sh, ch, s, tch后加es。如：boxes, glasses, dresses, watches, wishes, faxes
三）1）以輔音字母加y結尾的變y為i再加es 如：baby-babies, family-families, duty-duties, comedy-comedies, documentary-documentaries, story-stories 2）以元音字母加y結尾的直接加s。如：day-days, boy-boys, toy-toys, key-keys, ways
四）以o結尾加s（外來詞）。如：radios, photos, 但如是輔音加o的加es：如: tomatoes西紅柿, potatoes馬鈴薯
五）以f或fe結尾的變f為v再加es(s)。如：knife-knives, wife-wives, half-halves, shelf-shelves, leaf-leaves, yourself-yourselves
六）單復數(shù)相同（不變的）有：fish, sheep, deer鹿子, Chinese, Japanese 七）一般只有復數(shù)，沒有單數(shù)的有：people,pants, shorts, shoes, glasses, gloves, clothes, socks
八）單詞形式不變，既可以是單數(shù)也可以是復數(shù)的有：police警察局，警察, class班，同學, family家，家庭成員
九）合成的復數(shù)一般只加主要名詞，多數(shù)為后一個單詞。如：action movie-action movies, pen pal-pen pals;但如果是由man或woman所組成的合成詞的復數(shù)則同時為復數(shù)。如：man doctor-men doctors, woman teacher-women teachers
十）有的單復數(shù)意思不同。如：fish魚 fishes魚的種類, paper紙 papers報紙，卷子，論文, work工作 works作品，工廠, glass玻璃 glasses玻璃杯，眼鏡, orange桔子水 oranges橙子, light光線 lights燈, people人 peoples民族, time時間 times時代, 次數(shù), chicken 雞肉 chickens 小雞
十一）單個字母的復數(shù)可以有兩種形式直接加s或’s。如：Is(I’s), Ks(K’s)。但如是縮略詞則只加s。如：IDs, VCDs, SARs
十二）特殊形式的有：child-children, man-men, woman-women, foot-feet, mouse-mice, policeman-policemen, Englishman-Englishmen
B）名詞的格
當我們要表示某人的什么東西或人時，我們就要使用所有格形式。構成如下： 一）單數(shù)在后面加’s。如：brother’s, Mike’s, teacher’s 二）復數(shù)以s結尾的直接在s后加’，如果不是以s結尾的與單數(shù)一樣處理。如：Teachers’ Day教師節(jié), classmates’;Children’s Day六一節(jié), Women’s Day三八節(jié)
三）由and并列的名詞所有時，如果是共同所有同一人或物時，只加最后一個’s，但分別擁有時卻分別按單數(shù)形式處理。如：Mike and Ben’s room邁克和本的房間（共住一間），Mike’s and Ben’s rooms邁克和本的房間（各自的房間）
2、代詞
項目 人稱代詞 物主代詞 指示代詞 反身代詞 人稱 主格 賓格 形容詞 名詞性 第一人稱 單數(shù) I me my mine myself 復數(shù) we us our ours ourselves
第二人稱 單數(shù) you you your yours yourself 復數(shù) you you your yours yourselves 第三人稱 單數(shù) she her her hers herself he him his his himself it it its its this that itself
復數(shù) they them their theirs these those themselves
3、動詞
A）第三人稱單數(shù)
當動詞是第三人稱單數(shù)時，動詞應該像名詞的單數(shù)變動詞那樣加s，如下： 一）一般在詞后加s。如：comes, spells, waits, talks, sees, dances, trains 二）在x, sh, ch, s, tch后加es。如：watches, washes, wishes, finishes 三）1）以輔音字母加y結尾的變y為i再加es。如：study-studies, hurry-hurries, try-tries
2）以元音字母加y結尾的直接加s。如：plays, says, stays, enjoys, buys 四）以o結尾加es。如：does, goes 五）特殊的有：are-is, have-has B）現(xiàn)在分詞
當我們說某人正在做什么事時，動詞要使用分詞形式，不能用原形，構成如下： 一）一般在后加ing。如：spell-spelling, sing-singing, see-seeing, train-training, play-playing, hurry-hurrying, watch-watching, go-going, do-doing
二）以不發(fā)音e的結尾的去掉e再加ing。如：dance-dancing, wake-waking, take-taking, practice-practicing, write-writing, have-having
三）以重讀閉音節(jié)結尾且一個元音字母＋一個輔音字母（注意除開字母組合如show –showing, draw-drawing）要雙寫最后的輔音字母再加ing。如：put-putting, run-running, get-getting, let-letting, begin-beginning
四）以ie結尾的變ie為y再加ing。如：tie-tying系 die-dying死 lie-lying 位于
4、形容詞的級
我們在對兩個或以上的人或物進行對比時，則要使用比較或最高級形式。構成如下：
一）一般在詞后加er或est(如果是以e結尾則直接加r或st)。如：greater-greatest, shorter –shortest, taller –tallest, longer –longest, nicer-nicest, larger-largest
二）以重讀閉音節(jié)結尾且1個元音字母＋1個輔音字母(字母組合除外，如few-fewer fewest)結尾的雙寫結尾的輔音再加er /est。如：big-bigger biggest, red-redder reddest, hot-hotter hottest
三）以輔音字母＋y結尾的變y為i加er/est。如：happy-happier happiest, sorry-sorrier sorriest, friendly-friendlier friendliest(more friendly most friendly), busy-busier busiest, easy-easier easiest 四）特殊情況：(兩好多壞，一少老遠)
good/wellmore most bad/ill – worse worst little-less least old-older/elder oldest/eldest far-farther/further farthest/furthest
5、數(shù)詞(基變序，有規(guī)則；一、二、三，自己背；五、八、九、十二；其它后接th；y結尾，變?yōu)閕, eth跟上去。)first, second, third;fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth;seventh, tenth, thirteenth, hundredth;twenty-twentieth, forty-fortieth, ninety-ninetieth 二、七年級英語語法——句式 1.陳述句
肯定陳述句 a)This is a book.(be動詞)
b)He looks very young.(連系動詞)c)I want a sweat like this.(實義動詞)
d)I can bring some things to school.(情態(tài)動詞)e)There’s a computer on my desk.(There be結構)
否定陳述句 a)These aren’t their books.b)They don’t look nice.c)Kate doesn’t go to No.4 Middle School.d)Kate can’t find her doll.e)There isn’t a cat here.(=There’s no cat here.)2.祈使句
肯定祈使句 a)Please go and ask the man.b)Let’s learn English!c)Come in, please.否定祈使句a)Don’t be late.b)Don’t hurry.3.疑問句
1)一般疑問句 a)Is Jim a student? b)Can I help you? c)Does she like salad?
d)Do they watch TV? e)Is she reading?
肯定回答: a)Yes, he is.b)Yes, you can.c)Yes, she does.d)Yes, they do.e)Yes, she is.否定回答: a)No, he isn’t.b)No, you can’t.c)No, she doesn’t.d)No, they don’t.e)No, she isn’t.2)選擇疑問句 Is the table big or small? 回答 It’s big./ It’s small.3)特殊疑問句
① 問年齡 How old is Lucy? She is twelve.② 問種類 What kind of movies do you like? I like action movies and comedies.③ 問身體狀況 How is your uncle? He is well/fine.④ 問方式 How do/can you spell it? L-double O-K.How do we contact you? My e-mail address is cindyjones@163.com.⑤ 問原因 Why do you want to join the club?
⑥ 問時間 What’s the time?(=What time is it?)It’s a quarter to ten a.m..What time do you usually get up, Rick? At five o’clock.When do you want to go? Let’s go at 7:00.⑦ 問地方 Where’s my backpack? It’s under the table.⑧ 問顏色 What color are they? They are light blue.What’s your favourite color? It’s black.⑨ 問人物 Who’s that? It’s my sister.Who is the boy in blue? My brother.Who isn’t at school? Peter and Emma.Who are Lisa and Tim talking to?
⑩ 問東西 What’s this/that(in English)? It’s a pencil case.What else can you see in the picture? I can see some broccoli, strawberries and hamburgers.11問姓名 What’s your aunt’s name? Her name is Helen./She’s Helen.What’s your first name? My first name’s Ben.What’s your family name? My family name’s Smith.12 問哪一個 Which do you like? I like one in the box.13 問字母 What letter is it? It’s big D/small f.問價格 How much are these pants? They’re 15 dollars.15 問電話號碼 What’s your phone number? It’s 576-8349.16 問謂語(動作)What’s he doing? He’s watching TV.17 問職業(yè)(身份)What do you do? I’m a teacher.What’s your father? He’s a doctor.三、七年級英語語法——時態(tài)
1、一般現(xiàn)在時 表示普遍、經(jīng)常性的或長期性的動作時使用一般現(xiàn)在時，它有：
Be 動詞：She’s a worker.Is she a worker? She isn’t a worker.情態(tài)動詞：I can play the piano.Can you play the piano? I can’t play the piano.行為動詞：They want to eat some tomatoes.Do they want to eat any tomatoes? They don’t want to eat any tomatoes.Gina has a nice watch.Does Gina have a nice watch? Gina doesn’t have a watch.2、現(xiàn)在進行時 表示動詞在此時正在發(fā)生或進行就使用進行時態(tài)，結構為sb be v-ing sth + 其它.I’m playing baseball.Are you playing baseball? I’m not playing baseball.Nancy is writing a letter.Is Nancy writing a letter? Nancy isn’t writing a letter.They’re listening to the pop music.Are they listening the pop music? They aren’t listening to the pop music.
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