第一篇：淺析《竇娥冤》的悲劇性及原因

淺析《竇娥冤》的悲劇性及原因

【摘要】 《竇娥冤》是關(guān)漢卿的代表作之一，同時(shí)也是一出杰出的古典悲劇，是中國(guó)歷史上悲劇的典型代表作品。竇娥最大的悲劇，源于封建社會(huì)的各種弊端，源于元朝官僚制度的腐敗。對(duì)《竇娥冤》文本進(jìn)行具體的分析，從悲劇性質(zhì)的界定、悲劇的題材、激烈的悲劇沖突、悲劇的結(jié)局、悲劇的效果、典型化的悲劇形象這六個(gè)方面來探討《竇娥冤》的悲劇性。

【關(guān)鍵字】 悲劇性質(zhì) 題材 沖突 結(jié)局 效果 形象

關(guān)漢卿是我們中華民族的驕傲，他對(duì)中國(guó)戲劇的發(fā)展做出了卓越貢獻(xiàn)，奠定了中國(guó)。戲劇發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)。王國(guó)維《宋元戲曲考 元?jiǎng)≈恼隆分姓f“關(guān)漢卿一空依傍，自鑄偉詞，而其言曲盡人情，字字本色，故當(dāng)為元人第一”。指出了他對(duì)中國(guó)戲劇的開創(chuàng)奠基之功。

一 悲劇性的表現(xiàn)

1.1悲劇的性質(zhì)

在中國(guó)戲劇史上，劇作所體現(xiàn)的不同的作家的創(chuàng)作風(fēng)格特征，要比體現(xiàn)的戲劇分類中悲劇、喜劇、正劇的戲劇類型特征鮮明得多。但《竇娥冤》卻是一部學(xué)術(shù)界公認(rèn)的、特征鮮明的悲劇杰作。王國(guó)維說；“其最有悲劇之性質(zhì)者，則如關(guān)漢卿之《竇娥冤》，紀(jì)君祥之《趙氏孤兒》。劇中雖有惡人交構(gòu)其間，而其蹈湯赴火，仍出于主人翁之意志，即列之于世界大悲劇中，亦無愧色也。”這是從中國(guó)和世界戲劇史的高度作出的評(píng)價(jià)。對(duì)于“悲劇”的定義，前哲時(shí)賢多有探討。我認(rèn)為最具權(quán)威和經(jīng)典性是恩格斯和魯迅的話。恩格斯說悲劇是“歷史的必然要求和這個(gè)要求的實(shí)際上不可能實(shí)現(xiàn)之間的悲劇性沖突”。魯迅說；“悲劇是將人生的有價(jià)值的東西毀滅給人看”。所謂“歷史的必然要求”,所謂“有價(jià)值的東西”，具體到《竇娥冤》中便是竇娥的生活愿望。戲里寫了她兩個(gè)愿望。

竇娥是人生苦難的化身。她三歲喪母，七歲成了高利貸的犧牲品，被父親用來抵債，做了蔡婆的童養(yǎng)媳，十七歲成親不久，丈夫便亡故了。一個(gè)二十歲無兒無女的寡婦面對(duì)著無邊的苦難，“天若知我情由，怕不待和天瘦”。這時(shí)她的生活愿望是：守節(jié)盡孝，用今生受苦以修來世。這是竇娥的選擇，雖然這種選擇有明顯的時(shí)代局限——一個(gè)別剝奪了謀生能力的弱女子，在重重封建道德的束縛之下，已經(jīng)失去了為自己謀取幸福的能力和自由了。但每一個(gè)人都應(yīng)當(dāng)有選擇生活道路、決定生活方式的權(quán)利，只要這種選擇不妨害他人，其他人便不能以任何借口加以干涉，強(qiáng)迫其改變。從尊重人的權(quán)利，順從人的意愿角度說，竇娥自己決定自己的生活方式，體現(xiàn)了“歷史的必然要求”，是“有價(jià)值的”。竇娥的這個(gè)愿望沒能實(shí)現(xiàn)，被張?bào)H兒和官府粉碎了。

張?bào)H兒逼婚不成，藥死了自己的父親，并以此誣陷竇娥殺人，竇娥沒有屈服，選擇了“官休”。這時(shí)她對(duì)官府的期望是：是非分明，執(zhí)法公正。這是自從法律產(chǎn)生以來，人們一直渴望實(shí)現(xiàn)的心愿，也是考察一個(gè)社會(huì)吏治明暗的唯一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。竇娥的這個(gè)愿望被官府粉碎了。竇娥沒有提出驚天動(dòng)地的口號(hào)，也沒有什么宏偉的人生目標(biāo)，她只是從自身?xiàng)l件出發(fā)，提出了能夠生存下去的最起碼要求。這種要求卻代表了水深火熱中的社會(huì)底層人民的心聲。就是這樣簡(jiǎn)單的愿望，在元代，乃至在整個(gè)封建社會(huì)都是不可能實(shí)現(xiàn)的。竇娥之死具有美學(xué)意義上的悲劇價(jià)值，而不僅僅是人生悲劇。

由此可見，《竇娥冤》首先是一出社會(huì)悲劇，它深刻揭露元代社會(huì)民不聊生的一幕幕；殘酷的高利貸盤剝；混亂的社會(huì)秩序；腐敗的吏治，讓人看到了造成小民呻吟號(hào)呼的既不是抽象的命運(yùn)，也不是他們自身性格的缺陷，而是整個(gè)社會(huì)的黑暗。中國(guó)文化的民本思想和現(xiàn)實(shí)精神，決定了富于斗爭(zhēng)性的作家必然不是將矛盾指向未知的神的殘酷無情而是統(tǒng)治者的昏庸與暴行。元代知識(shí)分子地位低下，使得他們?cè)谂c底層人民接近的過程中深入體察了他們的不幸與抗?fàn)帲椴倥c追求，惟其如此，才能寫出《竇娥冤》這樣深刻動(dòng)人的社會(huì)悲劇。

《竇娥冤》同時(shí)也是一出性格悲劇。從表面看，竇娥先是作為被買賣的童養(yǎng)媳，后又成了無依無靠的寡婦，最后淪為陰謀的犧牲品，在社會(huì)面前她是十足的弱者，她的一生都受人的操縱。她的悲劇從最初就被決定了。其實(shí)不然。她的悲劇有相當(dāng)程度上是自主選擇的結(jié)果——她的倔強(qiáng)剛烈決定了她必然對(duì)仇家蔑視痛恨，毫不妥協(xié)；她的善良又決定了她必然對(duì)親人擔(dān)起情感與道義的責(zé)任。所以，她的敵人必置她與死地，而她又自愿為親人犧牲了自己。這種自主選擇生動(dòng)地照應(yīng)了“寧為玉碎，不為瓦全”這句古語。她的性格悲劇不是由性格的缺陷造成的，而是由于道德上的完美和情感的堅(jiān)貞。關(guān)漢卿在對(duì)她命運(yùn)的關(guān)注中，傾注了自己的人格理想，使竇娥的形象，不同于俄羅斯文學(xué)中小人物的怯懦委瑣的陰暗面，而且有人文主義的光輝，作家對(duì)之寄予的不僅是憐憫與同情，更是歌頌與贊美。

1.2悲劇的題材

悲劇的寫作題材指的是悲劇創(chuàng)作者在作品中所描寫的體現(xiàn)其一定創(chuàng)作意圖的悲劇性生活事件或生活現(xiàn)象。

席勒說：“悲劇是一個(gè)值得同情的行動(dòng)的詩意摹仿”，悲劇的最高境界要求悲劇“從經(jīng)過提煉的哲學(xué)，獲得更為純凈的素材”但是中國(guó)悲劇并不是對(duì)“值得同情的行動(dòng)的詩意的摹仿”,而是逼真的摹仿，它整個(gè)就是普通人苦難生活的寫實(shí)，是暗無天日里痛苦靈魂的悲鳴。由于沒有經(jīng)過哲學(xué)的提煉，中國(guó)古典悲劇都是一些悲從中來，哭聲四起的“苦戲”、“哀曲”、“怨譜”。中國(guó)悲劇的出發(fā)點(diǎn)并不是歌頌偉大的行動(dòng)，而是表現(xiàn)人生的苦難和不幸，在中國(guó)古代戲劇發(fā)展過程中最引人注目，最扣人心弦的莫過于內(nèi)容情節(jié)“慘絕悲極”的“苦戲”，文人們稱為“哀曲”、“怨情”，“苦”、“哀”、“怨”道出了中國(guó)古典悲劇的特質(zhì)。

《竇娥冤》這一著作無論是情節(jié)還是結(jié)局都充滿了奇幻色彩，劇本所寫的是元代殘酷的社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)。一個(gè)原來手無寸鐵、安分守己的弱小寡婦竇娥，由于高利貸的殘酷剝削，流氓地痞的欺壓誣陷，特別是貪官污吏的慘絕人寰的迫害，終于枉死在封建官府的屠刀下面。

她始終將身世的不幸歸結(jié)于命運(yùn)，“是不是前世里燒香不到頭”，“是不是八字兒該載 著一世憂”。她盡管有抱怨，但依然恪守貞潔孝道，嚴(yán)守封建禮教。但在地痞流氓的欺壓誣陷，貪官污吏慘絕人寰的迫害下，一個(gè)原本屈服命運(yùn)的弱女子也勇敢地發(fā)出了反抗的吼聲。

【正宮 端正好】沒來由犯王法，不提防遭刑憲，叫聲屈動(dòng)地驚天。頃刻間游魂先赴森羅殿，怎不將天地也生埋怨。

【滾繡球】有日月朝暮懸，有鬼神掌著生死權(quán)。天地也，只合把清濁分辨，可怎生糊突了盜跖顏淵，為善的受貧窮更命短，造惡的享富貴又壽延。天地也，做得個(gè)怕硬欺軟，卻原來也這般順?biāo)拼５匾玻悴环趾么鹾螢榈兀刻煲玻沐e(cuò)勘賢愚枉做天！哎，只落得兩淚漣漣。

這兩段曲詞可謂悲壯動(dòng)人，古典悲劇的唱詞不僅有利于烘托悲劇氣氛，揭示人物的精神世界，完成對(duì)悲劇主人公的形象塑造，而且通過那悲壯的音樂腔調(diào)，使觀眾在“物我兩忘”的境界里得到高度的享受。竇娥冤里的《端正好》《滾繡球》在傾訴個(gè)人不幸命運(yùn)的同時(shí)，表現(xiàn)了對(duì)是非顛倒，善惡不分的社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)的不滿與反抗。這兩段表明竇娥反抗的唱詞擲地有聲，它表明了即使是弱者在遭遇不公正的非難時(shí)也有抗?fàn)幹了赖挠職狻?/p>

通過對(duì)《竇娥冤》內(nèi)容的挖掘，我們不難發(fā)現(xiàn)，中國(guó)古典悲劇是對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)生活逼真的摹仿，它不是站在歷史的高山之巔對(duì)歷史過眼云煙的鳥瞰，而是站在山腳河邊對(duì)濁浪旋流，明灘暗橋的實(shí)錄，從而其內(nèi)容都被定位為“悲從中來，哭聲四起的苦戲，哀曲，怨譜”。

1.3激烈的悲劇沖突

矛盾斗爭(zhēng)的性質(zhì)決定了悲劇沖突是激烈的，你死我活的，這是悲劇沖突與喜劇沖突不同的地方。主人公代表歷史的必然要求，具有堅(jiān)強(qiáng)不屈的意志，強(qiáng)大到使這種合乎歷史的必然的要求不能實(shí)現(xiàn)，斗爭(zhēng)的結(jié)局是以正面主人公的毀滅告終。

《竇娥冤》的第一戲劇沖突是竇娥與張?bào)H兒的沖突。張?bào)H兒是一個(gè)寡廉鮮恥、陰險(xiǎn)狠毒的潑皮無賴。他無意中救了蔡婆性命，按照他的邏輯，蔡婆的命便屬于他了，婆媳二人就應(yīng)當(dāng)“肉身陪侍”。為了達(dá)到霸占竇娥的目的，他不惜投毒殺人。藥死誰對(duì)他來說都無所謂，用父親一條命換取竇娥叫他三聲丈夫，他就滿足了。否則便翻臉不認(rèn)人，張?bào)H兒是社會(huì)的蠹蟲，他無權(quán)無勢(shì)，成不了大氣候。他之所以能夠得逞，有著適宜他生存、縱容他胡作非為的社會(huì)條件，這便是官府黑暗，吏治腐敗。由此引出了本劇的主要矛盾——與官府的矛盾沖突。本來是應(yīng)當(dāng)鎮(zhèn)壓張?bào)H兒一類惡人的官府，反而成了他們作惡的保護(hù)傘。錢成了判斷是非曲直的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在同社會(huì)邪惡勢(shì)力的斗爭(zhēng)中，竇娥是普通民眾要求和愿望的體現(xiàn)著，她是為了實(shí)現(xiàn)這些要求和愿望而死的。她的死，不是由于自身的過失，也不是突然的偶發(fā)事件，更不是乞求生存而不可得，被迫無奈死的；而是以自己的死換取他人的生，意識(shí)到了死的危險(xiǎn)，又毅然以死相愽，以生命殉、真理殉、正義殉體現(xiàn)了歷史必然要求的愿望。她的死是由于“主人翁之意志”，死得壯烈，有價(jià)值，是具有震撼人心力量的悲劇。在整個(gè)過程中，竇娥一步步退讓，直到刑場(chǎng)上，她沒有辦法證明自己的無辜，只能靠上天為她作證“若沒有兒靈圣諭世人傳，也不見得湛湛青天”，臨終前立下三樁誓——第一樁 要丈二白練掛在旗槍上，若系冤枉，刀過頭落，一腔熱血休滴在地下，都飛在白練上；第二樁，現(xiàn)今三伏天道，下三尺瑞雪，掩蓋你孩兒尸首；第三樁，著他楚州大旱三年。她的三樁誓愿只有在上天的公正光芒中才能實(shí)現(xiàn)。

雖然寫了竇娥鬼魂重翻案卷，撥弄燈燭，在伸冤過程中的主動(dòng)性可視為生前斗爭(zhēng)的延續(xù)，但畢竟是對(duì)官府依賴的表現(xiàn)。在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中竇娥沒有力量保衛(wèi)自己，也沒有復(fù)仇的手段。她的抗?fàn)幹杂辛Γ哉鸷橙诵模谟谒木窈蛢r(jià)值取向，她是用自身的毀滅來肯定和張揚(yáng)了有價(jià)值的東西。

1.4悲劇的結(jié)局

悲劇結(jié)局是各種沖突的最后決戰(zhàn)和解決。悲劇的結(jié)局給人的審美享受，在在全劇中是最集中、最強(qiáng)烈、最持久的。中國(guó)古典悲劇結(jié)局體現(xiàn)了“悲中帶喜”的獨(dú)特風(fēng)格。中國(guó)悲劇采取的是一種苦盡甘來的結(jié)構(gòu)形態(tài)。有人總結(jié)了中國(guó)古典戲劇的基本模式為：喜—悲—喜—悲—大悲—小喜，這大悲之后的“小喜”是中國(guó)古典文學(xué)獨(dú)具的“團(tuán)圓之趣”。中國(guó)悲劇的情節(jié)發(fā)展并不是劍拔弩張，緊張到令人窒息的地步，而是常常都摻雜著一些妙趣橫生的戲劇喜成分。如戲劇中的生旦凈末丑上場(chǎng)，或是動(dòng)作上的滑稽打鬧，或是語言上的逗笑取樂，也就是通過這種加入劇中的插科打諢來獲取喜劇效果，令人解頤捧腹，從而達(dá)到“喜中見悲”“寓悲于喜”的目的結(jié)局模式。

《竇娥冤》中的竇娥在邪惡勢(shì)力的迫害下，最終化為冤魂臨死前立下的三樁誓愿也都一一得到驗(yàn)證，最后她的父親竇天章為她翻了案，惡人得到了報(bào)應(yīng)。這看來是一個(gè)大團(tuán)圓的結(jié)局，但這并沒有弱化其悲劇效果。竇娥的冤魂是“死人復(fù)生”的表象。一方面，這是悲劇補(bǔ)償心理的具體化，這種結(jié)構(gòu)形式符合中國(guó)觀眾的民族心理；另一反面，竇娥冤情平反，父親竇天章做了官的這種方式并不能改變竇娥的人生命運(yùn)。

事實(shí)上，《竇娥冤》的結(jié)尾，只是一個(gè)象征性的符號(hào)，這種團(tuán)圓并非真正意義上的團(tuán)圓。竇娥終究是死了，她的鬼魂之說只是藝術(shù)虛擬中的虛擬物而已。

1.5悲劇效果

就悲劇藝術(shù)的美學(xué)意義和審美價(jià)值而言，悲劇并不是以表現(xiàn)悲慘命運(yùn)，不幸遭遇為最終目的。相反，它是通過表現(xiàn)種種悲慘與不幸，啟發(fā)人們對(duì)造成悲劇的根源進(jìn)行反思，引發(fā)人們對(duì)人生價(jià)值的深刻領(lǐng)悟，激發(fā)人們對(duì)美好生活的向往，鼓勵(lì)人們保持堅(jiān)定積極的生活信念。古典悲劇的大團(tuán)圓結(jié)局宣揚(yáng)著一種倫理道德和世間正義，強(qiáng)調(diào)一種美善相和的審美境界。中國(guó)悲劇的大團(tuán)圓結(jié)局往往能很快使觀眾從沉悶壓抑的消極悲傷情緒中提升出來，立即以樂觀積極的態(tài)度面對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)生活。這正是悲劇藝術(shù)目的成功實(shí)現(xiàn)。

在《竇娥冤》中，代表新生力量的竇娥是孤零零的一方，她善良，孝順，是真善美的和諧統(tǒng)一體；而代表邪惡勢(shì)力的則是一個(gè)大群體，他們是居心不良的賽盧醫(yī)，惡徒流氓張?bào)H兒，昏庸無能的桃杌之流。邪惡勢(shì)力對(duì)于竇娥這一悲劇主角施加苦難和毀滅，由此，悲劇觀眾被邪惡勢(shì)力的所作所為震撼，潛藏于悲劇觀眾內(nèi)心的真善美的情感得到激發(fā)，在悲 劇觀眾的頭腦中就形成了對(duì)邪惡勢(shì)力的比較清晰的認(rèn)識(shí)和評(píng)判，從而使邪惡勢(shì)力得到了否定。悲劇觀眾在欣賞悲劇的時(shí)候能夠獲得認(rèn)識(shí)和情感的再生，竇娥這一悲劇人物的人生價(jià)值得到了增值。

1.6典型化的悲劇形象

竇娥是一個(gè)普普通通的小人物，她的性格是經(jīng)歷了忍、抗?fàn)幒陀X醒三個(gè)階段才塑造完成的。不幸的身世命運(yùn)也曾使竇娥懷疑過；“莫不是八字兒該載著一世憂？莫不是前世里燒香不到頭”。懷疑是不滿的根苗，思考是覺醒的基礎(chǔ)，雖然覺察到了命運(yùn)的不公，但這時(shí)的竇娥仍然忍耐階段，只要讓她活下去，她愿意犧牲自己，守節(jié)盡孝了此一生。

當(dāng)這種恪守封建道德的生活都不讓她過下去，連茍活性命都沒有可能時(shí)，竇娥不甘忍受了，開始抗?fàn)幜恕？嗨梢允埽烁癫荒苁苋瑁灏椎拿暡荒苁芪邸報(bào)H兒藥死父親，要竇娥選擇“官休”“私休”時(shí)，她選擇了“官休”她不再逆來順受，開始為維護(hù)自己的人格抗?fàn)帯＿@時(shí)的竇娥對(duì)官府還有幻想，認(rèn)為官吏們都是“明如鏡，清似水”的清官廉吏，是能夠照出“肝膽虛實(shí)”，替老百姓做主的靠山。然而，她錯(cuò)了。

官府并沒有像竇娥希望的那樣，做是非曲直的裁判人，經(jīng)過公堂無情的棍棒，使她在對(duì)官府抱有希望的迷夢(mèng)中漸漸清醒。爭(zhēng)到頭，竟到底，“要爭(zhēng)”“要竟”顯示了竇娥的抗?fàn)幘瘛?/p>

事實(shí)粉碎了竇娥的一切夢(mèng)想；官府并沒有覆勘，天地也沒有為她伸張正義。一切希望和幻想都破滅之后，竇娥開始對(duì)人生進(jìn)一步思考，性格發(fā)張進(jìn)入覺醒階段。嚴(yán)酷的現(xiàn)實(shí)使竇娥認(rèn)識(shí)到不僅僅是一個(gè)楚州官吏貪贓枉法，造成她的冤獄，而是天下衙門都是一樣的昏暗，使百姓有口難言。由否定楚州太守到否定所有官府，對(duì)原以為“公正無私”的天地鬼神也開始懷疑和否定。

著重描寫竇娥那股驚天地，泣鬼神的如虹怨氣，使這個(gè)默默無聞的童養(yǎng)媳婦，化作一顆光芒四射的彗星，劃破那籠罩蒼穹的黑夜，給人們帶來一線光明，給作品現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的軀干灑上一層瑰麗的浪漫色彩。作者還以高超的藝術(shù)手腕，細(xì)致地刻畫了竇娥內(nèi)心矛盾沖突，和性格的不同側(cè)面，使她成為一個(gè)令人同情和崇敬的、有血有肉的藝術(shù)形象。

二 悲劇形成的原因

2.1自身原因

竇娥是世界文學(xué)畫廊中一個(gè)著名的悲劇典型。造成竇娥悲劇還有內(nèi)存因素，即竇娥自身的性格原因，竇娥的性格具有二重性，她的性格體系中有兩大既對(duì)立又統(tǒng)一的脈絡(luò)：自覺高尚和倫理精神和剛烈不屈的斗爭(zhēng)精神，這兩脈絡(luò)又由很多具體的、活生生的性格元素組成，這些性格元素又分別組成一組一組既對(duì)立又統(tǒng)一的聯(lián)系，如接受封建禮教 影響和掙脫封建禮教的束縛。甘受命運(yùn)的擺布和對(duì)命運(yùn)的抗?fàn)帲豢刻炫c罵天。造成竇娥悲劇很大程度上就是由于她的性格的二重性。

2.2社會(huì)原因

竇娥善良、溫碩、守禮節(jié)、懂孝道、明事理、善克制，就是這樣一個(gè)人人皆憐愛贊揚(yáng)，對(duì)世道毫無觸犯的女性，卻被大千世界所不容，遭受了人世間的諸多不幸，直到最終被殘暴的惡勢(shì)所吞唑。究其原因，當(dāng)然有社會(huì)的原因，封建統(tǒng)治者的草菅人命，地痞無賴的凌逼迫害，甚至高利貸的高利盤剝都是社會(huì)的原因，但這是造成其悲劇的外在因素，造成竇娥悲劇還有內(nèi)在因素，即竇娥自身的原因，這是最基本的因素，一切惡勢(shì)力之所以能夠得逞，正是利用了竇娥這個(gè)“內(nèi)在因素”。柯列根說過：“悲劇并非只是描寫死亡，死亡是生活中的一件事實(shí)，無論我們承認(rèn)與否，死亡是我們的伴侶，悲劇表現(xiàn)由于我們不能始終保持渾然一體，因而我們所希望的一切無可避免地要遭到失敗，根源并非由于外力，而是在于心中，我們?nèi)绻蜷_悲劇藝術(shù)之門，真正的鑰匙就是必須承認(rèn)一切悲劇在于人類的沖突，而是從人性的基本分裂中產(chǎn)生出來的。??悲劇最重要的特征——區(qū)別悲劇與其它戲劇形式尤其是鬧劇的主要特征，就是一切有意義的‘收?qǐng)鍪录⒎怯捎谕庠诹α浚捎谥魅斯膬?nèi)在分裂。”柯列根的觀點(diǎn)雖然有點(diǎn)偏激，他忽略了悲劇產(chǎn)生的社會(huì)原因，歷史必然性，但他看到了悲劇性格對(duì)產(chǎn)生悲劇的作用，造成竇娥悲劇的自身原因?qū)嶋H上就是她的性格的二重性。

結(jié)語

通過對(duì)《竇娥冤》的具體分析，我們可以總結(jié)出：中國(guó)古典悲劇是當(dāng)時(shí)的黑暗社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)的反映，往往以世俗化的弱小人物為主人公，通過迂回曲折的情節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)，描寫人物悲歡離合的遭遇，表現(xiàn)出正義必勝的樂觀主義情懷，充滿平民化的懲惡揚(yáng)善的基調(diào)，具有哀而不傷，盡善盡美的倫理教化作用。

【參考文獻(xiàn)】

[1]馬克思《馬克思恩格斯全集》卷四，人民出版社1958年版。

[2]王國(guó)維《宋元戲曲考 元?jiǎng)≈恼隆贰锻鯂?guó)維戲曲論文集》，中國(guó)戲劇出版社1984年版。[3]魯迅《魯迅全集》卷一，人民文學(xué)出版社1959年版。[4]王季思《中國(guó)十大古典悲劇》人民文學(xué)出版社1985年版。[5]鄭傳寅《傳統(tǒng)文化與古典戲曲》湖南人民出版社2004年版。[6]胡開祥《悲劇心理學(xué)》三環(huán)出版社1989年版。

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第二篇：最新關(guān)漢卿《竇娥冤》的悲劇性

《竇娥冤》是關(guān)漢卿的代表作，也是我國(guó)古代悲劇的代表作。它的故事淵源于《列女傳》中的《東海孝婦》。但關(guān)漢卿并沒有局限在這個(gè)傳統(tǒng)故事里，去歌頌為東海孝婦平反冤獄的于公的陰德；而是緊緊扣住當(dāng)時(shí)的社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)，用這段故事，真實(shí)而深刻的反映了元蒙統(tǒng)治下中國(guó)社會(huì)極端黑暗、極端殘酷、極端混亂的悲劇時(shí)代，表現(xiàn)了中國(guó)人民堅(jiān)強(qiáng)不屈的斗爭(zhēng)精神和爭(zhēng)取獨(dú)立生存的強(qiáng)烈要求。它成功地塑造了“竇娥”這個(gè)悲劇主人公形象，使其成為元代被壓迫、被剝削、被損害的婦女的代表，成為元代社會(huì)底層善良、堅(jiān)

強(qiáng)而走向反抗的婦女的典型。

深刻的反映了元蒙統(tǒng)治下中國(guó)社會(huì)極端黑暗、極端殘酷、極端混亂的悲劇時(shí)代，表現(xiàn)了中國(guó)人民堅(jiān)強(qiáng)不屈的斗爭(zhēng)精神和爭(zhēng)取獨(dú)立生存的強(qiáng)烈要求。它成功地塑造了“竇娥”這個(gè)悲劇主人公形象，使其成為元代被壓迫、被剝削、被損害的婦女的代表，成為元代社會(huì)底層善良、堅(jiān)強(qiáng)而走向反抗的婦女的典型。

驚心動(dòng)魄的人間慘劇 極度惡化的生存空間 維護(hù)自身的人格尊嚴(yán) 滿腔怒火噴薄而出人間正義的最

終勝利

關(guān)漢卿對(duì)社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)有清醒的認(rèn)識(shí)，他的喜劇已包涵著悲劇意蘊(yùn)。至于他的悲劇創(chuàng)作，更是酣暢淋淳

地揭示出元代驚心動(dòng)魄的人間慘象。

在關(guān)漢卿筆下，《竇娥冤》中女主人公的悲劇命運(yùn)，是最具有震撼力和典型意義的。

竇娥是一位善良而多難的女性。她出生在書香之家，父親是“幼習(xí)儒業(yè)，飽有文章”的書生。竇娥家境貧寒，三歲喪母，幼小的年紀(jì)過早地遭受失恃之痛和窮困之苦，從小養(yǎng)成了孝順的品格。父親為了抵債，忍心將她出賣，讓她成了債主蔡婆婆的童養(yǎng)媳，這加重了她幼小心靈的創(chuàng)傷。她在蔡家平淡地度過了一段相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)的時(shí)期。豈料至17歲，即婚后不久，丈夫因病去世，竇娥隨即變?yōu)楣褘D。世事的多變、接踵而來的苦難，不僅使竇娥磨煉出應(yīng)付災(zāi)變的心理承受能力，同時(shí)，也使她對(duì)“恒定不變”的天理產(chǎn)生懷疑。她出場(chǎng)時(shí)，便滿懷憂怨地唱道：“滿腹閑愁，數(shù)年禁受，天知否？天若是知我情由，怕不待和天瘦。”然而，飽受折磨的竇娥萬萬沒有想到，她一生中最大的苦難還在后頭。

在劇中，竇娥的婆婆蔡氏以放債來收取“羊羔兒利”，無力償還其債務(wù)的賽盧醫(yī)起了殺蔡婆婆之心，蔡氏在危難之際意外地被張?bào)H兒父子救出。可是，張氏父子不懷好意，乘機(jī)要將蔡氏婆媳占為己有。竇娥堅(jiān)意不從。張?bào)H兒懷恨在心，趁蔡氏生病，暗中備下毒藥，伺機(jī)害死蔡氏，逼竇娥改嫁；可是，陰差陽錯(cuò)，張的父親誤喝有毒的湯水，倒地身亡；張?bào)H兒見狀，當(dāng)即心生歹念，嫁禍于竇娥，以“官休”相威脅，實(shí)則強(qiáng)行逼竇娥“私休”。竇娥一身清白，不怕與張?bào)H兒對(duì)簿公堂，本以為官府能判個(gè)一清二楚；豈料貪官桃杌是非不分，偏聽偏信，胡亂判案，屈斬竇娥，造成千古奇冤。

在元代，社會(huì)秩序失范，官吏貪墨，階級(jí)沖突和民族矛盾激化，導(dǎo)致冤獄重重，悲憤屢屢發(fā)生。《竇娥冤》戲劇情境的形成，與此有著密切關(guān)系。像張?bào)H兒這類無惡不作、橫行鄉(xiāng)里的社會(huì)渣滓，其無法無天的罪惡圖謀，竟然有官吏為之撐腰，衙門成了罪犯逍遙法外的場(chǎng)所。世事的荒謬乖錯(cuò)，可見一斑。在這里，《竇娥冤》情節(jié)發(fā)展的偶然性，反映出社會(huì)生活的必然性，具有深刻的典型意義。

竇娥是一位具有悲劇性格的人物。她的性格是孝順與抗?fàn)幍膶?duì)立統(tǒng)一。她的悲劇，是張?bào)H兒的橫蠻行徑與官府的顛倒黑白所造成的；她的悲劇性格，則是在與張?bào)H兒等惡勢(shì)力的斗爭(zhēng)中呈現(xiàn)出來的。

經(jīng)歷過許多災(zāi)難的竇娥，本來很珍惜與蔡婆婆相依為命、相對(duì)平穩(wěn)的家庭生活。她對(duì)早年守寡、晚年喪子的婆婆孝順有加，也深信一女不嫁二夫的教條。如果生活沒有波瀾，她會(huì)恪守孝道與婦道，做一個(gè)賢惠的媳婦的。但蔡氏被張?bào)H兒父子救出后，竟半推半就地應(yīng)承了張氏父子橫蠻無理的“入贅”要求。于是，擺在竇娥面前的是一種痛苦的選擇：要么惟婆婆的意志是從，改嫁張?bào)H兒；要么不依從婆婆，更不屈服于張?bào)H兒的淫威。竇娥選擇了后者。這一來，她首先和自己的婆婆發(fā)生沖突。她譴責(zé)婆婆“怕沒的貞心兒自守”，“你豈不知羞”，當(dāng)面頂撞，據(jù)理力爭(zhēng)。而面對(duì)張?bào)H兒的強(qiáng)暴行為，竇娥沒有驚慌失措，她鎮(zhèn)靜、堅(jiān)定，絕

不示弱，以蔑視鄙棄的態(tài)度與張?bào)H兒針鋒相對(duì)。在這里，她的抗?fàn)帲粌H僅是恪守婦道，更是一種維護(hù)自身人格尊嚴(yán)的行動(dòng)。尤其是當(dāng)張?bào)H兒借張老頭暴死事件作為霸占竇娥的籌碼時(shí)，她相信官府不會(huì)容許這滅絕人性的衣冠禽獸的胡作非為，所以，她要與張?bào)H兒“官了”，以為官吏會(huì)主持公道，會(huì)維護(hù)她的清白與名聲。然而，竇娥沒有想到，她所處的生存空間已經(jīng)惡化到無以復(fù)加的程度。她所寄與希望的官府，竟是一團(tuán)漆黑。楚州太守桃杌殘民以逞，濫用酷刑，將無辜的竇娥打得“一杖下，一道血，一層皮”！為了使蔡婆婆免受毒打，竇娥忍受著劇痛、屈辱和不公，不得不含冤招認(rèn)，無辜受罪。這就是竇娥的悲劇性格。她的遭遇，典型地顯示出善良的百姓被推向深淵的過程。

竇娥本來不想和現(xiàn)實(shí)生活作對(duì)，可是黑暗的現(xiàn)實(shí)卻逼得她爆發(fā)出反抗的火花。人間的不公，更使她懷疑天理的存在。她被劊子手捆綁得不能動(dòng)彈，滿腔的怒火和怨氣，噴薄而出，她罵天罵地：“地也，你不分好歹何為地？天也，你錯(cuò)勘賢愚枉做天！”并且發(fā)出三樁奇異的誓愿：血飛白練、六月降雪、亢旱三年；她聲明：“不是我竇娥罰下這等無頭愿，委實(shí)的冤情不淺；若沒些兒靈圣與世人傳，也不見得湛湛青天。”(第三折〔耍孩兒〕)她要蒼天證實(shí)她的清白無辜，她要借異常的事象向人間發(fā)出強(qiáng)有力的警示。關(guān)漢卿寫竇娥發(fā)誓后，浮云蔽日，陰風(fēng)怒號(hào)，白雪紛飛，這一片濃重的悲劇氣氛，把竇娥含冤負(fù)屈悲憤莫名的情緒推到極限。很明顯，通過這驚天動(dòng)地的描寫，關(guān)漢卿希望喚醒世人的良知，激發(fā)世人對(duì)不平世道的憤慨，催促世人為爭(zhēng)取公平合理的社會(huì)而抗?fàn)帯Ｒ虼耍陡]娥冤》所表現(xiàn)的反抗性，是時(shí)代的最強(qiáng)音。

劇本的第四折寫竇娥的三樁誓愿相斷應(yīng)驗(yàn)。耐人尋味的是，竇娥的冤案，最終卻是由她的已任“兩淮提刑肅政廉訪使”的父親出來平反。竇天章當(dāng)然不屬貪官墨吏，可是，竇娥的冤魂一而再、再而三地在他書案前“弄燈”、“翻文卷”，好不容易才引起了他的注意。這一細(xì)節(jié)表明，即便是奉命“隨處審囚刷卷，體察濫官污吏”的竇天章，要不是竇娥鬼魂的再三警示，他也會(huì)糊里糊涂地將一份冤獄案卷，“壓在底下”，不予追究。最后，冤獄總算平反了，但起關(guān)鍵作用的是審判者與被審判者的特殊關(guān)系。換言之，竇娥得還清白，靠的是父親手中的權(quán)力。這樣的處理，固然反映出關(guān)漢卿崇尚權(quán)力的思想局限；但也體現(xiàn)出他讓受害者親屬懲治惡人報(bào)仇雪恨的強(qiáng)烈愿望，同時(shí)，在一定程度上寄寓著對(duì)元代吏治沉重的疑慮。因此，《竇娥冤》的結(jié)局，是有著比較復(fù)雜而深刻的涵義的。

《竇娥冤》的故事框架，與漢代以來一直流傳民間的“東海孝婦”故事頗為相似，但劇本反映的時(shí)代生活與人物遭遇，卻以元代冤獄繁多的社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)為依據(jù)。至于關(guān)漢卿的其他悲劇作品，也和《竇娥冤》一樣，取材于前代的故事傳說，而在飄蕩著的歷史煙塵中，融匯了劇作家對(duì)當(dāng)代現(xiàn)實(shí)與人生的痛切感受，均具批

判社會(huì)的價(jià)值和震撼人心的力度。

關(guān)漢卿根據(jù)民間傳說創(chuàng)作的《哭存孝》，寫的是陰險(xiǎn)小人輕而易舉地害死一位蓋世英雄的悲劇。五代的李存孝品性純良，戰(zhàn)功顯赫；而李存信與康君立卻嫉賢妒能，惡意陷害，欲置李存孝于死地。主帥李克用偏信讒言，不辯好歹，助長(zhǎng)了李存信等人的囂張氣焰。身經(jīng)百戰(zhàn)、磊落光明的李存孝，無法逃脫小人設(shè)下的重重圈套和陷阱，慘死于自己人的手下。在作品中，關(guān)漢卿入木三分地刻劃了李存信等人陰狠毒辣的性格，說明在混濁的政治環(huán)境中，欺壓良善、濫殺無辜的兇邪力量往往得逞。作者以此警醒世人，對(duì)小人的所作所為不可掉以輕心。此外，《蝴蝶夢(mèng)》、《魯齋郎》、《五侯宴》等劇，也從不同的側(cè)面，寫出權(quán)豪勢(shì)要與鄉(xiāng)間劣紳有恃無恐、傷天害理的罪行，反映出普通民眾性命難保的處境。

在揭露人間罪惡的同時(shí)，高揚(yáng)正義的旗幟是關(guān)漢卿悲劇作品共同的主旨。在他的筆下，悲劇主人公大多具有頑強(qiáng)、堅(jiān)定的意志，敢于與邪惡勢(shì)力作不妥協(xié)的較量，在較量中充分顯示出善良的人們捍衛(wèi)世間正義的壯烈情懷與崇高精神。顯而易見，在關(guān)漢卿的悲劇創(chuàng)作中，總是貫串著這樣的脈絡(luò)：情緒從悲憤走向悲壯，劇情亦從惡勢(shì)力的暫時(shí)得逞，轉(zhuǎn)為人間正義的最終勝利。由于關(guān)漢卿向往法正民安的社會(huì)環(huán)境，因此，其悲劇作品的末尾，往往出現(xiàn)執(zhí)法嚴(yán)明的“清官”。這固然是善惡各得其報(bào)觀念的體現(xiàn)。但最令人難忘的，依然是他戰(zhàn)勝邪惡勢(shì)力的信念，是悲劇主人公敢于抗?fàn)幍膭偭移沸浴？梢哉f，關(guān)漢卿是元代最善于

以抗?fàn)幖で楦腥敬蟊姷膽騽〖摇?/p>

第三篇：駱駝祥子的悲劇性原因1

《中國(guó)現(xiàn)當(dāng)代作家作品專題研究》作業(yè)

一、駱駝祥子的悲劇性原因

（一）當(dāng)時(shí)的社會(huì)制度和反動(dòng)勢(shì)力的殘酷迫害是把祥子由人逼成了“鬼”的客觀原因。

祥子生活在一個(gè)骯臟、不講人道主義的半封建半殖民地的舊社會(huì)，對(duì)于地位低下的窮苦人民來說，是一個(gè)人間地獄。在這樣的社會(huì)里發(fā)生的絕大部分事情都是不公平的。作為人力車夫的祥子，命運(yùn)注定是悲慘的。

軍閥的連年混戰(zhàn)，兵匪的生靈涂炭，特務(wù)的橫行霸道和敲骨吸髓，給廣大勞動(dòng)人民造成了深重的苦難，祥子當(dāng)然不可能幸免。作品交代了那是軍閥混戰(zhàn)的年代。打仗不斷地騷擾著人們的生活。威脅著人們的安全。作品還提到逃兵如果“教村中的人們捉住，至少是活埋”，從人民對(duì)逃兵的深惡痛絕這一點(diǎn)，就透露出這些逃兵曾經(jīng)如何殘酷地蹂躪過人民。準(zhǔn)備買第二輛車的積蓄又被反動(dòng)爪牙孫偵探敲詐去。在這個(gè)社會(huì)里生活，像他那樣既無權(quán)勢(shì)又無財(cái)勢(shì)，而且不能審時(shí)度勢(shì)，如莽牛亂撞的人，雖不傷害別人也注定要遭殃的，決定了任何打擊都可能而且可以任意地落到他的頭上。

這兩次打擊描寫得都簡(jiǎn)短，事情也發(fā)生得突然，帶有很大的偶然性。但和一切現(xiàn)實(shí)主義作品一樣，通過這些情節(jié)表現(xiàn)出來的，卻足事態(tài)發(fā)展的必然趨勢(shì)。越是出乎常情，越能反映出祥子在那個(gè)社會(huì)所處的地位。

大兵和特務(wù)，不過是舊中國(guó)龐大的國(guó)家機(jī)器中小小的零件。前者的掠奪是在潰散逃命之際，后者的訛詐也只是作為一次意外的收獲。但他們的順手一擊，給祥子帶來的卻是影響終生的禍害。在那個(gè)強(qiáng)取豪奪的社會(huì)里，他們隨時(shí)都可以置祥子于死地。當(dāng)時(shí)的勞動(dòng)人民的命就是那么低微，那么的不值得一提。這正是那個(gè)社會(huì)的悲哀，也正是祥子人生悲劇發(fā)生的根源。

（二）祥子所走的個(gè)人奮斗的道路，是他落入悲劇的主觀原因。性格決定命運(yùn)。祥子由于來自農(nóng)村。他的性格受農(nóng)村生活的影響，形成了狹隘保守、謹(jǐn)小慎微、自私等性格特點(diǎn)。這些特點(diǎn)以致使祥子具有孤獨(dú)感和軟弱感。祥子把殘酷的階級(jí)對(duì)立，看作是虛無飄緲的“鬼影”。追求個(gè)人發(fā)財(cái)成功的強(qiáng)烈愿望，使他愈來愈認(rèn)不清社會(huì)對(duì)自己的榨取。

一個(gè)人的性格是固有的，但也會(huì)因?yàn)橥獠渴澜绲难斩淖儭．?dāng)買車、拉上自己的車已成舊夢(mèng)時(shí)，他埋怨的只是自己，歸罪自己有過善良的愿望：“當(dāng)初咱倒是強(qiáng)過呢。有一丁點(diǎn)好處沒有？”他似乎問住了自己，仿佛他處于水深火熱中的掙扎失敗，是天生注定了的。

（三）和虎妞的不正常的結(jié)合，是導(dǎo)致祥子悲劇結(jié)局的另一個(gè)重要原因。

他們的結(jié)合對(duì)祥子說來，這是一場(chǎng)更加難以忍受的災(zāi)難。駱駝祥子在虎妞眼里，不只是肉欲的對(duì)象還是一個(gè)俯首聽命的奴仆。虎妞把祥子“由鄉(xiāng)間帶來的那點(diǎn)清涼勁毀滅”。

婚后，虎妞與祥子，由于對(duì)生活的態(tài)度和理解不同，一直存在的尖銳的沖突。首先，拉不拉車是他們沖突的起因。其次，經(jīng)濟(jì)上的不平等，造成兩人畸形的夫妻關(guān)系。

第四篇：《子夜》中吳蓀甫的悲劇性的原因

主觀原因：性格方面，可以從弱點(diǎn)說起

按1、2、3、4說

思想方面，可以從特征說起

按1、2、3、4說 客觀原因：社會(huì)背景

再?gòu)母鱾€(gè)方面說

歷史條件

再?gòu)母鱾€(gè)方面說

第五篇：淺析哈代《德伯家的苔絲》的悲劇性及其原因 英文

On the Tragedy of Tess and Its Causes 淺析哈代《德伯家的苔絲》的悲劇性及其原因

Abstract

This paper states the writing background and main contents of the novel Tess of the D’urerviles, introduces the author----Thomas Hardy, the most outstanding realistic writer of the 19th century, describes the struggling spirits of the beautiful and innocent girl Tess when she was facing sufferings;and at the same time, reveals Tess’s failure in marriage, and the miserable destiny of being hanged.This paper also analyses the family background and social phenomena, and her personality, summaries all kinds of reasons leading to Tess’s miserable fate, and deeply exposes the darkness of the capitalist society and the more miserable destiny of the women.Key words: Tess, Tess’s tragedy, Social causes, Character, Inevitability

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摘 要

本文簡(jiǎn)要陳述了小說《德伯家的苔絲》的寫作背景及主要情節(jié)，介紹了該小說的作----19世紀(jì)杰出的現(xiàn)實(shí)主義作家托馬斯·哈代，描寫了美麗純真的主人公苔絲姑娘面對(duì)苦難生活而表現(xiàn)出的那種不屈不撓的抗?fàn)幘瘢瑫r(shí)也揭示了苔絲失敗的婚姻，以及苔絲最后被處以絞刑的悲慘命運(yùn)。本文還分析了苔絲的家庭情況，當(dāng)時(shí)的社會(huì)背景，以及她的個(gè)人性格特點(diǎn)，總結(jié)了導(dǎo)致苔絲悲慘命運(yùn)的種種原因，深刻地揭露了資本主義社會(huì)的黑暗及婦女更加苦難的命運(yùn)。

關(guān)鍵詞: 苔絲, 悲劇, 人物性格, 必然性錯(cuò)誤！未找到引用源。

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Table of Contents ChapterⅠ.Introduction..............................................................................................1 ChapterⅡ.The background of the novel: Tess of the D’Urbervilles......................2 2.1.About the author: Thomas Hardy........................................................................2 2.2.The main content of the novel.............................................................................3 ChapterⅢ.Inevitable causes of Tess’s tragedy.........................................................5 3.1.Objective factors..................................................................................................5 3.1.1.Social phenomenon and Social background.................................................5 3.1.2.“Impetus” from her family...........................................................................6 3.1.3.Hypocrisy of bourgeois morality and religion..............................................8 3.1.4.Unequal legal system....................................................................................9 3.2.Subjective factors..............................................................................................10 3.2.1.Tess’s figure and character..........................................................................10 3.2.1.1.Purity, diligence, self-esteem.............................................................10 3.2.1.2.Obedience, kindness, bravery............................................................11 3.2.2.Weakness of Tess’s personality and fate.....................................................11 3.2.2.1.Compromise, ignorance.....................................................................11 3.2.2.2.Traditional mind and weak personality..............................................12 3.2.2.3.Pessimistic fate theory.......................................................................12 Chapter Ⅳ.The influence of Tess.............................................................................14 ChapterⅤ.Conclusion..............................................................................................16 Bibliography...............................................................................................................17 Acknowledgements....................................................................................................18 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)小結(jié).............................................................................錯(cuò)誤！未定義書簽。

ChapterⅠ.Introduction

Tess of D’Ubevilles, published in 1891, is one of Hardy’s last and most important novels, undoubtedly, one of his most significant masterpieces.The story tells us the tragic life of an intelligent and sensitive country girl, she turns from a simple and native girl to a woman who commits a supposedly criminal or immoral action, and she endures a great deal of tragedy during her brief life.Hardy demonstrates his deep sense of moral sympathy for England’s lower class during his era, particularly for rural woman.Tess, the heroine of this novel, was full of ups and downs in her whole life, and her tragic fate has always been a hot topic in the literary research.However, when considered it deeply, Tess’s pathetic life is not merely a story or an accidental event.What are the reasons for this unfortunate, poor peasant girl to have such sufferings? what lead to her tragedy? What killed her? So the aim of this paper is to look back the novel together, step by step, and make a detailed analysis on the novel to demonstrate the various causes of the heroine’s tragedy from the following prospective of social background, a main and objective factor.Family background, a promoting factor, and unequal legal and religion system as well as Tess’s imperfect personalities are being discussed to show the era of Hardy and Tess and Tess’s unavoidable tragedy.ChapterⅡ.The background of the novel: Tess of the

D’Urbervilles

2.1.About the author: Thomas Hardy

Thomas Hardy was born in 1840 in a small town near the Dorchester where later became the famous “Wessex” in many of his novels.When he was young, he showed a strong interest in religion and music.At the age of 16, he left school and was apprenticed to a local architecture.He left the rural South West at the age of 22 and traveled to London where he worked as an architect for Arthur Bloomfield.During his years in London, he continued his studies in his leisure time.He read works of Charles Darwin, Herbert Spenser, and John Stuart Mill.Their philosophy had a quite strong influence on him.At the same time, he began to write poetry.But the poetries were all refused by the magazines, thus he embarked to write fiction.The first novel of Hardy was Desperate Remedies.Later he became one of the most important realism writers in the 19th century in England.The age Hardy wrote was called Victoria Period.There were many famous works of Hardy’s whole life, including Under the Greetwood, A Pair of Blue Eyes, Far fromthe Madding Growd, The Return of the Native, Major of the Casterbridge, Tess of the D’Urbervilles, Jude the obscure.By the vivid description of the health, the fields, the seasons, the weather, Wessxs attained a physical presence in the novels and acted as a mirror of the psychological conditions of the characters.Hardy's poetry, first published in his 50s, has come to be as well-regarded as his novels and has had a gigantic influence over modern English poetry, especially after the movement poets of the 1950s and 1960s cited Hardy as a major figure.Thomas Hardy devoted most of his life to literary career and created a large amount of significant literary works which bring the society spiritual values and profound influence.2.2.The main content of the novel

Tess of the D’Urbervilles was published at the beginning of the last decade of the 19th century which was a time of considerable intellectual and social ferment.According to the novel, Tess is a beautiful, innocent, strong and diligent girl, but she is born in a poor and peasant family.One day, Tess’s father of the Durbeyfield household is wandering home when he is told that he is of the ancient line of the D’Urbervilles, a once powerful family.Knowing this, he returns home happily and relays the news to his family.Although being from a once great family, his current family is in need and decides to seek help from relatives by the name of D’Urberville.So, Tess is arranged and persuaded by her mother to claim kindred with this more prosperous branch of the D’Urbervillies family.Tess reluctantly agrees and begins working for them.However, she finds out that they are not truly of the D’Urberville line but simply changed their names to D’Urberville.Also, she finds out that the son of the house, Alec, is not of good character.There she is seduced and raped by Alec and gets pregnant;Then, Tess has to return home in disgrace.After she goes home, she gives birth to a baby, while unfortunately;the baby dies in a couple of days.Tess is hurt deeply again, she decides to look for a new life elsewhere where no one knows of her and the incident.Afterwards, she ends up at a farmland working as a milk maid.There, she meets three girls and a man, Angel Clare, the intellectual and free-thinking son of a clergyman.And soon, they two fall in love with each other and want to get married.There, Tess does live a most joyful life in her whole life.All the hurts in her heart are diluted and forgotten immediately.She starts to begin her new life full of love, passion, and hope.But, the virtual and kind Tess would not like to continue her life with the shadow by Alec and the guilty in her heart.Thus she decides to tell Clare all the truth about her history.She writes a letter to Clare, however, Clare doesn’t see it.With a restless heart, she comes to the church to marry Clare.On their wedding night, Tess and Angle tell each other about their past, Tess forgives him about Angle’s embarrassed past because she loves and cherishes him so much.But after hearing

Tess’s confession, Clare cannot accept the truth.He becomes so angry that he leaves her abruptly for Brazil.Poverty forces Tess to work at a farm Flincomb Ash.At the same time, Alec appears again, and tempts Tess by many methods, although Tess doesn’t change her mind.But her dad’s death makes the family lose their home.Then Tess is in contradiction and confusion in the periods.She writes several letters to Clare to ask for help, but gets nothing reply, meanwhile, Alec keeps in persuading her and cheating her, hopeless and helpless Tess, only can choose to be with Alec again, though her heart still goes with her lover Clare, who, on the other hand, is ill in Brazil.He knows none of the troubles of Tess.Eventually, noticed by a friend in Brazil, Clare realizes his fault and decides to come back to forgive Tess and begins their new life in Brazil together.When he finally finds his dear wife and tells he is still loves her so much.Tess is so excited and broken-hearted but only to tell him it’s too late.Angle gets to know everything and leaves the boarding house lonely.At the time of his getting into the train, somebody runs to him, it’s his wife, Tess.They get in to the train together;Tess tells Clare that she killed Alec, Clare makes up his mind to share anything with his wife.After several days of escaping for no destination, they are found by the police.Tess is arrested for murder and sentenced to death.Finally, Angel Clare marries Tess’ younger sister as Tess’ last wish.Soon after Tess of the D’Urbervilles was published some critics had already recognized that Mr.Hardy’s latest novel is his greatest.ChapterⅢ.Inevitable causes of Tess’s tragedy

3.1.Objective factors

Compared with the other heroines in the Hardy novel, Tess is more beautiful, passionate and dynamic.But so kind-hearted a girl has suffered a lot in his short life unfortunately and eventually forced to destruction.Thomas Hardy emphasizes the unavoidability of death.Actually, even though Hardy try to explain the misfortune of his characters from the viewpoint of the unseen but potential fate, his characterization and truthful representation of the lives of his characters reveal that their unfortunate fate is evidently determined by the objective factors.Tess’s life is closely connected with the world and background she lives in.Tess’s miserable life, Hardy shows in many different ways how her life was determined only partly by her own efforts, and how much it depends upon the pressure of things over which she had no control.To a large extent, the bourgeois society should assume much more responsibility for Tess’s pathetic death.Following, the paper is going to analyze the external factors from 4 angles which are classified to the Objective Causes that lead to Tess’s tragedy.3.1.1.Social phenomenon and Social background

As a heroine in the novel, Tess’s tragedy，to some degree, is arranged and determined by the Author’s tragic consciousness.Tess lived in the time of Victorian, when the rural areas were invaded by the British capitalist industrial civilization.At that time, as something new, capitalistic economy developed rapidly, meanwhile, the Enclosure Movement prevailed, which also reflected and coincided with Hardy's awareness of social tragedy.Tess of the D’Urbervilles is one of Hardy’s Wessex novels, which gives the background of his home town Wessex.In the mid 19th century, the English capitalist industrial civilization penetrated the countryside;Hardy’s home also suffered the impact strongly.The rapid disintegration of patriarchal society and unemployment of

individual farmers lead to the poverty and plight.Confronting with the consequences brought by industrial civilization, Thomas Hardy, as a humanist, his heart was hit strongly.He was attached to the ancient patriarchal civilization deeply in emotion and hated the industrial civilization which was a radical destruction to people’s harmonious life.So the awareness of social tragedy in Hardy’s novel existed for the social background at that time.It starts from the clash between individual civilization and patriarchal civilization, and from the panorama to the local, from the surface to the point, it gives an objective description and comprehensively expresses people’s living troubles.In the book, Hardy creates a panoramic picture of the impact from industrial civilization on the rural, deeply shows the throes in their physical plight.The social tragedy, however, mostly is caused by the conflicts between human and the environment they live in.Tess lives in the Victorian age which British capitalism assaults the countryside even poisons the social atmosphere.Under this circumstance, people’s social status is classified by their economic status.People who rank top class always are those rich in material.Just like the slave owners in slave society, the landlord in feudal society and the capitalist in capital society.Hardy witnessed the emerging of the local bourgeoisie and ruination that farmers suffered;sensitive he intuitively realized that this is the kind of conflict between human and social environment, which is totally objective as well as irreversible.Tess is smart, beautiful and diligent, but she was born in a family as poor as washed, as a labor and a farm worker with no right and money, which compels her to fall into Alec’s trap gradually.This kind of economic status only can belong to the bottom society of that time and dooms to suffer from sorts of social oppression and abuse.From this angle, Tess’s tragedy comes from society;also as a micro social side consciousness exists in the Hardy’s exploration of life and fate.3.1.2.“Impetus” from her family

Family, as a small unit, has a substantial influence to each family member.People’s character and attitude link with their living background, and a great extent

inherited from their parents.Tess’s family belongs to a particular rural community—the small traders, and lives together with traditional agricultural laborers, but Tess’s family’s status is slightly higher than the traditional one’s.They are more knowledgeable, and not only the backbone force of the ancient village life, but also a storeroom for rural customs and tradition.They are better educated, have received many advanced ideas and live a purposeful life with a quite stable career.Relatively speaking, they are supposed to be more independent.However, they are not engaged in agricultural work even though they live in rural areas.So, there’s no wonder that they don’t be liked by others.Tess’s family is big with lots of children;generally speaking, the parents should be diligent and work very hard to take up the important task of raising children and sustaining a family.But the fact is totally on the contrary, what is the attitude of this poor couple? They refuse through efforts and to use their own hands to improve their social status a little bit, but merely rely on the tiny and trivial achievements.When noticed that their family possibly be one branch of a noble descent, meantime, there is a wealthy relative lived not afar, the immediate idea came out of their mind is to persuade Tess to claim kindred and daydreaming she could be able to marry a gentleman in order to gain many benefits without any efforts.They immediately undertake the idea into reality.Upon such a heavy burden, Tess, with a special responsibility, an innocent country girl has been sent to the road of destruction without any other choices.Thus, confront of Alec’s material temptation and an opportunity to get a perfect job, together with the special task from her family as well as nature greed, even if she has already aware of Alec is a dangerous role on their way to Alec’s home, she still cannot get rid of him.Eventually, Tess has been raped by Alec, lost her chastity and falls into Alec’s trap step by step.Nevertheless, when Tess’s parents find that Tess cannot satisfies with what they want, they keep blaming Tess instead of comforting and helping the injured daughter.Later, when Tess is abandoned by Angel and hurts deeply again, both of her father and mother seem indifferent to explore the truth, what’s more, out of vanity and

narrow mind, they boast to the villagers about their daughter has obtained a satisfactory marriage.This is undoubtedly a heavy pressure on Tess, to protect her poor self-esteem, Tess have to spare half of her little money to satisfy the greedy parents, and pretend to be very happy and rich.However, Tess’s method only promotes her parents’ laziness, vanity and greed.They think they have a noble birth and now the daughter marries a rich man, so it is almost unnecessary to work any more.But Tess, she couldn’t be much poorer and become penniless soon.Meanwhile unfortunately, her father’s sudden death, withdrawal of rental lease and family house, which almost destroys this family, make Tess feel hopeless and into desperation.In order to maintain family, helpless Tess has to abandon her dignity, but commit herself to Alec once again.As mentioned above, it is the poor family impact that forces Tess head to the destruction.Under the circumstance of that time, because of the limitation and narrow mind of peasantry, Tess’s tragedy is unavoidable.3.1.3.Hypocrisy of bourgeois morality and religion

Hypocrisy of feudal ethical morality is another important factor that leads to Tess’s tragedy.In Victorian era, women are still men’s appendages.Their natural attributes are the objectives of slavery.Treated as an incomplete beings, women are under the oppression of that society, where dominated by men’s core power.It’s impossible for a man and a woman that could be equal in marriage and love.Triangle love relations, divorce and outside marriage relationship and so forth, are also considered as unethical behavior.Tess, exactly, is the victim of this unfair ethics and morals.Her whole life is under the force and violence, nevertheless, the society and the law regards those insults and persecution as justified.Tess couldn’t self-defense.In this traditional patriarchal society, women will be considered as not pure if they lost virtue and will suffer from endless abuse despite they are willing or not.Men can do everything they want, women, however, because of restriction from traditional morality, they had no right, no freedom.Alec is a representative who put his particular male right into practice perfectly, constantly torture, makes Tess under a huge

pressure both physical and emotional.As to Angel Clare, the love between him and Tess is pregnant with tragedy from the beginning.Apparently, he loves Tess, but he couldn’t as selfless and frank as Tess.To some degree, most of his love is a sense of satisfaction came from completely possess.In his eyes, Tess is “the daughter of nature”, the symbol of purity and the perfect masterpiece, no one can compare with her.Even so, when his sweet lover Tess confesses her embarrassed and terrible past to him, her perfect image collapsed momentarily.Clare can’t accept the fact;he abandons Tess and goes away resolutely.What Clare has done is a deadly hit to Tess again.Thus, externally, Clare is open and broad minded, but actually, the traditional moral concept firmly rooted in his heart.His prejudice of chastity and indifferent attitude to Tess reflect the hypocrisy of bourgeois morality, which traps Tess into an abyss of tragedy.Religion, serviced as a spiritual tool used by governing class also has to be responsible for Tess’s tragedy.There is an extreme irony plot said that, Alec, who directly lead to Tess’s tragic fate, he is rude, misbehaving and “sensual”.He depends on the business and soon become a rich bourgeois.He sets a trap to lure Tess, but use the allusion from bible to shirk the responsibility to Tess.Later, he even becomes a cleric to deliver Christian sermon.Obviously, in capitalist society, religion is only a tool for ruling class to cheat and fool the people.Through the Author’s depiction about Alec, Hardy spares no efforts to expose the darkness and hypocrisy of British society and religion.Live in this environment, no matter how hard Tess’s struggling and resisting, she can not survive and escape from the tragedy.3.1.4.Unequal legal system

Tess’s tragedy is the product of contradiction between human beings and that society.Also, unjust legal system is one of the important reasons leading to Tess’s tragic fate.During the Victorian era of late 19th century and early 20th century when Capitalism invade the rural region, the society in which Tess’s living, similar as religion, the bourgeoisie and the legacy of feudal nobility are the ruling class.All of

the national systems are worked for the government class.Of course, the legal system has no exception.Farmers are at the bottom of the society who never hold equal right as the capitalist class.Alec, however, is the typical representative of capitalist power and violence.He dares to do what he want, on one hand, is because he has lots of money and ranks as a top class of that society, on the other hand, is also because his evil behavior is always protected by the capitalist law and rules.As a young upstart, in the eyes of Victorian people, Alec is noble, nevertheless, Tess is considered as a bad girl who lures Alec in order to get his money.Tess has to endure all the injustice alone and silently all the way.And, she is hanged for paying, when she encouraged defending herself for the first time.Just as what Hardy says at the end of this novel: “Justice was done, and the President of the immortals, in Aeschylean phrase, had ended his sport with Tess”.(Tess, 467)Thus, obviously, hypocritical law should assume responsibility for Tess’s tragedy.3.2.Subjective factors

The basic principle of dialectic said that, the cause of all things, the inner reason is always the dominant factor.In this book, Tess of the D’Urbervilles, undoubtedly, the author has deep mercy on Tess, whom, to a large extent, is a innocent victim of social environment.Well, however, when throughout the whole text, it is not hard to find that, in addition to condemning the social background, Hardy holds a criticism attitude toward the heroine’s tragedy between the lines.He believes Tess’s weak character is a deadly factor that should be responsible for her inevitable tragic fate.Here, this paper is going to analyze the heroine’s figure and character weakness to clarify the internal cause that lead to Tess’s tragedy.3.2.1.Tess’s figure and character 3.2.1.1.Purity, diligence, self-esteem Tess is a significant figure in Hardy’s masterpiece, under Hardy’s writing, Tess is a pure country woman although she has been seduced and lost virginity.From the beginning, the author gives a special depiction to Tess, and prominent her pure, beauty, outstanding.She dares to sacrifice herself, set at defiance for good wishes.She is kind，love and believe others, gentle as well as strong enough.She is loyal and honesty as all the other people in Wesex.That is why she has courage to confess to her husband about her embarrassing past.As the oldest daughter in her family, Tess keeps a diligent habit all the time.When she first goes to claim kindred with another branch of D’Urbervilles, she doesn’t mean to please the host by her beauty, but would like to work for pay.After she is cheated and seduced by Alec, she doesn’t marry him or live with him, but leaves the manor without hesitation.From the above, we can feel that Tess is self-respect that when even she gives birth to her baby, she never asks for Alec’s help either asks for help from Angle’s parents when she is abandoned by Clare.3.2.1.2.Obedience, kindness, bravery On the other hand, Tess is obedient, she always obey what her parents say.What’s more, Tess’s sense of responsibility plays a central role in tragedy.When the horse Prince dead, she becomes self-blaming and think that is her fault, what exists in her mind all the time is that as the oldest child, she has the responsibility to her family.In order to save her mother, brothers and sisters out of the difficult life and heavy burden after her father’s death, Tess compromised and turns to Alec for help again and again and neglects her own feelings.Tess’ kindness provides Alec with a perfect opportunity to cheat her.Even suffers a lot, Tess always keep an optimistic mind and a hot heart full of hope to future.She is brave enough and finally not flinch when encounter with love.She loves Clare so much, that when Clare’s back from Brazil, she breaks out courage and determines to get rid of Alec forever.Thus, she is forced to choose a wrong way to kill Alec and eventually fails to escape from the legal sanctions.3.2.2.Weakness of Tess’s personality and fate 3.2.2.1.Compromise, ignorance The biggest feature of Tess’s character is pure and innocent, however, in the society at that time, her selflessness and self-sacrifice offers an opportunity to the evil force to ruin her.Her own pursuit of purity and candor makes her miss the chance with happiness.After the death of horse Prince, to look after her family, she comes to a chicken farm which gives Alec chances to lure her.In case of been ridiculed, she

even jumps onto Alec’s horse, we can easily find, her pure mind and lack of the sense of self-protection traps her into dangerous.When it is already dark and only Alec and herself in the forest, she shouldn’t have realized that Alec is attempting to infringe on her.During the wedding night, her pure nature makes her to confess her past to Clare regardless of her mother’s objection.She innocently thinks, Clare is kindhearted, selfless and generous as her.But the fact is she is abandoned by her husband.Finally, she picks up weapon to resist and kills Alec and also destroy herself.3.2.2.2.Traditional mind and weak personality

Arthur Schopenhauer, a very famous philosopher said, personality plays an important role in our lives and works every moment.It can affect our mind to make different choices when face to different problems and determine our fate to a large extent.So Tess is a good example.Even though, lots of external causes lead to her tragic fate, but her weakness in character is the radical and decisive inner reason contributed to her tragedy.Tess is born in a farmer family, when resisting the old tradition and morality;she presents her weakness because of the remnants of traditional morality and fatalistic view.She is obedient, and never disobey her parents words regardless what they said is correct or not.According to her father and mother’s order, she goes to claim kindred with Alec, when she knows that Alec is not a good person, she cannot rebel and protect herself.While, after losing her virginity, she feels guilty, unconfident, complex, flinched and concessive.It is this mentality that makes her refuse Clare’s proposal repeatedly.Her heart is struggling in a great contradiction.When confesses her past to Clare, her husband’s unforgiveness and abandon deepen her inferiority.To get his heart back and live with Clare forever, she explains and begs his forgiveness continuously, willing to be his slave and even sacrifice for him.Tess used to be a brave and strong country girl, but after raped by Alec, the painful memory tortures her so much.Clare’s love is a heavy burden to her and increases her fear, anxiety, shame and regret.It seems that she is born with guilty and pain.All of these characters illustrate the weakness of Tess.3.2.2.3.Pessimistic fate theory

Thomas Hardy, however, to some degree is a pessimistic person, He believes in fatalism.There is a definition of fatalism in Cliff's Notes, it says fatalism being view of life which says that all action is controlled by the nature of things or by fate which is a great, impersonal, primitive force existing through all eternity, absolutely independent of human wills and superior to any god created by man.As the author, heroine's tragic fate is arranged by Hardy, so Tess's character, to some extent is influenced and similar with Hardy.There is also a weakness of fatalism in Tess's character.Many coincidences are linked with her fate.Through the novel, we can get many clues that present her mind of fatalism.When first time Tess go to claim kindred with Alec, she is injured by rose, which she thinks is an unlucky sign and shadowed her life.Tess believes a folk idiom said “The wedding dress will never fit a bride who lost her chastity”, when she is trying her new wedding dress.She worries about that and become heavy in mind.Besides, she feels anxious and fear if it is not a good sign when seeing the picture of ancestor in her wedding room.This kind of fatalism always exists in Tess mind and tortures her all the time, impairs her courage.All these tiny plots display Tess's mentality of fatalism, from this aspect, Tess's tragedy seems a more reasonable and inevitable result.Chapter Ⅳ.The influence of Tess

Tess of D’Urbervilles, when published first time, becomes a bestseller and hot topic and attracts attention of literary research.Tess, a pure kind country girl, her whole fate is full of ups and downs.However, it seems that her tragic fate is more determined by the social background than her own reasons.Hardy’s depiction gives us a intuitive idea about the author and Tess’s society, reflects a backward feudal society.Bourgeois society is not a mature society, for it is not harmony and equal in human rights.Tess is innocent, her pure mind, simplicity and diligence could not prevent her from being ruined in the circumstance of bourgeois society, only because she is a poor and weak female who is never respected by others and eventually becomes a victim of hypocritical morality of the capitalist society.Literature is a mirror of real life which can reflect many aspects of people’s lives and also can be meaningful and inspiring to our contemporary life.Generally speaking, the only way for a society to survive and be sustainable is that equal in human rights and harmony in people’s relations.Tess of D’Urbervilles, through this novel, we can easily see the impact of ideology on society, nation, families and individuals is crucial.As a ruling class, to some degree, their mentality determines the whole society, they have to aware of that, equality of status of human rights, and establishment of a sound legal and religious system is directly related to a long term

survival of an era.The promotion and penetration of culture ideas affect the people’s way of thinking and behaving.Besides, as the folk, we have to be better educated and open-minded, improve our quality and keep a positive mind.As far as I am concerned, under this circumstance, Tess’s tragedy is not her own tragedy, but a whole feudal society.The bourgeois society is full of injustices and destruction.Thus, connecting with the above many aspects, the society Tess lived in, fool ruling class, narrow minded people, hypocritical in morality and religion and unjust in legal system as well as unequal status between men and women, dooms to be an end society.Besides, I want to highlight that, Tess’s rough and rugged life is not only the fate tragedy, but the tragedy of our female.So, for the female, we should keep our pure, self-esteem nature, and, at the same time, we only to break the bound of tradition morality find our right position, self-worth and equal social status, we can get our happiness and realize our life value.ChapterⅤ.Conclusion

Comprehensive speaking, Tess's tragedy is linked with social elements, while her character has an inescapable responsibility to her tragic fate as well.Further more, all these causes are directly related to the bourgeois society and Tess's tragedy is a vivid reflection of it.Under that environment, the purer and poorer a woman is, the easier she will get hurt.Thomas Hardy is a giant;his depiction of this novel gives us a much clearer knowledge of the society he lives in.After a thorough appreciation to this touching novel, we can't help having mercy on Tess, and her figure is unforgettable.But, when we think about this story rationally, the society of Victorian era together with Tess's kind and weak character lead to Tess's unavoidable destruction.Just as Soviet literary critic Alnwick Manchester says the real reasons for Tess's destruction are the reality, the heroine's nature, the dispossession, and the social prevailing conventions.All these determine the poor lady's miserable fate.From the above narrative, we can easily see Tess’s tragedy is inevitable;besides, we can have a general knowledge about Thomas Hardy’s society of 19th century and deeply educated that we’d better to take the essence and discard the dregs of different eras and histories.Thomas Hardy is a great author, his affection and contribution to the literature

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Acknowledgements

Firstly I would like to show my gratitude to my supervisor Sun zhonglun for his guidance during my studies.Although he was very busy then, he was willing to spare time to give me generous guidance and support, especially to provide me with a good environment, which benefits me a lot.With his serious and responsible attitude, rigorous scientific research methods, keen academic insight, diligent style of work, innovative and pioneering spirit, Mr.Sun has set a good example for me.Here I extend my deep appreciation and heartfelt thanks to Mr.Sun

I’m also grateful to my parents for their hard working.Then I thank those who help me in course of the writing and whose names I can’t list here one by one.