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經濟類論文(合集5篇)

時間:2019-05-15 12:19:28下載本文作者:會員上傳
簡介:寫寫幫文庫小編為你整理了多篇相關的《經濟類論文》,但愿對你工作學習有幫助,當然你在寫寫幫文庫還可以找到更多《經濟類論文》。

第一篇:經濟類論文

WTO與世界貿易自由化展望

[摘要]GATT對世界貿易自由化的推動發揮了巨大的作用。如今,取代GATT而成立一年多的WTO,為堅持全球貿易秩序化和法制化軌道上運行等方面取得一定的成績,但同時也面臨著種種的考驗,如非關稅壁壘、大國稱霸、區域貿易與全球貿易關系、保護民族工業與自由貿易關系等問題有待解決。應該 清醒地認識到自由貿易的必然性和WTO能力的局限性。并能客觀地看待中國加入WTO問題。[關鍵詞]國際貿易組織、關稅貿易總協定、貿易自由化

一、GATT與貿易自由化的進展

誕生于1947年的GATT,是世界上國家(地區)間簽署的、具有約束力的多邊貿易契約,是一套系統管理各國(地區)間貿易行為的多邊貿易通則。雖然它只是一個貿易協定,但是實際上早已機構化了,只是法律上從未獲得真正的國際組織的地位。其主要職能是組織多邊貿易談判和對締約方之間的貿易爭端進行和作出仲裁。按照其宗旨:在國際貿易中,通過相互削減關稅、清除非關稅壁壘和國際貿易中的歧視待遇,以實現提高生活水平、保證充分就業和實際收入及有效需要的巨大持續增長、擴大世界資源的充分利用以及發展商品的生產與交換為目的,在GATT成立以來的近半個世紀中,形成了10項基本原則,包括非歧視性貿易原則;關稅保護原則;貿易穩定原則;公平競爭原則,反進口數量限制原則;公開與透明度原則;豁免與例外原則;區域性貿易原則;對發展中國家的優惠原則;服裝及紡織品的全外原則等。并主持舉行了8輪全球性多邊貿易談判,包括決定建立WTO的“烏拉圭回合”談判。結果是,世界工業品貿易的關稅平均稅率由1947年的40%減至目前發達國家的4%和發展中國家的12%的水平;其締約方由從初創時的23國發展到WTO成立前的128個國家和地區;其成員國的貿易額自最初只占世界貿易總量的25%至今已占全球貿易的90%。盡管GATT只是個臨時性的協定,其締約方仍然實施關稅特別是非關稅保護,也存在“灰色區域”,但在過去的近半個世紀中,作為管理國際貿易的唯一多邊協議,還是把世界貿易自由化向前推進了一大步。1995年,全球貿易在1994年取得9.5%的較大幅度增長的基礎上又增長了8%,這與GATT推動是分不開的。

二、過渡期間的WTO對貿易自由化的推動。

已經結束的“烏拉圭回合”產生了多項重要的積極成果,其中之一便是使這GATT這一準國際貿易組織正規化,決定于1995年元旦成立WTO。

與GATT相比,WTO所涉及的領域不僅包括工農業產品貿易,而且還包括服務貿易和知識產權,其解決貿易爭端的機制也更加有效。

在WTO成立以來的一年里,經歷了不少困難和曲折,但基本上完成了機構建設;同時還增加了新成員,包括中國在內的二十來個國家和地區正在申請加入WTO。WTO組織規模不斷擴大,表明它對各國的吸引力增強,目前WTO中發展中國家以及東歐轉軌經濟國家已占2/3,有助于發展中國家在多邊貿易體系中發揮更大的作用;組織了新的多邊貿易談判,并且正在勾畫自身的發展藍圖,準備迎接世界經濟發展所帶來的各種挑戰。

作為一個新成立但具有永久性法律效力的WTO,剛成立就面臨三大挑戰:鞏固“烏拉圭回合”成果;完成該回合已涉及但尚未完成的談判;研究國際貿易的新課題。面對實施期長達10年,對所有締約方具有普遍適用性、卷帙浩繁、空前復雜的“烏拉圭回合”的協議,其實施難度之大是不難想象的。為此,WTO在GATT原有基礎上建立了一整套管理機構,其中一個重要的機構就是貿易制度審議機制,WTO對各成員方的貿易政策定期進行審議,以確保其透明度和與多邊協議的一致性;還建立了新的解決爭端機制,以強化多邊貿易體系。這一機制與以往GATT比較零散的解決爭端機制相比較具有更高的效率和更強的實施仲裁結果的能力,它規定所有爭端最長必須在18個月內解決,如果該機制作出的仲裁結構得不到實施,有關方面將會受到制裁。在1995年一年中,它受理的貿易爭端已超過二十多起,比GATT任何一年受理的爭端都要多,其中有6起是發展中國家針對貿易大國的。在這些爭端中最引人注目的當屬美日汽車貿易糾紛,盡管此案最終通過雙方談判得以解決,但不能否認WTO解決爭端機制的威懾力對雙方達成協議起的促進作用。以往在GATT時期,貿易大國常常可以藐視該組織作出的裁決而不會受到懲罰,弱小國家的利益往往因此得不到保護。在這一問題上,WTO有了新進展,如1995年4月,香港有關部門將美國對香港紡織品限制案報送WTO裁決后,使美國取消了對香港紡織品采取的限制措施;同年7月份,哥斯達黎加和洪都拉斯就美國對其內衣進口采取限制措施向WTO起訴,結果使美國又一次取消了限制措施。

WTO在1995年還組織了“烏拉圭回合”未完成的4項服務貿易談判:金融服務、勞工流動、基礎電信和海運談判。在金融服務談判中,美國堅持高要價,談判一度幾乎破裂,但最終還是在歐盟的倡議下達成了一項沒有美國參加的臨時性協議,這可以說是史無前例的。結果,30多個國家作出了提高其金融市場開放程度的承諾。此外,WTO已經成立了一個委員會專門研究環境問題,并計劃把所有新課題提交1996年12月在新加坡召開的WTO第一次部長級會議講座,以為將來組織新貿易談判做準備。總之,從GATT到WTO的新舊交替進行得還比較平穩,為多邊貿易體系的發展奠定了基礎。WTO在這一年中為堅持全球貿易在秩序化和法制的軌道上運行,所作的努力是可貴的。但在一系列問題上,特別是在維護WTO信譽和權威方面,這一新生的組織還面臨著嚴峻的考驗。

三、WTO在推進貿易自由化過程中的嚴峻考驗

從理論上說,GATT宗旨是符合通行的國際貿易理論原則的;從條文上看已為WTO的運行提供了制度化的保證;從實踐來觀察,盡管WTO已取代了GATT,但已取得的成績距離其宗旨要求卻相去甚遠。并且,隨著世界經濟一體化的發展,一些新的課題擺到了WTO的面前,如貿易與貿易環境、貿易與投資政策以及貿易與各國企業的競爭政策等。

首先,GATT在推進貿易自由化已取得的成績中,削減關稅最為突出,這也是世界貿易量增長10倍的主要原因之一;但同時,在另一方面,尤其是非關稅壁壘障礙上,卻無能為力。各國在其經濟發展中,客觀上有保護的需要,但由于關稅減讓太多,不便利其實現保護的目的,遂轉而大量使用非關稅壁壘措施。目前全世界關稅壁壘措施已達2700多種,成了貿易自由化的最大障礙。WTO仍然將面對這塊難啃的硬骨頭。

其次,WTO并未消除國際貿易秩序中存在的各種弊端。最突出的問題之一是,大國左右局面情況依然存在。譬如說,由于少數貿易大國的阻撓,貿易額居世界第11位的中國至今仍未能成為WTO的成員國;由于歐美互不相讓,WTO總干事人選拖9個月才確定下來;另外美國動輒采取單方面貿易報復措施,這對其他國家構成了重大威脅;失業嚴重、貿易不平衡等因素導致發達國家貿易保護主義有增無減,它們以勞工標準、環境保護等借口對廣大發展中國家推行新型貿易保護主義,并在向發展中國家轉讓技術問題上設置了種種障礙。過去,由于主要西方國家背離GATT宗旨,致使發展中國家負擔沉重,兩者之間的貧富差距拉大,至今依然如故;不僅如此,這種行為也使發達國家之間不斷爆發貿易爭端。這些傾向都對WTO產生破壞性作用。所以,WTO面臨的最嚴峻考驗是,當主要工業化貿易大國缺乏競爭力時或在自身短期經濟利益受到威脅時,它們是否仍然愿意尊重WTO的規則,而不憑借其經濟實力去破壞它。再次,世界經濟的“一體化”和集團化問題。在世界貿易的發展中,區域性貿易集團成員之間的商品交換量比重在不斷增加,截止1994年底,在GATT秘書處登記的區域性貿易規定已有108個。區域經濟一體化具有貿易創造和貿易轉移雙重效應,區域貿易集團在促進貿易和經濟增長的同時,也難免具有排它性,這有可能會帶來貿易集團間的磨擦,甚至動搖多邊貿易體系的基礎。在GATT第24條區域貿易安排上,允許締約國建立自由貿易區和關稅同盟,而不必按最惠國待遇條款將同等待遇給予非成員國,這是與GATT的非歧視原則相違背的。盡管規定了自由貿易區和關稅同盟建立的條件和目的,并在程序上加以規范和約束,但由于這一規定本身的歧視性,以及它在規定上的法律缺陷和漏洞,使一些締約國有可乘之機,危害其它締約國的貿易(馮予蜀,第81頁),特別是發展中國家。勢均力敵的區域化經濟集團的存在和發展,意味著相互抗衡、對峙、討價還價能力的增強,這就削弱了多邊貿易談判的效果。協調區域貿易與全球貿易之間關系就成了世界貿易組織成立之后無法回避的問題。WTO堅持區域性貿易與全球貿易應該是互為補充的關系而不是競爭的關系,兩者都應在WTO的框架內進行,為此,WTO成立了69個特別工作組,具體負責協調這兩者之間的關系。在加拿大倡議下,WTO決定1996年初成立一個區域貿易集團委員會,以協調這些集團與多邊貿易體制的關系。但其作用還有待于實踐的檢驗。

最后,發展中國家事實上為了經濟發展的需要也要對民族工業進行一定程度的貿易保護。甚至一些中等發達國家和地區為了自身利益也設法在各種程度上游離于自由貿易原則之外。如1996年元旦,WTO“政府采購協議”正式生效,政府作為各國最大的買主,其對外開放意味著,在政府采購中凡是超過15萬特別提款權(SDR)的政府采購合同都要對外招標。但簽字國卻只有美、日、加、以、韓、挪、瑞士等15個國家,并較之“東京回合”的“政府采購協議”又少了瑞典、香港和新加坡。專家稱此協議為“諸邊(Pluralateral)協議”,以區別于其他“多邊(Multilateral)協議”。WTO的“政府采購協議”成為一個“富人俱樂部”和自由貿易的一個死角。究其原因,一方面發展中國家離政府采購的開放還相當遙遠,即便有個別國有限開放,也是保護國內工業優先。如印尼立法要求“政府采購”要以最有利的價格購買外國產品,而且數額越大的合同,須以對方反購本國非油產品為條件;另一方面,簽字國對等開放,由于國力相當誰也吃不了虧,但他們更大的胃口是爭奪第三國的政府采購合同。如1994年夏,美國雷聲公司與法國湯姆森電子公司在巴西爭奪一個14億美元的亞馬遜工程的開辦權,最后是依靠中央情報局的幫助,才擊敗了競爭對手(武躍,1996)。

應該說,WTO解決爭端的能力至今并未受到真正的考驗。目前WTO正處理在各起爭端最早要到今年初才會出初步結果;其受理的最大一起爭端——美日汽車貿易爭端最終是通過雙邊談判得以解決的;在重大問題上,世界頭號貿易大國美國往往拋棄多邊渠道,采用單邊或雙邊的方式解決問題;大國仍企圖操縱WTO;新型貿易保護主義對貿易自由化構成威脅。在中國“復關”問題上,WTO組織作出了一定努力,遺憾的是由于少數貿易大國要價過高,中國仍然被排斥在外。顯然,沒有中國的參加,WTO就不是一個完整的組織。

總之,隨著世界經濟的發展,國際貿易關系更加復雜,貿易范圍更為廣泛,各國的競爭日趨激烈,這一切都注定WTO在推動世界貿易自由化過程中將面臨更嚴峻的挑戰。世界貿易正逐步走向全球化,如要倒退,那無疑將是把世界帶入蕭條。

四、自由貿易的必然性與WTO能力的有限性

就自由貿易而言,其所以會成為一種必然,是因為90年以來市場經濟在全世界范圍的展開已成為一種不可逆轉的歷史趨勢;WTO這一較強大的貿易自由化組織的推動;加之全球經濟“一體化”的進程等,都為自由貿易的開展提供了有利條件。而且,更重要的是,二次世界大戰以來,國際貿易自由化是生產和資本國際化,國際分工的深度與廣度上的發展,世界經濟的迅速恢復和發展,跨國公司的大量出現的結果,它們反映了世界經濟和生產力發展內在必然性。

但是,貿易自由化的發展卻是不平衡的:發達國家之間的貿易自由化超過了它們同發展中國家的貿易自由化及發展中國家之間的貿易自由化;區域性經濟集團內部的貿易自由化超過了同集團外國家的貿易自由化;就商品而言,工業制成品的貿易自由化超過了農產品的貿易自由化;機器設備的貿易自由化超過了工業消費品尤其是“敏感性”的勞動密集型產品的貿易自由化。從而形成了有選擇性的貿易,并在一定程度上與貿易保護相結合。不平衡發展的貿易自由化還具有一定的排它性。就新貿易保護主義的特點來看,它主要是發達國家在貿易自由化的基礎上發展而來的,并與之并存;各國“獎出限入”的重點從限制進口轉向獎勵出口;以非關稅壁壘為主,貿易保護措施多樣化;被保護的商品不斷增加;從貿易保護制度轉向更系統化的管理貿易制度,強調政府干預和管理貿易,如克林頓動員了一大批美國政府機構,為美國企業制定了第一個“國家出口戰略”,3年里,美國企業的業績證明他是成功的(武躍,1996)。又如,歐洲國家政府投資250億馬克研制“空中客車”,并每年巨額補貼維持營運,到1993年其營業額終于擊敗了波音,成為世界第一。

從發達國家新貿易保護主義增長的根源來看:主要是因為世界性產業結構調整與利益集團間的矛盾;世界經濟的蕭條和不穩定增長;國際貿易與國際收支的不平衡發展。在這里,由于眾多不同發展層次的國家存在,產業結構的調整將不斷進行下去,世界經濟的周期性發展也將繼續下去。進而,國際經濟的不平衡發展不僅在發達國家之間存在,在發展中國家之間及它們與發達國家之間還將存在,這些根源都將為貿易保護的存在提供土壤。

而且還應當承認,“烏拉圭回合”的結果仍然存在不平衡,并且其貿易自由化措施是逐步實施的,對各

國的影響也將逐步發生和體現出來。發達國家特別是歐、美、日將是主要的受益國,因為世界貿易的大部分是它們之間進行的。由于10年內徹底取消對發展中國家進口紡織品和服裝的非關稅壁壘,一些新興的工業化國家將從中獲益,一些經濟發展較為落后的發展中國家則面臨著更為嚴峻的考驗。關鍵的問題在于,WTO推行的貿易自由化原則無法解決國家之間經濟技術水平差距。這樣,在其原則前提下的各種例外就完全有可能使不同類型的國家在認可其原則的基礎上,又利用有關條款筑起新的貿易壁壘。

不能否認的是,美國等發達國家仍將主宰著WTO。它們憑借其經濟實力駕馭WTO。從克林頓政府主張政府積極參與對外貿易事務,變“自由貿易”政策為“公平貿易”政策,并開始實施戰略貿易政策,到克氏政府的一系列貿易行動(包括阻撓中國復關)和態度也提醒我們,一旦WTO的有關規定對其不利,就很難保證不被踐踏,畢竟在國際經濟中,國家利益還是至高無上的。作為一個經濟“聯合國”,其所起的作用恐怕不會比聯合國強多少,雖然它能在某種程度上起到抑制強權的作用,但也不能保證不被強權所利用。有鑒于此,中國對加入WTO應有足夠的思想準備。WTO也只是一個國際組織,實質上是各成員國利益均衡和分配的結果,它不可能建設成為一個具有超國家性質的組織機構,因而它無法平衡來自內部或外部的沖擊。不僅如此,它還必須面對現實的國際政治變化作出靈活反應,否則它就無法生存下去。盡管WTO能推進貿易自由化,貿易保護也決非是暫時的,它將與自由貿易并存于世界貿易自由化的進程之中。WTO并不能保證成員國一定能自動享受到WTO的益處,而只是提供了一個參與競爭的機會。加入WTO并不僅僅是單純為獲得穩定的最惠國待遇等WTO所規定的益處,更為重要的是,通過加入WTO將國際貿易中通行的規則和規范適用于中國的對外經濟和貿易,引入更高標準的國際競爭壓力和動力,來促進外貿和與之相配套的經濟體制的全面改革,建立一種開放型的市場機制和一整套與之相適應的規范和宏觀調控手段。使國內生產和對外貿易都能按經濟規律和國際慣例辦事,進而促進經濟的發展,增強經濟實力和國際競爭力,逐步邁向自由貿易。

顯然,即使中國加入了WTO,在自由貿易問題上,中國的國情也不允許一步到位,而只能采取過渡性貿易政策。即,要恰當地把握貿易的進程,對幼稚工業還要適度保護。這一政策既要符合國情,使國際競爭在中國目前所能承受的范圍內,又要能有利于發展中國的生產力,充分發揮國內市場機制在提高生產效率和資源配置效率中的作用,并與國際市場機制保持有機聯系。逐步向WTO所要求的國際規范靠攏。期間應該聯合大多數的發展中國家與貿易大國的強權進行不懈的斗爭,以維護WTO的信譽和權利,保證發展中國家的自身利益不受或少受侵犯。

總之,盡管有WTO的推動,世界經濟的發展貿易自由化將會是主流的,但貿易保護并不會因此消亡,甚至有可能并行不悖。世界貿易自由化的進程將是非常緩慢、曲折以至有可能會反復。

參考文獻

武躍:“政府采購:自由貿易的雷區”《國際商報》1997年1月5日。

楊廣志:“周歲看?世貿?牛刀已初試”《經濟日報》1995年12月15日。

班瑋:“WTO蹣跚周歲”《中華工商時報》1995年12月13日。

任烈:《貿易保護的理論依據研究》中國社會科學院研究生院博士論文,1995年。

馮予蜀:《國際貿易體制下的關貿總協定與中國》對外經濟貿易出版社,1992年。

第二篇:經濟類論文

中職學校《市場營銷學》的教學思考

張家口機械工業學校席冬英

內容提要:市場營銷學是一門應用性很強的學科,面對廣大的中職生,如何運用現代信息技術,創新教學,激發學生興趣,取得教學效果,需要教育工作者積極嘗試、不斷探索。

關鍵詞:中職學校市場營銷學教學思考

在中等職業教育中,《市場營銷學》是一門以培養和提高學生理解市場營銷基本原理及初步運用營銷組合策略為基本能力的學科,這對培養能快速適應市場經濟變化,具有一定營銷推廣工作能力的適用型人才具有重要的作用。針對中職生學習基礎薄弱的特點,通過近幾年的教學實踐與探索,我在《市場營銷學》教學方面有以下幾點思考。

一、傳統教學現存問題

1、學生素養有待提升

在現有中職學校教學中,市場營銷學課程通常作為一些專業特點不明顯的綜合類專業的選修課程,開設在第二學年。在教學實踐中我發現,大部分學生對該專業有很大的興趣,但由于學習基礎薄弱和未接觸過社會知識,對市場、企業及企業管理缺乏基本認識,對營銷知識缺乏深入理解的能力,難以掌握營銷的基礎理論,更談不上案例分析與實際運用。

2、教學目標不夠明確

作為一門選修課程,不同專業對市場營銷學課程有不同的訴求,不能以一概全。而在現實教學中,大多數情況下,我們是以一套教材、一本教案、一個課件面對所有學生,既無法體現市場營銷學的重要性,也無法因材、因專業施教。

3、就業市場要求較高

有調查顯示,市場營銷專業的用人單位均對學生的人際交往能力、語言表達能力、商品推銷能力、營銷策劃能力和市場調研能力這五種專業技能有很高的期望和迫切的需求,但在中職學校中市場營銷專業學生在課程教學過程中并

沒有專門有針對性地進行重點能力的培養。

二、創新教學的幾點建議

1、課程設置進一步合理化。

在課程設置上,既要考慮學生未來的就業可能及能力要求,也要考慮到專業的就業傾向,可以引導學生認識市場營銷學課程與自身專業及未來發展之間的聯系,提高學生認知能力和重視程度。通過課程設置和時間的合理化,使學生具備一定的基本理論知識,便于其理解營銷的相關概念和理論。通過介紹專業特點、就業方向、學習方法及手段引導學生從依賴性學習向自主性學習轉化。

2、注重專業能力培養。

應注重幫助學生建立起市場營銷學的整體理論框架,通過關鍵理論的講授、案例教學、實踐教學培養學生的營銷能力,形成學生對組織營銷管理的系統性認識。并針對用人單位的需求對學生的人際交往能力、語言表達能力、商品推銷能力、營銷策劃能力和市場調研能力這五種專業技能側重培養。

3、不斷創新教學手段

(1)采用“情景式”教學。“情景式”教學是模擬教學的一種,通過借助于對環境、角色、活動的模擬來幫助學生理解市場營銷專業理論知識,了解市場運作規律,掌握營銷管理方法和操作技能,成為具有創新意識和合作能力的營銷人才的教學方法,讓學生在熟悉知識點的情況下,扮演不同的情景角色,從而在模擬實踐中學習和運用營銷知識和操作技能,達到提高學生實踐能力的教學目標。

(2)善于運用案例啟發。在教學過程中,讓學生圍繞各章節前的引導案例,綜合運用所學知識與方法對其進行分析、推理,提出解決方案,并在師生之間、同學之間進行探討、交流的實踐性教學形式。通過讓學生自己分析問題和解決問題的方式,培養學生主動學習、獨立思考、綜合分析和創造性地解決問題的能力。

(3)發揮多媒體教學的作用。這是一種通過多媒體教學軟件演示和解說理論知識的實踐性教學形式。這種方式一般與日常課堂教學活動結合運用,通過圖文并茂的課件演示,可以幫助學生對所學(或即將學)的知識建立感性認識,為進一步學習打好基礎。

(4)積極開展實踐教學。提前布置課題,讓學生進行方案策劃,利用課余時間開展多種形式的專題調查和實踐性教學活動。通過組織到商場參觀、廣告分析、市場調查等活動,讓學生以小組的形式組織完成,既培養團隊協作能力,又有利于同學之間集思廣益、取長補短。

4、進一步改進教學方式

目前,在市場營銷學教學中仍以傳統的教師單向授課為主。主要表現在:一般市場營銷課程教學模式往往以傳統教材為主,以理論講授為重點,強調概念、注重理論,而對實踐性較強的方法技巧、策略不夠重視。這就造成理論與實踐課之間的失衡,難以取得理想的教學效果。在遇到實際問題時,分析問題、解決問題能力較差。在講授方式上,主要表現為單向的自上而下的垂直傳輸方式,拘泥于書本理論架構,“填鴨式”教育痕跡嚴重,應該改變原有傳統模式。

在中職學校教學中,我們既不能照搬大學教學模式,又要面對中職生現狀,以合理性、可行性原則組織教學,在提升學生專業素養、培養適用性人才上取得實效。

參考文獻:

1、《市場營銷基礎》,華東師范大學出版社,作者孫天福

第三篇:一篇經濟類英文論文(含中文翻譯)

The Problem of Social Cost

社會成本問題

RONALD COASE 羅納德·科斯

Ronald Coase is Professor Emeritus at University of Chicago LawSchool and a Nobel Laureate in Economics.This article is fromThe Journal of Law and Economics(October 1960).Several passages devoted to extended discussions of legal decisions

have been omitted.羅納德·科斯在芝加哥大學法學院名譽教授和諾貝爾經濟學獎得主。本文是其外法學與經濟學雜志(1960年10月)。專門的法律問題的決定的延伸討論的幾個

段落已被省略。

I.THE PROBLEM TO BE EXAMINED This paper is concerned with those actions of business firms which have harm-ful effects on others.The standard example is that of a factory the smoke from which has harmful effects on those occupying neighbouring properties.The economic analysis of such a situation has usually proceeded in terms of a divergence between the private and social product of the factory, in which economists have largely followed the treatment of Pigou in The Economies of Welfare.The conclusion to which this kind of analysis seems to have led most economists is that it would be desirable to make the owner of the factory li-able for the damage caused to those injured by the smoke, or alternatively, to place a tax on the factory owner varying with the amount of smoke produced and equivalent in money terms to the damage it would cause, or finally, to exclude the factory from residential districts(and presumably from other areas in which the emission of smoke would have harmful effects on others).It is my contention that the suggested courses of action are inappropriate, in that they lead to results which are not necessarily, or even usually, desirable.一、要檢查的問題

本文關注的是這些行動的企業有傷害他人有用的影響。標準的例子是,一個工廠的煙霧從那些占領鄰近物業的有害影響。在這種情況下的經濟分析,通常已在工廠的私人和社會產品之間的分歧方面著手,在經濟學家們基本上遵循治療庇古福利經濟。這種分析的結論,似乎使大多數經濟學家是工廠里的煙霧,或者受傷的人造成的損害能夠使雇主,這將是可取的,上放置一個稅在金錢方面的損害,或最后,它會導致排除住宅區(大概是從其他地區排放的煙霧將有對他人有害影響)工廠廠主不同的金額產生的煙霧,相當于。行動的建議的課程是不合適的,因為它們導致的結果是不一定,甚至是通常情況下,可取的,它是我的論點。

II.THE RECIPROCAL NATURE OF THE PROBLEM The traditional approach has tended to obscure the nature of the choice that has to be made.The question is commonly thought of as one in which A inflicts harm on B and what has to be decided is: how should we restrain A? But this is wrong.We are dealing with a problem of a reciprocal nature.To avoid the harm to, B would inflict harm on A.The real question that has to be decided is: should A be allowed to harm B or should B be allowed to harm A? The problem is to avoid the more serious harm.I instanced in my previous article the case of a confectioner the noise and vibrations from whose machinery disturbed a doctor in his work.To avoid harming the doctor would inflict harm on the confectioner.The problem posed by this case was essentially whether it was worth while, as a result of restricting the methods of production which could be used by the confectioner, to secure more doctoring at the cost of a reduced supply of confectionery products.Another example is afforded by the problem of straying cattle which destroy crops on neighbouring land.If it is inevitable that some cattle will stray, all increase in the supply of meat can only be obtained at the expense of a decrease in the supply of crops.The nature of the choice is clear: meat or crops.What answer should be given is, of course, not clear unless we know the value of what is obtained as well as the value of what is sacrificed to obtain it.To give another example, Professor George J.Stigler instances the contamination of a stream.If we assume that the harmful effect of the pollution is that it kills the fish, the question to be decided is: is the value of the fish lost greater or less than the value of the product which the contamination of the stream makes possible.It goes almost without saying that this problem has to be looked at in total and at the margin.二、互惠性的問題

傳統的做法往往掩蓋作出的選擇,自然。這個問題通常被認為作為一個在B上一個敵人造成的傷害和什么要決定的是:我們應該如何抑制一個?但這是錯誤的。我們正在處理的互惠性質的問題。為了避免傷害,B將A上造成的危害,真正的問題,必須決定是:應該允許A損害B或應允許B傷害嗎?問題是要避免更嚴重的傷害。我在我以前的文章中實例化一個糕點師的噪音和振動機械不安醫生在他的工作情況。為了避免傷及醫生會造成傷害的糕點。基本上這種情況下所造成的問題是它是否值得,作為一種限制方法可以用于糕點生產的結果,以爭取更多的糖果產品的供應減少,成本篡改。另一個例子是給予由偏離破壞鄰近土地上的農作物的牛的問題。如果這是不可避免的,一些牛會偏離,只能獲得所有的肉類供應增加作物供應減少開支。選擇的性質是明確的:肉類或農作物。應給予什么樣的答案是,當然,不明確的,除非我們知道得到什么價值,以及什么犧牲得到它的價值。給另一個例如,教授喬治·J.斯蒂格勒實例流的污染。如果我們假定污染的有害影響是,它殺死的魚,將要決定的問題是:是魚的價值損失大于或小于流的污染,使產品的價值。當然,幾乎沒有說,這個問題要看著總保證金。

III.THE PRICING SYSTEM WITH LIABILITY FOR DAMAGE I propose to start my analysis by examining a case in which most economists would presumably agree that the problem would be solved in a compeletely satisfactory manner: when the damaging business has to pay for all damage caused and the pricing system works smoothly(strictly this means that the operation of a pricing system is without cost).A good example of the problem under discussion is afforded by the case of straying cattle which destroy crops growing on neighbouring land.Let us sup-pose that a farmer and cattle-raiser are operating on neighbouring properties.Let us further suppose that, without any fencing between the properties, an increase in the size of the cattle-raiser’s herd increases the total damage to the farmer’s crops.What happens to the marginal damage as the size of the herd increases is another matter.This depends on whether the cattle tend to follow one another or to roam side by side, on whether they tend to be more or less restless as the size of the herd increases and on other similar factors.For my immediate purpose, it is immaterial what assumption is made about marginal damage as the size of the herd increases.Given that the cattle-raiser is liable for the damage caused, the additional annual cost imposed on the cattle-raiser if he increased his herd from, say, 2 to 3 steers is $3 and in deciding on the size of the herd, he will take this into account along with his other costs.That is, he will not increase the size of the herd unless the value of the additional meat produced(assuming that the cattle-raiser slaughters the cattle)is greater than the additional costs that this will entail, including the value of the additional crops destroyed.Of course, if, by the employment of dogs, herdsmen, aeroplanes, mobile radio and other means, the amount of damage can be reduced, these means will be adopted when their cost is less than the value of the crop which they prevent being lost.Given that the annual cost of fencing is $9, the cattle-raiser who wished to have a herd with 4 steers or more would pay for fencing to be erected and maintained, assuming that other means of attaining the same end would not do so more cheaply.When the fence is erected, the marginal cost due to the liability for damage becomes zero, except to the extent that an increase in the size of the herd necessitates a stronger and therefore more expensive fence because more steers are liable to lean against it at the same time.But, of course, it may be cheaper for the cattle-raiser not to fence and to pay for the damaged crops, as in my arithmetical example, with 3 or fewer steers.It might be thought that the fact that the cattle-raiser would pay for all crops damaged would lead the farmer to increase his planting if a cattle-raiser came to occupy the neighbouring property.But this is not so.If the crop was previously sold in conditions of perfect competition, marginal cost was equal to price for the amount of planting undertaken and any expansion would have reduced the profits of the farmer.In the new situation, the existence of crop damage would mean that the farmer would sell less on the open market but his receipts for a given production would remain the same, since the cattle-raiser would pay the market price for any crop damaged.Of course, if cattle-raising commonly involved the destruction of crops, the coming into existence of a cattle-raising industry might raise the price of the crops involved and farmers would then extend their planting.But I wish to confine my attention to the individual farmer.I have said that the occupation of a neighbouring property by a cattle-raiser would not cause the amount of production, or perhaps more exactly the amount of planting, by the farmer to increase.In fact, if the cattle-raising has any effect, it will be to decrease the amount of planting.The reason for this is that, for any given tract of land, if the value of the crop damaged is so great that the receipts from the sale of the undamaged crop are less than the total costs of cultivating that tract of land, it will be profitable for the farmer and the cattle-raiser to make a bargain whereby that tract of land is left uncultivated.This can be made clear by means of an arithmetical example.Assume initially that the value of the crop obtained from cultivating a given tract of land is $12 and that the cost incurred in cultivating this tract of land is $10, the net gain from cultivating the land being $2.I assume for purposes of simplicity that the farmer owns the land.Now assume that the cattle-raiser starts operations on the neighbouring property and that the value of the crops damaged is $1.In this case $11 is obtained by the farmer from sale on the market and $1 is obtained from the cattle-raiser for damage suffered and the net gain remains $2.Now suppose that the cattle-raiser finds it profitable to increase the size of his herd, even though the amount of damage rises to $3;which means that the value of the additional meat production is greater than the additional costs, including the additional $2 payment for damage.But the total payment for damage is now $3.The net gain to the farmer from cultivating the land is still $2.The cattle-raiser would be better off if the farmer would agree not to cultivate his land for any payment less than $3.The farmer would be agreeable to not cultivating the land for any payment greater than $2.There is clearly room for a mutually satisfactory bargain which would lead to the abandonment of cultivation.* But the same argument applies not only to the whole tract cultivated by the fanner but also to any subdivision of it.Suppose, for example, that the cattle have a well-defined route, say, to a brook or to a shady area.In these circumstances, the amount of damage to the crop along the route may well be great and if so, it could be that the farmer and the cattle-raiser would find it profitable to make a bargain whereby the farmer would agree not to cultivate this strip of land.But this raises a further possibility.Suppose that there is such a well de-fined route.Suppose further that the value of the crop that would be obtained by cultivating this strip of land is $10 but that the cost of cultivation is $11.In the absence of the cattle-raiser, the land would not be cultivated.However, given the presence of the cattle-raiser, it could well be that if the strip was cultivated, the whole crop would be destroyed by the cattle.In which case, the cattle-raiser would be forced to pay $10 to the farmer.It is true that the farmer would lose $1.But the cattle-raiser would lose $10.Clearly this is a situation which is not likely to last indefinitely since neither party would want this to happen.The aim of the farmer would be to induce the cattle-raiser to make a payment in return for an agreement to leave this land uncultivated.The farmer would not be able to obtain a payment greater than the cost of fencing off this piece of land nor so high as to lead the cattle-raiser to abandon the use of the neighbouring property.What payment would in fact be made would depend on the shrewdness of the farmer and the cattle-raiser as bargain-ers.But as the payment would not be so high as to cause the cattle-raiser to abandon this location and as it would not vary with the size of the herd, such an agreement would not affect the allocation of resources but would merely alter the distribution of income and wealth as between the cattle-raiser and the farmer.I think it is clear that if the cattle-raiser is liable for damage caused and the pricing system works smoothly, the reduction in the value of production elsewhere will be taken into account in computing the additional cost involved in increasing the size of the herd.This cost will be weighed against the value of the additional meat production and, given perfect competition in the cattle industry, the allocation of resources in cattle-raising will be optimal.What needs to be emphasized is that the fall in the value of production elsewhere which would be taken into account in the costs of the cattle-raiser may well be less than the damage which the cattle would cause to the crops in the ordinary course of events.This is because it is possible, as a result of market transactions, to discontinue cultivation of the land.This is desirable in all cases in which the damage that the cattle would cause, and for which the cattle-raiser would be willing to pay, exceeds the amount which the farmer would pay for use of the land.In conditions of perfect competition, the amount which the farmer would pay for the use of the land is equal to the difference between the value of the total production when the factors are employed on this land and the value of the additional product yielded in their next best use(which would be what the farmer would have to pay for the factors).If damage exceeds the amount the farmer would pay for the use of the land, the value of the additional product of the factors employed elsewhere would exceed the value of the total product in this use after damage is taken into account.It follows that it would be desirable to abandon cultivation of the land and to release the factors employed for production elsewhere.A procedure which merely provided for payment for damage to the crop caused by the cattle but which did not allow for the possibility of cultivation being discontinued would result in too small an employment of factors of production in cattle-raising and too large an employment of factors in cultivation of the crop.But given the possibility of market transactions, a situation in which damage to crops exceeded the rent of the land would not endure.Whether the cattle-raiser pays the farmer to leave the land uncultivated or himself rents the land by paying the land-owner an amount slightly greater than the farmer would pay(if the farmer was himself renting the land), the final result would be the same and would maximise the value of production.Even when the farmer is induced to plant crops which it would not be profitable to cultivate for sale on the market, this will be a purely short-term phenomenon and may be expected to lead to an agreement under which the planting will cease.The cattle-raiser will remain in that location and the marginal cost of meat production will be the same as before, thus having no long-run effect on the allocation of resources.三、損害賠償責任的定價制度 我建議開始我的分析,通過審查案件,其中多數經濟學家大概會同意將在完全令人滿意的方式解決問題的破壞性業務時支付所有所造成的損害和定價體系工程進展順利(嚴格來說,這意味著定價制度的運作是無成本)。

正在討論的問題的一個很好的例子是誤入牛毀壞莊稼鄰近土地上生長的情況下給予。讓我們支持對一個農民和牛募集鄰近物業經營。讓我們進一步假設,沒有任何圍欄之間的屬性,在牛募集的畜群規模的增加而增加農民的作物的總傷害。會發生什么情況,以增加畜群的大小的邊際損害的,則是另一回事。這取決于牛是否會跟隨一個或是否他們往往是牛群的增加和規模上其他類似的因素或多或少不安,漫游并排。對于我的直接目的,它是無關緊要的假設邊際損害為增加畜群的大小。

鑒于這是承擔,造成損害的額外費用的牛的序幕征收,如果他增加從2至3閹他的畜群的牛是$3,并在決定牛群的大小,他將考慮到這一點,隨著他的其他費用。也就是說,他不會提高畜群的大小,除非額外的肉產生的價值(假設牛的序幕屠宰的牛)的額外費用,這將意味著,包括摧毀了其它作物的價值更大。當然,如果就業的狗,農牧民,飛機,移動無線電和其他手段,可以減少損失數額,這些手段將通過他們的成本是低于價值的作物,它們可以防止丟失。由于是在擊劍成本是$9,在牛的提出者誰希望有一群4裝載機或更多將圍籬支付到被架設和維護,假設,其他手段達到同樣的目的,不是做這樣更便宜。當圍欄架設,由于損害賠償責任的邊際成本變為零除的程度,在牛群規模的增加,需要一個更強大,因此更昂貴的圍欄,因為更多的公牛有責任向它傾斜在同一時間。但是,當然,這可能是牛募集便宜沒有圍墻受損的作物,在我算術例如,作為3個或更少的公牛,并支付。

有人可能會認為牛募集將支付所有損壞莊稼的事實將導致農民增加他的種植牛募集來占據鄰近物業。但事實并非如此。如果以前在完全競爭的條件下出售作物,邊際成本等于價格進行種植量,任何擴大農民的利潤將減少。在新形勢下,農作物損失的存在就意味著農民將在公開市場上出售的,但他的收入為一個給定的生產將保持不變,因為牛募集支付任何破壞作物的市場價格。當然,如果養牛通常涉及毀壞莊稼,到一個養牛業存在的到來可能會引發涉及農民將擴大其種植的農作物的價格。但我希望把我的個體農民的關注。

我曾經說過,占領鄰近由牛募集的屬性不會導致農民增加的生產量,或者更準確的種植量。事實上,如果有任何影響的養牛,它會減少種植量。這樣做的原因是,任何土地道,如果受損作物的價值是如此之大,從出售完好作物的收入少于培育,大片土地的總成本,這將是為農民和牛的序幕,留下大片土地荒廢,使討價還價,即有利可圖。這可以通過一個算術例子明確。最初假設,作物耕種的土地道獲得的價值是12美元,在培育這一大片土地所需的費用是$ 10,$ 2耕種土地的凈收益。我想簡單,農民擁有土地的目的。現在假設,在牛的提出者開始,損壞農作物的價值$ 1.In這種情況下$ 11獲得由農民從銷售市場和$ 1是從的牛的序幕獲得損害遭受的鄰近物業經營凈收益仍然為2美元。現在想,在牛的提出者認為它盈利增加他的畜群的大小,即使損壞的數量上升到3美元;的額外肉類生產的價值大于的額外費用,包括了額外的$ 2支付損壞。但損害的支付總額是$ 3。農民耕種土地的凈收益仍然是2元。牛的序幕,將是富裕農民都同意,如果不培養他的土地,任何支付不到3美元。農民將沒有培養任何大于$ 2支付土地的認同。顯然是這將導致放棄種植一個雙方都滿意的討價還價的余地。*但同樣的論點不僅適用于整個道由電風扇培養的,而且也給它的任何細分。假設,例如,牛有一個明確的路線,比方說,一條小溪或陰涼的區域。在這種情況下,對沿線作物受損金額也可能是巨大的,如果是這樣,可能是,農民和牛募集會發現是有利可圖的討價還價,農民同意不以培養狹長土地。

但是,這引發了進一步的可能性。假設有這樣一個罰款的好路線。進一步假設,作物的價值將獲得通過培育這個地帶是10元,但種植成本11元。在牛募集的情況下,土地不會種植。然而,給予牛募集的存在,它可能是,如果帶鋼培養,整個作物將牛銷毀。在這種情況下,牛募集將被迫支付10美元的農民。這是真正的農民將損失$1。但牛的序幕,將失去10美元。顯然,這是一個情況,這是不可能無限期地持續下去,因為任何一方都不希望這種情況發生。農民的目的是誘導牛募集的支付換取了一項協議,離開這片土地荒廢。農民將無法獲得支付大于圍欄這片土地的成本,也沒有這么高,導致牛募集放棄使用鄰近物業。哪些付款將在事實上將取決于作為討價還價的精明的農民和牛募集。但作為付款就不會那么高,容易引起牛募集放棄這個位置,因為它不會隨畜群的大小,這樣的協議不會影響資源的分配,但僅僅是改變的分布牛提出者和農民之間的收入和財富。

我認為這是明確的,如果牛募集造成的損失承擔責任和定價體系工程進展順利,其他地方減少產值將考慮在計算涉及的額外費用,提高畜群的大小。這筆費用將額外的肉類生產的價值權衡,完美的比賽,在養牛業,養牛將是最佳的資源分配。需要強調的是,牛募集費用,將考慮在其他地方的生產價值的下降可能是小于牛會導致在日常事件對農作物的損害。這是因為它是可能的,作為市場交易的結果,停止種植的土地。在所有情況下的破壞,會導致牛,牛募集愿意支付超過數額的農民支付土地使用,這是可取的。在完全競爭的條件下,農民支付土地使用量等于總生產值之間的差異的因素時,在這片土地上雇用和其他產品的價值在他們的未來產生最好的使用(這是什么農民將不得不支付的因素)。如果損害超過數量的農民支付土地使用,其他地方就業的因素更多的產品價值將超過在此使用的產品總價值的考慮后損壞。它如下放棄種植的土地,并釋放其他地方生產的因素,這將是可取的。一個程序,它只是提供付款為牛,但是這并沒有讓被停止種植的可能性造成作物受損將導致太小,養牛和太大的就業因素的生產要素的就業在作物的種植。但考慮到市場交易的可能性,這種情況在對農作物的損害超過土地租金,就不能忍受。是否牛募集支付農民離開土地荒廢,或自己租土地,由土地所有者支付金額略高于農民將支付(如果農民自己租用的土地),最終的結果將是相同的,將最大限度地提高生產的價值。即使誘導農民種莊稼,它不會是有利可圖的培養,在市場上出售,這將是一個純粹的短期現象,預期可能會導致根據該協議將停止種植。牛募集將保持在該位置和肉類生產的邊際成本會像以前一樣,因此,資源的分配上沒有長期的效果。

IV.THE PRICING SYSTEM WITH NO LIABILITY FOR DAMAGE I now turn to the case in which, although the pricing system is assumed to worksmoothly(that is, costlessly), the damaging business is not liable for any of the damage which it causes.This business does not have to make a payment to those damaged by its actions.I propose to show that the allocation of resources will be the same in this case as it was when the damaging business was liable for damage caused.As I showed in the previous case that the allocation of resources was optimal, it will not be necessary to repeat this part of the argument.I return to the case of the farmer and the cattle-raiser.The farmer would suffer increased damage to his crop as the size of the herd increased.Suppose that the size of the cattle-raiser’s herd is 3 steers(and that this is the size of the herd that would be maintained if crop damage was not taken into account).Then the farmer would be willing to pay up to $3 if the cattle-raiser would reduce his herd to 2 steers, up to $5 if the herd were reduced to 1 steer and would pay up to $6 if cattle-raising was abandoned.The cattle-raiser would therefore receive 53 from the farmer if he kept 2 steers instead of 3.This $3 foregone is therefore part of the cost incurred in keeping the third steer.Whether the $3 is a payment which the cattle-raiser has to make if he adds the third steer to his herd(which it would be if the cattle-raiser was liable to the farmer for damage caused to the crop)or whether it is a sum of money whichhe would have received if he did not keep a third steer(which it would be if the cattle-raiser was not liable to the farmer for damage caused to the crop)does not affect the final result.In both cases $3 is part of the cost of adding a third steer, to be included along with the other costs.If the increase in the value of production in cattle-raising through increasing the size of the herd from 2 to 3 is greater than the additional costs that have to be incurred(including the $3 damage to crops), the size of the herd will be increased.Otherwise, it will not.The size of the herd will be the same whether the cattle-raiser is liable for damage caused to the crop or not.It may be argued that the assumed starting point—a herd of 3 steers—was arbitrary.And this is true.But the farmer would not wish to pay to avoid crop damage which the cattle-raiser would not be able to cause.For example, the maximum annual payment which the farmer could be induced to pay could not exceed $9.the annual cost of fencing.And the farmer would only be willing to pay this sum if it did not reduce his earnings to a level that would cause him to abandon cultivation of this particular tract of land.Furthermore, the farmer would only be willing to pay this amount if he believed that, in the absence of any payment by him, the size of the herd maintained by the cattle-raiser would be 4 or more steers.Let us assume that this is the case.Then the farmer would be willing to pay up to $3 if the cattle-raiser would reduce his herd to 3 steers, up to $6 if the herd were reduced to 2 steers, up to $8 if one steer only were kept and up to $9 if cattle-raising were abandoned.It will be noticed that the change in the starting point has not altered the amount which would accrue to the cattle-raiser if he reduced the size of his herd by any given amount.It is still true that the cattle-raiser could receive an additional $3 from the farmer if he agreed to reduce his herd from 3 steers to 2 and that the $3 represents the value of the crop that would be destroyed by adding the third steer to the herd.Although a different belief on the part of the farmer(whether justified or not)about the size of the herd that the cattle-raiser would maintain in the absence of payments from him may affect the total payment he can be induced to pay, it is not true that this different belief would have any effect on the size of the herd that the cattle-raiser will actually keep.This will be the same as it would be if the cattle-raiser had to pay for damage caused by his cattle, since a receipt foregone of a given amount is the equivalent of a payment of the same amount.It might be thought that it would pay the cattle-raiser to increase his herd above the size that he would wish to maintain once a bargain had been made, in order to induce the farmer to make a larger total payment.And this may be true.It is similar in nature to the action of the farmer(when the cattle-raiser was liable for damage)in cultivating land on which, as a result of an agreement with the cattle-raiser, planting would subsequently be abandoned(including land which would not be cultivated at all in the absence of cattle-raising).But such manoeuvres are preliminaries to an agreement and do not affect the long-run equilibrium position, which is the same whether or not the cattle-raiser is held responsible for the crop damage brought about by his cattle.It is necessary to know whether the damaging business is liable or not for damage caused since without the establishment of this initial delimitation of rights there can be no market transactions to transfer and recombine them.But the ultimate result(which maximises the value of production)is independent of the legal position if the pricing system is assumed to work without cost.四、無損害賠償責任的電價體系

現在我想談談案中,雖然定價體系工作的順利開展(即,無成本),損壞業務是不會造成任何損害承擔責任。此業務并沒有使那些破壞其行動付款。我建議,以表明在這種情況下,資源的分配將是相同的,因為它是破壞性的企業造成的損失承擔責任時。正如我在前面的例子表明,最佳的資源分配,它不會是必要的重復這部分的說法。我回到了農民和牛募集的情況下。農民會受到他的牛群的規模增加作物的傷害增加。假設牛募集的畜群的大小是3裝載機(,這將保持對作物的損害,如果不考慮畜群的大小)。那么,農民將是愿意以支付高達3美元的牛的提出者是否會減少他的畜群2裝載機,高達500如果牛群被減少到1引導和將支付高達6元如果養牛被遺棄。牛序幕從農民將因此獲得53,如果他保持2裝載機,而不是3。這個耗資3損失,因此在保持第三督導所需的費用的一部分。無論是3美元,是1支付其中的牛的提出者有,如果他增加了第三次帶領他的羊群(其中它會是在牛的提出者是否可農民對作物造成的損害)或是否它是1錢,他將已收到的,如果他不保持第三督導(這將是牛募集到農民對作物造成的損害不承擔任何責任)的總和,不影響最終結果。在這兩種情況下$ 3是第三督導,與其他費用一起被列入成本的一部分。大于,以將招致包括的$ 3損壞農作物的額外成本,通過增加大小鬼從2至3養牛生產價值的增加是否,牛群的規模將是增加。否則,它不會。畜群的大小將是相同的牛募集是否是作物或造成的損失承擔責任。

它可能被認為是武斷的假定出發點了3肉牛畜群。這是真實的。但農民不希望要避免牛募集將無法造成的農作物損失。例如,可誘導農民支付每年最高支付不能超過9美元。擊劍的成本。和農民只會愿意支付這筆如果它沒有減少他的收入水平,將導致他放棄這片土地特別是道種植。此外,農民才會愿意支付這筆款項,如果他相信,在任何由他支付的情況下,牛募集保持畜群的大小是4個或更多的指導。讓我們假設是這種情況。那么,農民將是愿意以支付高達3美元的牛的提出者是否會減少他的牛群3裝載機,6元如果牛群分別減少2裝載機,至8元,如果1轉向只被保持和上升到$9,如果養牛被遺棄。它將會看到,在起點的變化并沒有改變的金額將撥歸牛的序幕,如果他任何給定的金額減少了他的畜群規模。它是仍然真實,在牛的提出者可以接收從農民1額外的$3,如果他同意減少他的牛群3裝載機2添加第三3美元表示的,將被破壞作物的價值引導到牛群。雖然部分農民對不同的信仰,對大小牛群,牛募集將保持在他付款的情況下(是否正當與否),可能會影響他可誘發支付的總支付,它是不正確的,這種不同的信仰,實際上將保持牛群牛募集規模上有任何的影響。這將是相同的,因為它會是牛的序幕,如果不得不支付他的牛造成的損害,因為收到一個給定的金額損失相當于支付相同數額。

它可能會認為這將支付的牛的序幕,以增加他的畜群以上的規模,他希望保持已經取得了一次討價還價,以促使農民作出更大的支付總額。這可能是真實的。它在本質上是相似的農民行動(當牛募集的損害賠償責任),在培養上,為土地了與牛募集的協議的結果,種植隨后將被拋棄(包括土地,在養牛的情況下不能種植)在所有。但是,這些演習是達成協議的預賽和不影響長期均衡的位置,這是牛募集與否舉行的關于他的牛所帶來的農作物損失負責。

它是要知道是否是因為沒有建立這種權利的初始劃定不可能有沒有市場交易,轉讓和重組造成的損害不承擔責任或損害商業。但最終的結果(產值最大化)是獨立的法律地位,如果定價體系被假定為無成本。

V.THE PROBLEM ILLUSTRATED ANEW

The harmful effects of the activities of a business can assume a wide variety of forms.An early English case concerned a building which, by obstructing currents of air, hindered the operation of a windmill.A recent case in Florida which cast a shadow on the cabana, swimming pool and sunbathing areas of a neighbouring hotel.The problem of straying cattle and the damaging of crops which was the subject of detailed examination in the two preceding sections, although it may have appeared to be rather a special case, is in fact but one example of a problem which arises in many different guises.To clarify the nature of my argument and to demonstrate its general applicability, I propose to illustrate it anew by reference to four actual cases.Let us first reconsider the case of Sturges v.Bridgman which I used as an illustration of the general problem In my article on “The Federal Communica-tions Commission.” In this case, a confectioner(in Wigmore Street)used two mortars and pestles in connection with his business(one had been in opera-tion in the same position for more than 60 years and the other for more than 26 years).A doctor then came to occupy neighbouring premises(in Wimpole Street).The confectioner’s machinery caused the doctor no harm until, eight years after he had first occupied the premises, he built a consulting room at the end of his garden right against the confectioner’s kitchen.It was then found that the noise and vibration caused by the confectioner’s machinery made it difficult for the doctor to use his new consulting room.“In particular...the noise prevented him from examining his patients by auscultation for diseases of the chest.He also found it impossible to engage with effect in any occupation which required thought and attention.” The doctor therefore brought a legal action to force the confectioner to stop using his machinery.The courts had lit-tle difficulty in granting the doctor the injunction he sought.“Individual cases of hardship may occur in the strict carrying out of the principle upon which we found our judgment, but the negation of the principle would lead even more to individual hardship, and would at the same time produce a prejudicial effect upon the development of land for residential purposes.”

The court’s decision established that the doctor had the right to prevent the confectioner from using his machinery.But, of course, it would have been possible to modify the arrangements envisaged in the legal ruling by means of a bargain between the parties.The doctor would have been willing to waive his right and allow the machinery to continue in operation if the confectioner would have paid him a sum of money which was greater than the loss of income which he would suffer from having to move to a more costly or less convenient location or from having to curtail his activities at this location or, as was suggested as a possibility, from having to build a separate wall which would deaden the noise and vibration.The confectioner would have been willing to do this if the amount he would have to pay the doctor was less than the fall in income he would suffer if he had to change his mode of operation at this location, abandon his operation or move his confectionery business to some other location.The solution of the problem depends essentially on whether the continued use of the machinery adds more to the confectioner’s income than it subtracts from doctor’s.But now consider the situation if the confectioner had won the case.The confectioner would then have had the right to continue operating his noise and vibration-generating machinery without having to pay anything to the doctor.The boot would have been on the other foot: the doctor would have had to pay the confectioner to induce him to stop using the machinery.If the doctor’s income would have fallen more through continuance of the use of this machinery than it added to the income of the confectioner, there would clearly be room for a bargain whereby the doctor paid the confectioner to stop using the machinery.That is to say, the circumstances in which it would not pay the confectioner to continue to use the machinery and to compensate the doctor for the losses that this would bring(if the doctor had the right to prevent the confectioner’s using his machinery)would be those in which it would be in the interest of the doctor to make a payment to the confectioner which would induce him to discontinue the use of the machinery(if the confectioner had the right to operate the machinery).The basic conditions are exactly the same in this case as they were in the example of the cattle which destroyed crops.With costless market transactions, the decision of the courts concerning liability for damage would be without effect on the allocation of resources.It was of course the view of the judges that they were affecting the working of the economic system-and in a desirable direction.Any other decision would have had “a prejudicial effect upon the development of land for residential purposes,” an argument which was elaborated by examining the example of a forge operating on a barren moor.which was later developed for residential purposes.The judges’ view that they were settling how the land was to be used would be true only in the case in which the costs of carrying out the necessary market transactions exceeded the gain which might be achieved by any rearrangement of rights.And it would be desirable to preserve the areas(Wimpole Street or the moor)for residential or professional use(by giving non-industrial users the right to stop the noise, vibration, smoke, etc., by injunction)only if the value of the additional residential facilities obtained was greater than the value of cakes or iron lost.But of this the judges seem to have been unaware.The reasoning employed by the courts in determining legal rights will often seem strange to an economist because many of the factors on which the decision turns are, to an economist, irrelevant.Because of this, situations which are, from an economic point of view, identical will be treated quite differently by the courts.The economic problem in all cases of harmful effects is how to maximise the value of production.In the case of Bass v.Gregory fresh air was drawn in through the well which facilitated the production of beer but foul air was expelled through the well which made life in the adjoining houses less pleasant.The economic problem was to decide which to choose: a lower cost of beer and worsened amenities in adjoining houses or a higher cost of beer and improved amenities.In deciding this question, the “doctrine of lost grant” is as relevant as the colour of the judge’s eyes.But it has to be remembered that the immediate question faced by the courts is not what shall be done by whom but who has the legal right to do what.It is always possible to modify by transactions on the market the initial legal delimitation of rights.And, of course, if such market transactions are costless, such a rearrangement of rights will always take place if it would lead to an increase in the value of production.五、存在問題的再目錄

業務活動的有害影響,可以承擔各種各樣的形式。早期的英國案例,涉及建筑,阻礙氣流,阻礙了風車的運作。在佛羅里達州的一個最近的案例涉及建筑的小屋投下了陰影,鄰近酒店的游泳池和日光浴地區。誤入牛和破壞性的作物,這是前兩個部分的詳細檢查,雖然它可能已經出現,而成為一個特殊的情況的問題,實際上是一個問題,在許多不同的形式出現的一個例子。為了闡明我的論點的本質,并展示其普遍適用性,我建議重新參考四個實際案例來說明。

首先,讓我們重新斯特奇斯訴布里奇曼的情況下,我在我的文章“聯邦通信委員會。”在這種情況下的一般問題的說明,糕點(Wigmore街道)使用了迫擊炮和杵在與他的業務(一直在歌劇中,60歲以上和其他在同一位置超過26年)的連接。醫生后來占據鄰近樓宇(在Wimpole街)。糕點機械醫生造成任何傷害,直到8年后,他第一次占領的前提下,他建立了一個在他對糕點的廚房花園年底診室。它然后被發現,糕點的機械噪聲和振動造成難以醫生用他的新診室。“尤其是。。噪音阻止他檢查他的病人聽診胸部疾病。他還發現了它不可能與從事任何職業,這需要思想和注意力的效果。“因此,醫生帶來了法律的行動,以迫使糕點停止使用他的機械。法院給予他尋求醫生的禁令點燃地幔困難。“在嚴格執行的原則后,我們發現我們的判斷,個別情況下可能會發生困難,但這一原則的否定甚至會導致更多的個人困難,將在同一時間產生不利影響的發展后1土地作住宅用途。“

讓我們先來法院的判決確定,醫生的權利,以防止糕點師用他的機械。但是,當然,這將有可能修改在法律裁決的安排設想通過各方之間的討價還價。醫生會愿意放棄他的權利,并讓機器繼續運作,如果糕點師將付給他一筆錢,這是大于收入的損失,他將遭受不利影響或移動到較為昂貴的不太方便的位置,或從他在這個位置,以減少活動,或者是作為一種可能性的建議,從建立一個單獨的墻,這將緩和的噪聲和振動。糕點會一直愿意這樣做,如果他將不得不支付醫生的金額小于收入下降,他將遭受如果他改變他的運作模式,在這個位置放棄他的行動或移動他的糖果業務一些其他的位置。問題的解決,根本上取決于是否繼續使用的機械增加了更多的糕點師的收入比從醫生的減去。但現在考慮的情況,如果糕點師曾贏得了這場官司。糕點,然后將有權利繼續他的噪音和振動產生的機械操作,而無需支付任何費用醫生。引導已在另一只腳:醫生將不得不支付的糕點,以誘使他停止使用機器。如果醫生的收入將通過繼續使用這種機器比它添加到糕點的收入下降,顯然是有,據此醫生支付的糕點停止使用的機械討價還價的余地。也就是說,的情況下,在其中它會不支付的糕點繼續使用機械和以彌補的損失,這會帶來醫生(如果醫生不得不以防止對糕點的用他的機器的權利)將是它會在醫生的利益作出支付的糕點,這將促使他停止使用的機器(如糕點有經營權的機械)。正是在這種情況下的基本條件相同,因為他們在牛,莊稼被毀的例子。花錢的市場交易中,有關損害賠償責任的法院的決定將是沒有對資源分配的影響。這是當然的法官認為,他們影響的經濟體系,在一個理想的方向工作。有任何其他決定“后,土地開發作住宅用途1的不利影響,”這是一個貧瘠的荒野上通過檢查一個鐵匠鋪操作系統的例子闡述論點。后來發展為住宅用途。法官認為,他們要使用的土地是如何被解決,將是真實的,只有在案件中,開展必要的市場交易的成本超過可能被重排的任何權利方面所取得的收益。,這將是可取的,如果只保留價值的住宅或專業領域(Wimpole街或沼地)(非工業用戶有權停止禁令的噪聲,振動,煙霧等,通過)獲得額外的住宿設施是大于蛋糕或丟失的鐵的價值。但法官似乎已經不知道。

在確定的法律權利由法院聘請的推理往往會經濟學家似乎很奇怪,因為許多因素上決定輪流,一個經濟學家,不相干的。正因為如此,這是的情況下,從經濟角度來看,相同的將被視為完全不同的法院。在所有情況下的有害影響的經濟問題是如何最大限度地提高生產的價值。在巴斯訴格雷戈里新鮮空氣的情況下制定通過的好,這有利于生產的啤酒,但污濁的空氣,通過在毗鄰的房子不太愉快的生活以及開除。經濟問題是決定選擇:啤酒更低的成本和惡化,毗鄰的房屋或設施的啤酒和改進設施的成本較高。在決定這個問題,“批丟失的教義”,是法官的眼睛顏色有關。但要記住,法院所面臨的切身問題不應當由誰來做什么,但誰擁有合法權利做什么。它始終是可能的修改市場上交易的初始權利的法律劃界。當然,如果這樣的市場交易是無成本,這樣的權重排總是會發生,如果它會導致增加產值。

VI.THE COST OF MARKET TRANSACTIONS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT

The argument has proceeded up to this point on the assumption(explicit in Sections III and IV and tacit in Section V)that there were no costs involved in carrying out market transactions.This is, of course, a very unrealistic assump-tion.In order to carry out a market transaction it is necessary to discover who it is that one wishes to deal with, to inform people that one wishes to deal and on what terms, to conduct negotiations leading up to a bargain, to draw up the contract, to undertake the inspection needed to make sure that the terms of the contract are being observed and so on.These operations are often extremely costly, sufficiently costly at any rate to prevent many transactions that would be carried out in a world in which the pricing system worked without cost.In earlier sections, when dealing with the problem of the rearrangement of legal rights through the market, it was argued that such a rearrangement would be made through the market whenever this would lead to an increase in the value of production.But this assumed costless market transactions.Once the costs of carrying out market transactions are taken into account it is clear that such a rearrangement of rights will only be undertaken when the increase in the value of production consequent upon the rearrangement is greater than the costs which would be involved in bringing it about.When it is less, the granting of an injunction(or the knowledge that it would be granted)or the liability to pay damages may result in an activity being discontinued(or may prevent its being started)which would be undertaken if market transactions were costless.In these conditions the initial delimitation of legal rights does have an effect on the efficiency with which the economic system operates.One arrangement of rights may bring about a greater value of production than any other.But unless this is the arrangement of rights established by the legal system, the costs of reaching the same result by altering and combining rights through the market may be so great that this optimal arrangement of rights, and the greater value of production which it would bring, may never be achieved.The part played by economic considerations in the process of delimiting legal rights will be discussed in the next section.In this section, I will take the initial delimitation of rights and the costs of carrying out market transactions as given.It is clear that an alternative form of economic organisation which could achieve the same result at less cost than would be incurred by using the market value of production to be raised.As I explained many years ago, the firm represents such an alternative to organising production through market transactions.Within the firm individual bargains between the various cooperating factors of production are eliminated and for a market transaction is substituted an administrative decision.The rearrangement of production then takes place without the need for bargains between the owners of the factors of production.A landowner who has control of a large tract of land may devote his land to various uses taking into account the effect that the interrelations of the various activities will have on the net return of the land, thus rendering unnecessary bargains between those undertaking the various activities.Owners of a large building or of several adjoining properties in a given area may act in much the same way.In effect, using our earlier terminology, the firm would acquire the legal rights of all the parties and the rearrangement of activities would not follow on a rearrangement of rights by contract, but as a result of an administrative decision as to how the rights should be used.It does not, of course, follow that the administrative costs of organizing a transaction through a firm are inevitably less than the costs of the market transactions which are superseded.But where contracts are peculiarly diffi-cult to draw up and an attempt to describe what the parties have agreed to do or not to do(e.g.the amount and kind of a smell or noise that they may make or will not make)would necessitate a lengthy and highly involved docu-ment, and, where, as is probable, a long-term contract would be desirable, it would be hardly surprising if the emergence of a firm or the extension of the activities of an existing firm was not the solution adopted on many occasions to deal with the problem of harmful effects.This solution would be adopted whenever the administrative costs of the firm were less than the costs of the market transactions that it supersedes and the gains which would result from the rearrangement of activities greater than the firm’s costs of organising them.I do not need to examine in great detail the character of this solution since I have explained what is involved in my earlier article.But the firm is not the only possible answer to this problem.The admin-istrative costs of organising transactions within the firm may also be high, and particularly so when many diverse activities are brought within the control of a single organisation.In the standard case of a smoke nuisance, which may affect a vast number of people engaged in a wide variety of activities, the adminis-trative costs might well be so high as to make any attempt to deal with the problem within the confines of a single firm impossible.An alternative solution is direct government regulation.Instead of instituting a legal system of rights which can be modified by transactions on the market, the government may im-pose regulations which state what people must or must not do and which have to be obeyed.Thus, the government(by statute or perhaps more likely through an administrative agency)may, to deal with the problem of smoke nuisance, used(e.g.that smoke preventing devices should be installed or that coal or oil should not be burned)or may confine certain types of business to certain districts(zoning regulations).The government is, in a sense, a superfirm(but of a very special kind)since it is able to influence the use of factors of production by administrative decision.But the ordinary firm is subject to cheeks in its operations because of the competition of other firms, which might administer the same activities at lower cost and also because there is always the alternative of market transactions as against organisation within the firm if the administrative costs become too great.The government is able, if it wishes, to avoid the market altogether, which a firm can never do.The firm has to make market agreements with the owners of the factors of production that it uses.Just as the government can conscript or seize property, so it can decree that factors of production should only be used in such-and-such a way.Such authoritarian methods save a lot of trouble(for those doing the organising).Furthermore, the government has at its disposal the police and the other law enforcement agencies to make sure that its regulations are carried out.It is clear that the government has powers which might enable it to get some things done at a lower cost than could a private organisation(or at any rate one without special governmental powers).But the governmental admin-istrative machine is not itself costless.It can, in fact, on occasion be extremely costly.Furthermore, there is no reason to suppose that the restrictive and zoning regulations, made by a fallible administration subject to political pres-sures and operating without any competitive check, will necessarily always be those which increase the efficiency with which the economic system operates.Furthermore, such general regulations which must apply to a wide variety of cases will be enforced in some cases in which they are clearly inappropriate.From these considerations it follows that direct governmental regulation will not necessarily give better results than leaving the problem to be solved by the market or the firm.But equally there is no reason why, on occasion, such governmental administrative regulation should not lead to an improvement in economic efficiency.This would seem particularly likely when, as is normally the case with the smoke nuisance, a large number of people are involved and in which therefore the costs of handling the problem through the market or the firm may be high.There is, of course, a further alternative which is to do nothing about the problem at all.And given that the costs involved in solving the problem by regulations issued by the governmental administrative machine will often be heavy(particularly if the costs are interpreted to include all the consequences which follow from the government engaging in this kind of activity), it will no doubt be commonly the case that the gain which would come from regulating the actions which give rise to the harmful effects will be less than the costs involved in government regulation.The discussion of the problem of harmful effects in this section(when the costs of market transactions are taken into account)is extremely inadequate.But at least it has made clear that the problem is one of choosing the appro-priate social arrangement for dealing with the harmful effects.All solutions have costs and there is no reason to suppose that government regulation is called for simply because the problem is not well handled by the market or the firm.Satisfactory views on policy can only come from a patient study of how, in practice, the market, firms and governments handle the problem of harmful effects.Economists need to study the work of the broker in bring-ing parties together, the effectiveness of restrictive covenants, the problems of the large-scale real-estate development company, the operation of government zoning and other regulating activities.It is my belief that economists, and policy-makers generally, have tended to over-estimate the advantages which come from governmental regulation.But this belief, even if justified, does not do more than suggest that government regulation should be curtailed.It does not tell us where the boundary line should be drawn.This, it seems to me, has to come from a detailed investigation of the actual results of handling the problem in different ways.But it would be unfortunate if this investigation were undertaken with the aid of a faulty economic analysis.The aim of this article is to indicate what the economic approach to the problem should be.六、考慮市場交易成本

參數已進行到這一點(在第三節和第四節和第五節默契在明確)有開展市場交易不涉及成本的假設。當然,這是一個非常不現實的假設。為了進行市場交易,這是必要的,發現它是一個愿望,處理,告知人有意愿來處理和在什么條件下,進行討價還價的談判,起草合同,進行必要的檢查,以確保合同條款等正在觀察。無論如何,以防止將進行無成本定價體系工作的世界中,許多交易,這些操作往往非常昂貴,充分昂貴。

在前面的章節中,與重排,通過市場的合法權益的問題進行處理時,有人認為,這種重排,將通過市場時,這將導致產值的增加。但這種假設不花錢的市場交易。一旦考慮到進行市場交易的成本很顯然,這樣的權重排時,將只進行重排后的生產值增加大于這將帶來約涉及的費用。當它是少,授予強制令(或將被授予的知識)或支付損害賠償的責任,可能會導致被停止活動的(或可能妨礙其正在啟動),如果市場交易是無成本的,將進行。在這種情況下,初步劃定的合法權利,也有經濟體制與經營效率的影響。一個安排的權利,可能會帶來更大的價值比任何其他的生產。但除非這是規定的權利的法律制度安排,達到相同的結果,改變,并通過市場相結合的權利的成本可能是最佳的安排,這種權利和生產更大的價值,它會帶來如此巨大,可能永遠無法實現。經濟上的考慮在劃定的法律權利的過程中發揮的部分將在下一節中討論。在本節中,我將采取初步劃定的權利和進行市場交易,給定的費用。

這是另一種形式的經濟組織可以以更低的成本實現相同的結果,將利用市場發生將使產值提高。正如我解釋了很多年前,該公司表示這種通過市場交易來組織生產的替代。在企業內部生產要素之間的各種合作的個人討價還價被淘汰,市場交易取代行政決定。然后重新安排生產,而不需要對生產要素的所有者之間討價還價的地方。一個地主有一大片土地的控制,考慮各種用途的土地純收益的效果,各項活動的相互關系,將有可能把自己的土地,從而使開展的各項活動之間的不必要的討價還價。大型建筑,或在某一領域的幾個毗鄰物業的業主可能在大致相同的方式行事。效果,在使用我們前面的術語,該公司將收購所有各方和重排的活動不會按照一個由合同權利的重排的合法權益,但作為一個行政決定的權利應該如何使用。

當然,它不遵循,通過企業組織交易的行政費用是不可避免的比被取代的市場交易成本。但合同是獨有很難邪教組織制訂和試圖說明什么各方都同意這樣做或不這樣做(如氣味或噪音,他們可能不會讓的數量和種類)將須漫長和高度參與的實況,并在那里,是可能的,長期的合同將是可取的,這將是不足為奇的,如果出現公司或擴建現有企業的活動是不是解決問題的方法通過多次處理有害影響的問題。該解決方案將通過時,該公司的行政費用不到的,它取代了市場交易的成本和收益,這將導致重排的活動大于組織他們公司的成本。我不需要非常詳細的檢查,因為我已解釋過什么是我以前的文章中涉及的這一解決方案的特點。

但該公司沒有這個問題的唯一可能的答案。該公司籌辦事務內的行政成本,也可能是高的,尤其是當許多不同的活動,在一個單一的組織控制。在煙霧滋擾的標準的情況下,這可能會影響廣大的人在從事各種各樣的活動,行政成本可能如此之高,使一個范圍內來處理這個問題的任何企圖單個企業是不可能的。另一種方法是政府直接調控。提起的權利的法律制度,這可以通過交易市場上的修改,而不是政府可能提高對法規,這說明人們必須或不能做,哪些必須遵守。因此,政府(法規或者更可能通過行政機關),處理與一定的生產方法應該或不應該被用來(應安裝防止設備的egthat煙霧或煙霧滋擾的問題,法令煤或石油不應該被燒毀)或某些地區區劃法規可能限制某些類型的業務。

從某種意義上說,政府是一個superfirm(但一個非常特殊的一種),因為它是能夠通過行政決定影響生產要素的使用。但普通的公司是在其他公司的競爭,這可能會以較低的成本管理同樣的活動,也因為其操作的臉頰,因為總是有替代市場交易,對組織在企業內部,如果行政成本成為太大了。政府是可以的,如果它希望,以避免完全的市場,堅決不能做。該公司擁有市場的協議,它使用的生產要素的所有者。正如政府可以征兵或扣押財產,所以它可以法令,生產要素只應在和這樣一種方式使用。這種專制的方法節省了很多麻煩(那些做主辦)。此外,政府已在其處置的警察和其他執法機構,以確保其法規進行。

很顯然,政府有可能使其能夠在較低的成本比私人組織(或在任何率沒有特殊的政府權力之一)做一些事情的權力。但政府的行政機本身并不是無成本的。事實上,它可以是上一次極其昂貴的。此外,也沒有理由認為,限制和區劃法規,1犯錯誤行政受到政治壓力措施和經營沒有任何競爭力的檢查,一定會永遠是那些提高效率與經濟體制的運作。此外,這樣的一般規定必須適用于種類繁多的情況下將被強制在某些情況下,他們顯然是不合適的。從這些方面考慮,政府直接監管不一定會提供更好的結果比離開市場或企業要解決的問題。但同樣沒有任何理由為什么,有時,這種政府的行政法規不應導致經濟效率的改善。這似乎特別容易時,通常是煙霧滋擾的情況下,大量的人參與和因此在處理的問題,通過市場或公司的成本可能很高。

當然,這是在所有有關問題做了進一步的替代。并給予解決的問題,由政府行政機發出的規例所涉及的費用往往是沉重的(特別是如果費用被解釋為包括從政府從事這類活動的后續的一切后果),它不會無疑是通常的情況下,增益來調節而引起的有害影響的行動將少于政府監管所涉及的費用。

在本節(當市場交易成本的考慮)的有害影響的問題的討論是非常不足。但它至少已明確表示,問題是選擇合適的處理的有害影響的社會安排。所有的解決方案成本,并沒有任何理由假設政府監管,干脆就叫市場或企業,因為這個問題沒有得到很好的處理。令人滿意的政策意見只能來自病人的研究了如何在實踐中,市場,企業和政府處理的有害影響的問題。經濟學家需要研究的經紀人帶來的各方一起工作的限制性條款的效力,大型房地產開發公司,政府區劃和其他規管活動的運作問題。這是我的信念,經濟學家和決策者,都傾向于高估的優勢,從政府監管。但這樣的信念,即使有理,不會做多建議應削減政府的監管。它并沒有告訴我們應制定邊界線。這一點,在我看來,有來自一個詳細的調查,以不同的方式處理問題的實際效果。但它會是不幸的,如果這個調查是一個錯誤的經濟分析的援助承諾。這篇文章的目的是要表明,經濟的解決問題的方法應該是什么。

VII.THE LEGAL DELIMITATION OF RIGHTS AND THE ECONOMIC

PROBLEM

The discussion in Section V not only served to illustrate the argument but also afforded a glimpse at the legal approach to the problem of harmful effects.The cases considered were all English but a similar selection of American cases could easily be made and the character of the reasoning would have been the same.Of course, if market transactions were costless, all that matters(questions of equity apart)is that the rights of the various parties should be well-defined and the results of legal actions easy to forecast.But as we have seen, the situation is quite different when market transactions are so costly as to make it difficult to change the arrangement of rights established by the law.In such cases, the courts directly influence economic activity.It would therefore seem desirable that the courts should understand the economic consequences of their decisions and should, insofar as this is possible without creating too much uncertainty about the legal position itself, take these consequences into account when making their decisions.Even when it is possible to change the legal delimitation of rights through market transactions, it is obviously desirable to reduce the need for such transactions and thus reduce the employment of resources in carrying them out.A thorough examination of the presuppositions of the courts in trying such cases would be of great interest but I have not been able to attempt it.Nevertheless it is clear from a cursory study that the courts have often recognized the economic implications of their decisions and are aware(as many economists are not)of the reciprocal nature of the problem.Furthermore, from time to time, they take these economic implications into account, along with other factors, in arriving at their decisions.The American writers on this subject refer to the question in a more explicit fashion than do the British.Thus, to quote Prosser on Torts, a person may make use of his own property or...conduct his own affairs at the expense of some harm to his neighbours.He may operate a factory whose noise and smoke cause some discomfort to others, so long as he keeps within reasonable bounds.It is only when his conduct is unreasonable,in the light of its utilitliy and the harm which results [italics added], that it becomes a nuisance....As it was said in an ancient case in regard to candle-making in a town,“Le utility del chose excusera le noisomeness del stink.”

The world must have factories, smelters, oil refineries, noisy ma-chinery and blasting, even at the expense of some inconvenience to those in the vicinity and the plaintiff may be required to accept some not unreasonable discomfort for the general good.The standard British writers do not state as explicitly as this that a comparison between the utility and harm produced is an element in deciding whether a harmful effect should be considered a nuisance.But similar views, if less strongly expressed, are to be found.The doctrine that the harmful effect must be substantial before the court will act is, no doubt, in part a reflection of the fact that there will almost always be some gain to offset the harm.And in the reports of individual cases, it is clear that the judges have had in mind what would be lost as well as what would be gained in deciding whether to grant an injunction or award damages.Thus, in refusing to prevent the destruction of a prospect by a new building, the judge stated: I know no general rule of common law, which...says, that building so as to stop another’s prospect is a nuisance.Was that the case, there could be no great towns;and I must grant injunctions to all the new buildings in this town...The problem which we face in dealing with actions which have harmful effects is not simply one of restraining those responsible for them.What has to be decided is whether the gain from preventing the harm is greater than the loss which would be suffered elsewhere as a result of stopping the action which produces the harm.In a world in which there are costs of rearranging the rights established by the legal system, the courts, in cases relating to nuisance, in effect, making a decision on the economic problem and determining how resources are to be employed.It was argued that the courts are conscious of this and that they often make, although not always in a very explicit fashion, a comparison between what would be gained and what lost by preventing actions which have harmful effects.But the delimitation of rights is also the result of statutory enactments.Here we also find evidence of an appreciation of the reciprocal nature of the problem.While statutory enactments add to the list of nuisances, action is also taken to legalize what would otherwise be nuisances under the common law.The kind of situation which economists are prone to consider as requiring corrective government action is, in fact, often the result of government action.Such action is not necessarily unwise.But there is a real danger that extensive government intervention in the economic system may lead to the protection of those responsible for harmful effects being carried too far.七、作者權利的法律界定及經濟問題

在第五節的討論不僅有助于說明的論點,但也給予一瞥法律途徑的有害影響的問題。考慮案件都是英語,但類似的選擇了美國的情況下可以很容易地和推理的性質本來相同。當然,如果市場交易是無成本,所有這些事項除了股權問題是,各方的權利,應該是定義和法律行動的結果很容易預測的。但是,正如我們所看到的,情況是完全不同的市場交易時,是如此昂貴,使其難以改變法律規定的權利的安排。在這種情況下,法院直接影響經濟活動。因此,這似乎是可取的,法院應了解他們的決定的經濟后果,只要這是可能的,沒有創造太多的法律地位本身的不確定性,應考慮到這些后果時,他們的決定。即使它是可能改變法律劃定的權利,通過市場交易,這顯然是可取的,以減少此類交易的需要,從而減少就業資源,在執行。

一個前提,法院在這種情況下試圖徹底檢查,將是極大的興趣,但我一直無法嘗試。盡管如此,它是從一個粗略的研究清楚,法院經常承認他們的決定對經濟的影響,并意識到問題的互惠性質(如許多經濟學家都沒有)。此外,不時,他們考慮到這些經濟的影響,加上其他因素,在到達他們的決定。對這一問題的美國作家,是指比英國更明確的方式問題。因此,引用普羅瑟侵權,可能使一個人使用自己的財產。。進行自己的事情,在犧牲一些傷害他的鄰居。他可能操作的工廠,其噪音和煙霧,給他人造成一些不適,只要他保持在合理的范圍之內。

世界必須有工廠,冶煉廠,煉油廠,嘈雜的馬奇內里和爆破,甚至不惜犧牲一些不便,給那些在附近,原告可能會被要求接受一些不講理的不適,在總體上是好的。

標準的英國作家沒有明確說明,產生的效用和傷害之間的比較是在決定是否應被視為滋擾產生有害作用的元素。但類似的看法,如果那么強烈的表達,都可以找到。該學說的有害影響,法院將采取行動之前,必須是實質性的,是毫無疑問的一部分,將有幾乎總是會有一些增益,以抵消傷害的事實反映。在個別情況的報告,很顯然,法官已經在頭腦里將失去什么在決定是否授予強制令或判給損害賠償,以及將獲得什么。因此,在拒絕一個新的建設,以防止破壞的前景,法官說:我知道沒有普通法的一般規則。。說,該建筑物,以阻止他人的前景是造成滋擾。的情況下,不可能有偉大的城鎮,而我在這個鎮的所有新建筑物必須給予禁令。

我們在處理產生有害影響的行動所面臨的問題是不是簡單地抑制那些對他們負責。已決定是否從防止危害的增益大于將停止行動而產生的危害結果作為其他地方遭受的損失。在這個世界上,其中有重新安排的法律制度規定的權利的費用,法院,有關滋擾的案件,實際上,經濟問題上作出的決定,并確定資源是如何被聘用。有人認為,法院都意識到這一點,他們往往在一個非常明確的時尚,什么將得到什么失去防止產生有害影響的行動之間的比較,雖然并不總是。但劃定權利也是法定的成文法則的結果。在這里,我們也可以找到證據互惠性質的問題表示贊賞。雖然法定成文法加入的滋擾列表,還采取行動合法化,否則將根據普通法的滋擾。什么樣的情況經濟學家很容易認為需要糾正的政府行動,事實上,往往是政府行為的結果。這種行動并不一定是不明智的。但有一個真正的危險,可能導致廣泛的政府干預經濟體制來保護那些負責進行太遠的有害影響。

第四篇:讀書筆記(經濟類)

由勞倫·勃蘭特和托馬斯·羅斯基主編的《偉大的中國經濟轉型》是迄今為止解釋“中國奇跡”最全面的著作,是理解中國經濟增長在世界經濟格局中地位的最重要參考書。這部里程碑式的專著為中國過去30年舉世矚目的高速經濟增長提供了一個全面而深入的綜合分析。我通過閱讀這本書,對我國經濟有了進一步的了解,并且對我國經濟未來的發展有了很高的期望值。現在談談讀完這本書,我的一部分感觸與想法。

首先這本書留給我印象最深的就是其寫作思路,在講每一章節的過程中都會秉承一種思路:先整體敘述一下每一章節的背景,然后針對所要敘述的內容進行數據的搜集,經過對搜集到的數據進行整理,得到數據在進行進一步整理,使其成我們熟悉的折線圖、柱狀圖、數據表等形式,讓我們有直觀的了解,最后還會給出經過分析得到的結論,這樣一種看似簡單易行,卻寫得處處細心、耐讀的一種寫法、思路,實則讓人佩服,并且給讀者一個條理很清晰的脈絡。比如說作者在闡述:“中國農業的發展——歷史教訓、今年的成就、未來的挑戰”一節中,首先作者引用過去農業在一些國家不被重視,結果導致經濟的平衡增長被打破,說明農業對那些國家的經濟增長起到了不可或缺的作用,那么作者就提出了一個問題:那么農業對發展中國家的中國的經濟又會有什么樣的影響呢?因此作者從這一問題出發,對中國農業的過去、現在以及未來進行了相應的回顧、總結、分析以及展望。具體的思路就是把中國的農業以改革開放為界限,將改革開放之前的農業從食物生產的困難、結構型停滯、政策和制度的不完善、農產品定價及市場化的不科學、非農業體制、政策及農業停滯方面進行了深入的剖析,闡述了改革開放之前的農業困境;對于改革時期的農業,作者分析了當時農業的現狀,主要從糧食部門的改革以及糧食部門之外農業部門的改革,及其改革從走出農場開始,又進行了生產和市場環境的改革,又受到了市場開放和專業化的影響,使得農業發展從開放時期的停滯不前到改革時期的進步有了明顯的體現。其中著重提到了產權改革以及政策的選擇譬如:物價政策、引入市場政策、貿易政策等對農業發展產生了巨大的推動效果;最后作者對中國農業在未來發展中存在的挑戰進行了深刻的分析,讓我們總有一種沖動:讓時光飛速到20年后,讓我們看看我們國家的農業到底是一個什么狀態,會有什么樣的格局,如何從一個對我國經濟發展貢獻較小的行業轉變成對我國影響深遠的行業呢。

《偉大的中國經濟轉型》這本書在談論我國經濟發展的過程中,深入的剖析了影響我國經濟發展的諸多因素,比如人口因素、勞動力因素、環境資源、農業工業的發展對其的影響等多個方面,還談到了全球化下我國經濟的各種狀態以及對未來我國經濟的預測等內容。讓我印象最深、最想繼續深思下去的部分應該是當下最熱的全球化問題。《偉大的中國經濟轉型》一書中,關于全球化問題主要介紹了中國從1978年以來對外貿易和投資的漸進開放過程。主要回顧了1978年到2001年間中國貿易和投資政策的歷史改革,并說明了一些重要政策改變對貿易和投資擴張的影響。其中入世標志著中國在這一領域政策演變的一個重要分水嶺,因此討論了中國加入WTO條款的主要特點,并評價了我國迄今為止在履行義務方面所取得的進展。最后闡述了中國的發展具有全球影響力,以及面對日漸突出的全球化趨勢,我們國家應做好的準備等等。經過思考,針對全球化問題,我有以下的想法。

在全球化的推動下,世界格局發生了大變革、大調整、大發展,尤其是新興國家群體性崛起,美歐日困境,俄羅斯之冬等格局的變化。中國不僅加入了WTO的行列,還是“金磚四國”、“靈貓六國”等多個組織之中,由此我們也可以看出在全球化的大潮下,我國國際地位的提高,當然經濟實力肯定也得到了肯定并取得了飛速的進步與發展。中國發展到這個階段,突然出現在世界地平線上,突然躋身于全球俱樂部中,可能自己還沒有足夠的思想準備,但方方面面的壓力都出來了,這是成長的煩惱,也是前所未有的挑戰。

2000年前后,世界開始流行“中國威脅論”,100年前,世界上最流行的是“美國威脅論”,因為美國那時候正是發展最快的時候,正在全面超越英國和歐洲列強。那時候圍堵美國的急先鋒,一個是英國,一個是德國,尤其是英國,還同祖同宗。但看到美國發展得快,又要過去投資,分享它的成長,時冷時熱,這樣的狀態持續了多少年?50年,直到美國完全超過英國,兩國的關系就變得非常簡單了,小布什說他要打伊拉克,布萊爾說他第一個報名,地緣政治最終取決于一個因素——實力。歷史給我們很好的啟示,我們可以預見,中美關系、中日關系、中歐關系,在未來的二三十年,將是這么一個鋸齒般的關系,既不會天天是蜜月期,也不會降到冰點。對今天的中國來說,最重要的是自己堅定不移地

2成長,保持發展,保持穩定,推進改革。中國在面對全球化的趨勢下應該怎么繼續讓經濟繼續健康、穩定的發展下去呢?

我個人認為可以采取的措施主要有:要不斷改革體制機制,讓我們的經濟在不斷的體制改革中發展;國家要重視政策的建立與調整,尤其是貨幣制度,讓我們國家的各種政策能在經濟全球化的潮流中發揮積極、有效地作用;繼續擴大對外開放,積極參加國際競爭,并保持或者需要進一步加強我們在國際上的話語權;主動熟悉全球化的規則,加強國家的經濟安全防范,畢竟防微杜漸是一種積極的心理;加快產業結構調整,提高產品的科技含量,也就需要我們要加強創新能力,畢竟科學技術是第一生產力;發揮政治、經濟大國的優勢,積極倡導建立全球化的新規則,以至于我們在全球化橫行的時代能夠運籌帷幄;加大科教的投入,創造知識資源,以樹立應對經濟全球化的根本之策;要不斷促進各產業的結構和結構內部調整,使得我們國家的產業能夠高效、有序的健康發展。

針對以上的諸多措施,我主要闡述一下在改革體制機制方面,國家應該如何對待。

我國要在經濟全球化的今天保持經濟的持續健康發展首要任務是需要不斷改革體制機制。中國有一首兒歌,“兩只老虎,一只沒有耳朵,一只沒有尾巴,跑得快。”中國社會有兩只老虎,一只叫改革,一只叫社會問題,它們可能都在跑,我們要讓改革這只老虎跑得比另外一只老虎快一點兒,這樣我們就可以實現未來10年的發展目標,并保持我們經濟在全球化下持續的發展。

中國過去30年的奇跡,始于一個產業的市場化改革,農業,從農村的包產到戶開始,結果是什么呢?20世紀80年代,美國人寫過一本書,書名是《誰來養活8億中國人》,說中國這個國家人很多,耕地又很少,中國人將來吃不飽飯,天下大亂。今天中國不止8億人,13億人了,可能有一半人在減肥,至少吃飯不再是問題。同樣的一片土地,同樣的人群,會有這么大的變化。中國的改革從農業的市場化開始,隨后擴展到輕工業、重工業等各個領域。金融行業推動市場化改革能帶來的變化,行業規模從500億到上萬億的爆炸式增長,除了市場環境

3等客觀因素以外,與其他行業的市場化改革一樣,每個從業者積極性的調動帶來了行業潛能的釋放。

今天的中國,也仍然有很多領域需要市場化,也可以市場化。金融領域是一個典型,大量企業找不著資金,大量資金找不著企業。這是因為金融市場不夠發達,不夠有效,不夠市場化。醫療領域可能是另一個典型,一大群病人找不著醫院看病,一大群醫學院的畢業生找不著工作,也是因為這個領域不夠市場化。改革,可以有很多宏大的頂層設計,也可以從經濟社會一些明顯市場化不足的領域做起,我們相信,這些領域的逐步市場化改革,釋放出的生產力,可以成為中國經濟未來10年發展和轉型的重要動力。

當然,改革開放30年后的今天,改革也不再像30年前那樣順理成章,因為那時候不改革就沒有飯吃。中國在遭遇前所未有的金融危機的關鍵時刻,經濟全球化的大潮下,今天的改革涉及利益的重新調整和分配,涉及國有企業改革,建立現代企業制度,從根本上轉換企業經營機制,提高企業在國際上的競爭實力;深化行政管理體制的變革一是進一步轉變政府職能,實現政企分開。而是政府機構要金庫能的精簡、高效、統一。三是要是權利和利益脫鉤,并加強監督,從源頭上消除腐敗;進一步建立和完善市場體系,實行“走出去”的開放戰略;還要注重建立與完善與社會主義市場經濟體制相適應的法律體系。這完全是一個系統性的工程,或許還需要我們有足夠的智慧,能夠設計好改革的帕累托改進,讓參與改革的每個人,都能從改革中合理地受益,包括在政府和市場的人才之間建立起有規則的旋轉門機制,才能更好地推進市場化改革。

通過閱讀《偉大的中國經濟轉型》這本書,我了解到我國經濟從過去幾十年到現在甚至未來的發展情況,讓我對我國經濟的發展,甚至是和經濟有關的政治、資源等其他方面的發展也有了進一步的了解,而且對我而言,讀完這本書讓我有了關注我國經濟發展的基礎和興趣。

201140704411統計張美玲

第五篇:經濟類畢業論文

世紀國際貿易發展中電子商務作用及策略分析

孫 王月

(哈爾濱技師學院,黑龍江 哈爾濱

150000)

國際貿易在世紀是知識性經濟,電子商務的發展為國際貿

易提供了全球性、無紙化、智能化、低碳化、瞬間性和簡易性的環境。

國家競爭力由傳統貿易競爭發展為網絡貿易競爭,使貿易交易在空 間上與時間上的限制減少,企業與企業、國家與國家之間在決策和

發展上面對更大的挑戰,如何做好網絡貿易;如何規范國際網絡市 場;如何在國家政策上把電子商務平臺規整,是國家新的研究課題,也是企業貿易發展最關心的問題

。國際貿易的現狀

1.1 國際貿易壟斷化。

1.1.1 國際貿易關稅保護政策:國家通過關稅來限制進出口從 而保護本國的工業產品和農副產品。

1.1.2 國家對進出口產品進行限額:國家通過減少對消費品、奢 侈品的進口,來減少對國有產品的沖擊力。

1.1.3 國際貿易外匯的管制和升值。

1.1.4 國家對外貿企業生產進出口產品的代替品方面給予多種 優惠,使它們不被外國產品所排擠。

1.2 國際貿易知識網絡化。

國際貿易知識的網絡化對現在社會的沖擊力很大,隨著高科技的發展,高新產品層出不窮,知識貿易競爭越演越烈。二十一世紀是 人才的競爭,從而表現出知識型產品所占比重的分量。知識作為現 在社會的生產因素,它的生產、傳遞都是由網絡信息完成。知識網絡

化產業作為未來發展的基礎產業,是全球化經濟的新型動力火車。這是國際貿易向信息產業化轉變的趨勢,使貿易企業在庫存、管理、采購等等方面的成本大大減少。

1.3 國際貿易的協調化。國際貿易關注點由自然資源轉變為知

識資源,高科技領域的談判已代替原有傳統談判,降低了談判成本。高科技在國際貿易上的協調已成為不變的事實。電子商務的發展及作用

電子商務自 1995 年以來發展至今,發展速度較快,其的商業價 值巨大。各國陸續出臺各種措施、綱要來發展這個新興產業,從而提 升自己在國際上的競爭力。電子商務打破了傳統商務活動對交易時 間、地理和支付方式等方面的限制,使國際貿易交易更為便捷、安

全。在經濟發展較快的今天便捷、可靠、安全、迅速是國際貿易所追

求的方向,國際貿易企業可以在最短的時間內得到最有利于自己貿

易發展的信息。電子商務的發展改變了人類的生活模式,沒有了各

種壁壘的限制,企業可以更為方便的交易、交流來獲得自己所需要的信息。

2.1 業務上。企業之間的商務活動可以由互聯網直接進行,縮短

了業務的營運周期,提高了效率。

2.2

業務和消費者

。BTOC

在互聯網上的實行,使消費者直接與

企業進行買賣,消費者的消費成本大大降低,消費者對各企業有了

自己的認知,企業同樣一手獲得消費者的信息,為企業產業的發展

提供了寶貴的資源。

2.3

信息。

電子商務提供世界經濟發展最前沿的信息,讓貿易企

業了解了未來自己開拓新的市場的發展方向,同樣企業也借鑒信息

來提高自己的服務質量。

2.4 網上的管理。通過互聯網使企業與分公司的連接更加緊密,減少了一些突發事故的發生率。

電子商務貿易交易是時代的產物,科技的發展帶動經濟的發

。各時期工業、經濟的發展都有利與弊,時代進步了但也有不足,電子商務是順應時代而產生的,國際貿易根據時代的步伐步步跟

進,如

B2B、B2C、C2C、C2G……各種營銷模式的出現。雖然 2008 年

經濟危機給各國經濟帶來重創,但國際危機期間

B2B 仍然是發展的主題,B2C仍突破新高。復蘇后的經濟將出現新氣象,對國際貿易

網上貿易的交易帶來新的血液。

隨著

internet 使用人數的增加,網上購物、網上支付的消費者越

來越多,網購已成為了一種流行趨勢,市場的占有比重分量逐年增

加,電子商務網站也在逐年跟進,例如阿里巴巴、京東……這些網站

提供各種網絡平臺,給商業人士、私企、個體在國際貿易中提供了很

。消費者、生產者、供應者也得到自己有利的商業信息,都找到自己相處融洽的合作伙伴

。市場的競爭力同樣也更加嚴峻,產品的隔代更新速度加快、使用壽命縮短;信息更替速度更加迅速。

各種網站提供空間給予企業展示自己企業形象的機會,通過廣告信

息來提高了企業的知名度,節省了資源,保護了環境

。現在都提倡低

碳效應,低碳生活讓我們居住、工作的環境新鮮,從而帶動我們的好

心情,使我們工作心情愉悅、激情永存,貿易量自然增加。如何利用電子商務來發展國際貿易

國際貿易長期發展中面對不同領域的沖擊,各時期都有自己的發展特色。二十一世紀是人才、知識、科技的競爭,互聯網在 21 世紀

發展尤為突出。

3.1 政策環境。各國相繼出臺法律制度、政策標準和方案措施來

規范電子商務的發展,使國際貿易在一個安全、可靠的環境下生存

發展。網絡交易是貿易經濟交易發展的趨勢,是現在各國的競爭重

點。美國、歐洲早在二十世紀末就提出了關于電子商務的發展綱要。

3.2 信息基礎設施。各大型網絡公司的出現,移動通信業務的發

展,寬帶速度的提高,3G 業務都為電子商務提供了良好的基礎設

施,便捷了國際貿易交易。

3.3 安全。各國都投入大量的人力、財力、物力保護交易的安全

進行,如電子簽名、保護密碼等高科技技術出現,國際貿易交易的安

全性正一步步的提升。

3.4 交易。支付方式上如數字錢包、貨幣的出現,因為消費者需

求的不同又相繼出現儲蓄卡、貨到付款等多種多樣的支付方式,讓

國際貿易交易更加的便捷、多彩多姿。

3.5 運輸。物流在傳統國際貿易中處于滯后狀態,電子商務的發

展帶動了物流的產業地位的提升。傳統的供應鏈供銷之間是脫節,供應商難以得到準確無誤的銷售計劃,使采購、生產處于滯后地位。

而電子商務的出現改善了這種現象,傳統貿易交易中的弊端有所改

變,國際貿易交易進入新紀元,出現了新的產業———第三方物流。

電子商務的發展帶動了國際服務貿易,服務行業作為新興的產

業發展極為迅速,國際服務貿易把國際貿易拓展化,是企業出口產

品的一面鏡子;是網絡貿易交易好壞的憑證。

國際貿易在網絡貿易

交易中如何做好,如何面對挑戰經久不衰蓬勃發展,需要我們去探

索網絡的奧妙。

總而言之,國際貿易在電子商務這個積極蓬勃的氛

圍中會展現更耀眼的光芒。

[1]

井道龍

.加快流通領域電子商務發展的重要意義

[J].蚌埠黨校學

報,2010

()

.[2]周卞.電子商務發展應用前景分析[J].漣鋼科技與管理,2008(1).[3]

彭今

.關于國際貿易發展形勢下我國貿易發展的討論

[J].經營管理

者,2008

()

.[4]張莉“.十二五”時期國際服務貿易發展趨勢及我國的對策[J].國際

貿易,2011(1).摘 要:

世紀全球進入了新的經濟時代,信息網絡使全球經濟進入了數字化時代,產品一瞬間就可以在世界各地進行交易,電子商

務的發展開始席卷全球,新的經濟形態為各國經濟策略的制定開創了一個新的方向。電子商務的發展使國際貿易交易的時間縮短、空間

更加廣闊。

關鍵詞:國際貿易;電子商務;策略及作用

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