第一篇：翻譯概論總結

多項選擇：

1.Roman Jakobson’s tripartite classification: intralingual translation(rewording), interlingual translation(translation proper), and intersemiotic translation(transmutation)

2.text types: technical, institutional, literary translation

3.outline of major theories of translation:(1)Chronologically(by the time of their birth or occurrence): the philological, hermeneutic, linguistic, communicative, sociosemiotic, skopos, manipulative, norm, post-structuralist, postcolonial(2)topologically(by the particular approach adopted or focus directed by their proponents): their approaches to translation may be grouped into the philological, linguistic, functionalist, semiotic, cultural, philosophical.重要概念：

1.translation studies:

(1).The paper “the name and nature of translation studies” written by James Holmes in 1988, marks the birth of the discipline of TS.The descriptive branch: product, process, function-oriented The theoretical branch: general & partial which includes medium, area, rank, text type, time, and problem restricted The applied branch: translation aids, training and criticism Note: though being lucid and inspiring in his theory, it shall be noted that description and theorizing are usually inseparable from each other in research.(2).The internal studies and external studies The internal studies: the theoretical branch takes as its objects of study the nature, principles, and procedures of translation;the applied branch includes translation practice(text analysis and genre translation), T criticism, and the training of translators, development of the translation profession.Specifically, translation practice includes text analysis and genre translation, and the former covers such areas of research as: source text analysis, comparison of translations & their source texts, comparison of translations and non-translated texts(comparable texts), translation with commentary;while the genre translation covers texts like drama, poetry, prose fiction, religious text, tourism texts, and multimedia texts.The external translation studies are the derived or borderline parts of TS, covering areas where the internal TS interact or marry with other disciplines, such as history, sociology, cultural anthropology, philosophy, linguistics, psychology, theory of communication, computer science and technology, etc.For example, history of translation;sociology and cultural studies of T;T ethics;terminology management;language and translation technology…

Or historical/cultural translation;translation ethics;terminology and glossaries;translation and technology

The internal studies and the external studies of translation are related and complementary to each other in that the research results in the former provide the latter with both a theoretical basis and a practical focus of concern while the research findings in external studies contribute to the depth and breadth of internal studies by providing new observations and new perspectives.2.definition of translation:

According to Wilss(1995), translation is an action directed toward both the source text and the reader of the target language.Its procedure is determined by its function and it pursues a goal of enabling understanding between individuals of different linguistic and cultural communities.Nida and Taber(1969)regard translation as a communication-based task and define it as: Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.(closest in meaning and style;acceptability;loss of information)--translation as a kind of communication between different language group--translation should communicate information or meaning

3.theory: A theory, in the simplest sense, is just a view or understanding of something that concerns us.In modern science, it is generally understood or refers to a proposed explanation of empirical phenomena, made in a way consistent with scientific method.Theories are collections of hypotheses that are logically linked together into a coherent explanation of some aspect of reality and which have individually or jointly received some empirical support.The properties of a good theory: strong explanatory power that can effectively explain the subject matter it pertains to;strong predicative power which means it should proved a)reasonably adequate predictions about the properties not yet discovered of the specific object under investigation and b)a measure of predictability about the degree of success to be expected from the use of certain principles and procedures in the study of the subject matter.3.equivalence: A term used by many writers to describe the nature and the extent of the relationships which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller linguistic units.The nature of “equivalence” was successively discussed by prominent figures such as Jakobson, Eugene Nida, Peter Newmark, and Werner Koller.(1)Jakobson’s linguistic meaning and equivalence.He followed the relation set out by Saussure between the signifier(the spoken and written signal)and the signified(the concept signified).He stated that the signifier and signified form the linguistic sign, but the sign is arbitrary or unmotivated, thus there is ordinarily no full equivalence between ST and TT.He defined translation as “substituting messages in one language not for separate code-units(signifier)but to entire messages(signified)in some other language”.(2)Catford regarded the central task of translation as “defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence” and there exists a distinction between textual equivalence and formal correspondence.(3)Nida, inspired by Noam Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar, put forward a three-stage system of translation and used back-transformation to analyze the kernels under some complicated surface structure.In terms of equivalence, he stated that there are

formal equivalence which focuses attention on the message itself in both form and content, the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptor and the message.There are four basic requirements of a translation.(4)Newmark put forward the notions of communicative translation and semantic translation.Communicative translation attempts to produce on its reader an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.4.meaning: According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.In terms of traditional studies of meaning, the meanings of meaning are as follows: reference and sense: reference is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for;sense is the place a which a word or phrase holds in the system of relationships with other words or phrases in the vocabulary of a language.From the perspective of sociosemiotics, there are 4 basic facts about meaning: 1)meaning is a kind of relationship.Meaning is not really an entity(because words do not have meanings, people have meanings for words), but the relationship between a sign and something outside it 2)there is a plurality of meaning: three kinds of relationship a sign may enter into –

referential(semantic), pragmatic, syntactic(intralingual);

a.Referential meaning(RM)(sign-real world entity)is chiefly connected with the topic of a communication.Its core elements are the external situation, the facts of the real world.Also known as informative, conceptual, cognitive meaning.But RM does not equal literal meaning(LM).E.g 掛號信；vice-chancellor；indian meal;國際學院；基礎實驗樓

b.Pragmatic meaning(PM)(sign-user)may be divided into four subsets: identificational meaning(regional, historial background of the speaker);expressive meaning(emotional content of an expression might have in terms of the personality or individual creativity of the user, e.g murder & homicide);associative meaning(connotative meaning隱含意義);social meaning(channel of contact, e.g phatic forms of discourse;forms of address vous/tu;flatter;register);imperative meaning(conative meaning, operative or instrumental meaning)c.intralingual meaning(IM)(sign-sign)is related to the code: phonetic meaning;phonological meaning;graphemic meaning;morphological/lexemic meaning, syntactic meaning, discoursal/textual meaning 3)style is meaning.Style in its linguistic sense is reduced to a group of pragmatic meaning and intralingual meanings.4)different meaning may carry different weight in different contexts.5.code: a system of signs or signals involved in the transmission of messages.Language as a code is a system of multiplicity, i.e.it is composed of diverse elements or has different aspects.6.sign: a thing that signifies or stands for another thing or things.7.signification: using signs to mean.A third item is included in the process of signification, that is, an abstract concept of the thing for which the sign stands.8.message: according to Nida and Taber, it consists of two aspects: meaning and style

9.fusion of horizon: the meeting of different perspectives or backgrounds.So far as translation is concerned, this concept implies that a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a new light.總結自己學習情況：

Taking the course “Introduction of Translation Studies” is conducive to the improvement of both my theoretical and practical inquiry on translation.It is a pity that we cannot cover all the items outlined in the syllabus such as the skopos theory and the manipulation school, which I find them an enlightening reading as I read them in Jeremy Munday’s “Introducing Translation Studies”.As far as I am concerned, the benefits by taking this course are twofold.First, owning to the systematic exemplifications and illustrations discussed in class, I have a better understanding of the major schools of translation chronologically and topologically.Equipped with the basic knowledge and systematic framework of translation studies, I can conduct my research or my future thesis paper from an in-depth perspective.The philological approach mainly concerning on the “word for word” or “sense for sense” debate, though

案例分析：

1.deep structure analysis The surface structure is the syntactic structure of the sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or writes.It is the actually observed structure of a sentence.The deep structure is much more abstract and it is considered to incorporate all information relevant to the single or unambiguous interpretation of a particular sentence.Nida believes that the English language possesses seven such basic structures, which he terms “kernels” – the minimal number of structures from which the rest can be most efficiently and relevantly derived.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.Four steps for analyzing and transferring complicated SL sentences(1)determine whether each word is an object, and event, an abstract, or a relational(2)identify the kernels,(making explicit the implicit constituent elements of the kernels: who are the recipient and agent?)(3)determine the semantic and logical relationships between kernels(grouping the kernels into related sets)(4)find out the most efficient way of representing the given relationships between kernels in the target language.(state these relationships in a form which will be optimal, i.e.closest to the form in the target language, for transfer into the target language)

例子：the unique and mixed ethnic heritage of the population;the American defence of Bastogne sealed their(Nazi troops)fate;this land, which once barred the way of weary travelers, now has become a land for winter and summer vacation, a land of magic and wonder.2.transliteration 以義出音 vs.translation: a terminological study of the rendition of a sutra text

翻譯：

長答題（essay questions；optional）:

1.the philological school, which lays emphasis on the source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation, a typical question raised with this school being that of whether the translator should bring the original to the target reader(liberal translation)or the target language reader to the original(literal translation).Philological tradition in the western history can be illustrated chronologically:

a)roman times – word for word vs.sense for sense.Cicero & Horace & Quintilian: liberal translation;St.Augustine: literal translation b)the middle ages – debate between translation and unacceptable interpretation.St.Jerome, father of the church, translated the Bible into Latin, and developed the Ciceronian distinction between the undesirable “word for word” translation and the desirable “sense for sense”

translation.Translator such as King Alfred in England perceived the task of translating the Bible as linked to the task of elevating the status of the newly developing language known as English, i.e.the Old English.c)the Renaissance – “copying” an original, but also creating a new text with an individual voice.Focus on how to strike a balance in between and how to remain faithful without being subservient.d)Reformation – doctrinal fidelity vs.possible heretical “mistranslation”.Martin Luther elevated and disseminated the usage of German by his translation of the Bible.Etienne Dolet, burn at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues, advocated five principles in translation.e)the 17th & 18th centuries – diversion of the activity of translation: translation as recovery or imitation of classical text;as language learning exercise;as commercial enterprise.John Dryden

reduces all translation to three categories: the triadic model: metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation.The Port-Royal grammar put forward that “accuracy” in translation could somehow be measured on a qualifiable basis.Alexander Tytler reacted against Dryden’s “paraphrase”(loose translation)and set up three basic and celebrated principles of translation: complete transcript of ideas, style and manner of the same character, and all the ease of the original f)the 19th century – romanticism and “creative translation”, which centered around the problem of whether translation could be considered as a creative or a mechanical enterprise.g)the 20th century – the philological tradition endured

In conclusion, the methodology of this school is introspective, impressionistic, relying heavily on the researchers’ and practitioners’ intuition.Its central concepts are too abstract to be unequivocally understood and too fuzzy to serve as a reliable basis on which detailed theoretical analysis can be conducted and universally accepted conclusion drawn simply because different people may have different views of these concepts.2.the hermeneutic school, which concerns the interpretative process of the ST.The term “hermeneutics” is used in two senses: the part of Christian theology解經學 and theory of understanding and interpretation of the significance of human actions, utterances, products, and institutions 闡釋學。Hermeneutics is a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.Friedrich Schleiermacher, founder of modern Protestant theology and of modern hermeneutics.To “give the reader the same impression that he as a German would receive the work in the original language”, the translator must adopt an “alienating”(as opposed to “naturalizing”)method of translation, orienting himself or herself by the language and content of the ST.While Schleiermacher was instrumental in extending hermeneutics beyond the theological domain, Heidegger was the first related the problem of understanding in general to that of linguistic translation.The interrelationship between hermeneutics and translation may be viewed from two angles: the status of translation in hermeneutics and the inspirations TS derived from hermeneutics.Translation is given by Heidegger a function of challenging thinking that both the original and the translated language are unique in their capacity for harbor philosophical premises or presuppositions.Gadamer develops his philosophical hermeneutics in terms of the concept of “fusion of horizons”, which implies that, in the view of translation, a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a “new light”.Viewing translation in hermeneutics, meaning must be expressed within the target language “in a new way” and therefore “every translation is at the same time an interpretation”.The status of translator was improved by “translator’s turn” since understanding is achieved through the very involvement of the translator in the convergence of two horizons.In summary, the perspective of hermeneutics is important in TS because it lends inspiring insights into the nature of T and has influenced some subsequent schools of thought on translation like the manipulative and post-structuralist ones and constructivism, but its concern about translation is basically philosophical which does not care about the process of translation.Case study: 圓成十相；土衛六;把漢語規律的解釋建立在文化認同的科學基礎上；知不知上不知知病

3.the linguistic school, which analyzes, among other things, the SL message and its restructuring in the TL.Principal figures of this school include Catford, Nida and Chomsky.According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.He also proposed three techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic items: hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis.Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules which are phrase-structure rules, transformational rules and phonological and morphemic rules.Three levels of conceptualization: a basic component made up of phrase structure rules and lexicon that generate a deep structure, which in turn is changed through the application of transformational rules into a surface structure.Nida’s and Chomsky’s theories share two common features: Both assume that there exists an underlying, coherent and unified entity behind whatever manifestation language takes: the kernel, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation.They both made philosophical claims about the object of investigation for their respective theories.Nida and Taber put forward a three-stage system of translation: analysis, transfer and restructuring.Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages: literal, minimal and literary transfer.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.The linguistic school provides powerful analytical tools for decoding and reencoding the ST and adopts a rigorous approach to problems of linguistic translation.On the other hand, this approach is just one way, rather than the only way, of accounting for the translation process because it smacks of the extralingual elements such as pragmatic and cultural ones.4.the communicative school, which is focused on the communicative functions performed by the original and their translations in the source and target language environments.Inspired by the sociolinguistics and information theory, this school views translation as a process of communication that firstly, the process of translation is inherently similar to that of any other kind of human communication, which means the translator should seek an optimum balance between the cost and benefits of the translation;secondly, target texts need to be drawn out by the inclusion of a certain amount of redundancy so as to overcome the effects of noise and increase the predictability of the communicative content.According to Nida and Taber, this procedure of “drawing out” target texts is essential if dynamic equivalence is to be achieved and “there is a tendency for all good translations to be somewhat longer than the originals.”

They put forward the minimal and maximal requirements for translational adequacy.Minimal: readers are able to comprehend and appreciate how the original readers of the text understood and possible responded to it.Maximal: readers of the translation would respond to the text both emotively and cognitively in a manner essentially similar to the ways in which the original readers responded.5.the sociosemiotic school, which studies various codes involved in communicating meaning.The approach this school takes is a synthetic or eclectic one in that it selects and incorporates what is best of the other major schools.The basic assumption of sociosemiotics is that language must be views as a social as well as linguistic code, a shared set of habits using the voice to communicate, which signifies, elements specific to the speech community in which the code is created and used must also be taken into account and taken care of by the translator.Semiotics is the scientific study of the properties of signing systems or codes, whether natural or artificial and covers the investigation of patterned human communication in all contexts and in all its modes or channels.Four mode of semiotic communications: auditory-vocal;visual;tactile;olfactory and gustatory

Charles Morris, in 1938, defined semiotics as the use of signs governed by syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules.The definitions of meaning are different.Translation standard: optimal equivalence.The long-standing dispute about literal translation or liberal translation becomes largely meaningless or deconstructed when we approach the problem of what is to be translated in translation from the point of view of meaning.Optimal equivalence: within the bounds of the norms of target language grammar and usage as well as the receptability of the anticipated readership, with the appropriacy of the translation to the occasion in mind and with priority given to the most prominent or important meaning(s)in the context, the translator employs appropriate translation strategies when necessary to transfer the greatest possible number of meanings of the source message and the distributions of these meanings(i.e.the relative relationships among them)so that the translation is maximally equivalent to the source text and its communicative functions in the target language environment optimally fulfilled.e.g 遇難者的頭顱和手臂；一筆雙敘syllepsis；文明標兵單位

Before translating a text, the translator usually has to judge the likely setting of the translation.Three types of language target readership: expert, educated generalist, uninformed.The Sociosemiotic School: clarifying the essence, objects and procedures of translation in a most systematic and down-way;providing the most comprehensive perspective from which translation can be studied.

第二篇：翻譯概論論文 - 副本

BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

中國古詩詞翻譯中的動詞巧用

中文摘要：許淵沖先生說，“文學翻譯的公式是1+1=3, 而科學翻譯公式是1+1=2.” 所以文學翻譯不是科學。而中國詩歌大多是朦朧美，可意會不可言傳，一個詞一個字也許表達多重含義，讀者不能只停留在字面意思，而要用心挖掘詩人內心的情感和志向，那么譯者的任務就更加艱巨，這里討論怎樣把詩中的名詞或抽象動詞等轉化為實意動詞，從而傳達出詩篇的意境美，讀者不僅知之，而且好之樂之。

關鍵詞： 詩歌翻譯；意境美；朦朧美；動詞活用

Abstract: Xu Yuanchong said, ―The equation of literature translation is 1+1=3, while the equation of science translation is 1+1=2.So there is big difference between literature translation and science translation.Most Chinese poetry depends on the imagination of readers, a phrase or a word may have more than one meaning, so when we read Chinese poetry, we should not only stay at the superficial meaning of the words, we’d better excavate the emotion and ambition of the poet.So the task of translator is more arduous, here we will talk about how to translate the nouns in the original poems into the verbs, thereby the poetic imagery beauty can be conveyed.Thus, the reader not only understands it, but also enjoys it.Key words: poem translation;poetic imagery beauty;hazy beauty;the flexibility of verbs.中國古詩詞翻譯中的動詞巧用

1.概述

中國古詩詞義具有模糊性：許多用于文學語言中的語詞在表達字面意義的同時，又常暗示其他多重意義。這時就需要譯者把字得表面含義和詩人當時的心境結合起來

而且語法的模糊性，中國文字重在意合，沒有時態，語態，詞性和數的字形變化，而且中國詩歌不必像英詩一樣，一定要有主語，謂語，代詞和介詞等，從而造成了時空關系不明確，意向模糊。最 BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

典型的例子，《天凈沙 秋思》，全篇以名詞為主，沒有數量詞，沒有限定詞，介詞作連接。至于該景發生在何時何地，有幾只昏鴉，是什么枯樹，中國讀者也許能深深體會到詩人內心的情感，但英美國家讀者卻可能真的深陷迷茫了。許淵沖先生講過，寫詩不是寫史，所以翻譯詩詞在這些地方也不必過于拘泥，倒是原詩的精神——詩中大意和所含的感情，要用心體貼，重視表達不可。那么，是否可以用動詞來傳達詩人內心的精神和原詩意境呢？我們這里舉11個例子來進行分析。

2.動詞活用分析

（1）、杜牧一首著名的《秋夕》：銀燭秋光冷畫屏，輕羅小扇撲流螢。天階夜色涼如水，臥看牽牛織女星。其中第三句的譯文是：

―the night grows colder every hour,---it chills me to the heart.原詩“天階夜色涼如水”是純景物描寫，但譯者加了一個grows和chill, 表面強調的是天氣冷，但實則深層意義是想表達詩人的內心很凄涼，看著牛郎織女已都幸福的團聚，而詩人卻和意中人分別兩地，內心早已是悲涼萬分。何況是在這傷感的秋天，詩人內心怎能不越來越黯淡，幽冷？所以動詞grows colder、chill把全詩的意美很形象的翻譯出來了。

（2）、《蘇小小墓》中有四句：草如茵，松如蓋。風為裳，水為珮。英譯為：Let grass be her cushion, pine trees her parasol, and wind clothe her, water chime at her tread.不難發現，“如”和“為”這個字分別被譯為be、clothe、chine at 這三個動詞，漢語中靜態詞翻譯成英語中的動態詞，化抽象為具體，形成了一幅惟妙惟肖的畫面。

蘇小小是南齊杭州名妓，一代美人。動詞巧譯的翻譯給譯語國家讀者以生動的畫面，因此不難想象出蘇小小是何等的美人焉。尤其是得知她曾唱著愛歌，與情人去私訂終身，但紅顏薄命，英年早逝（spring death），希望終成泡影時，她的勇氣她的堅強又為這份美增添了不少的分量。

（3）、《虞美人》:少年聽雨歌樓上，紅燭昏羅帳。壯年聽雨客舟中，江闊云低，斷雁叫西風。而今聽雨僧廬下，鬢也星星也。悲歡離合總無情，一任階前點滴到天明。全文翻譯如下：

While young, I listened to rain in the house of song, overjoyed in curtained bed beside a candle red.In prime of life I heard rain on the river long, in lonely boat, when wailed wild geese beneath low clouds in western breeze.Now that I listen to rain under temple’ s eaves, my hair turns grey like starry ray.Who cares if men will meet or part, rejoice or grieve? Can I feel joy or sorrow? Let it rain till tomorrow!我們來分析下此譯文的動詞巧用。

首先，“紅燭昏羅帳”譯為“overjoyed in curtained bed beside a candle red.‖ 本是名詞詞組，譯者添加了overjoyed一詞可謂是眼到心到。因為是少年，所謂“少年不識愁滋味”，雖然窗外下著雨，但是室內充滿著歌聲笑語，詩人心里是充滿愉悅與幸福的，所以overjoyed一詞用的很貼切很靈活，也像讀者傳達了少年時的那種快樂，無憂無慮的生活，同時也為下文的凄涼生活作了鋪墊。“悲歡離合總無情”翻譯為―Who cares if men will meet or part, rejoice or grieve? Can I feel joy or sorrow?‖ 原文很抽象的四個字“悲歡離合”，英美國家讀者就會匪夷所思，是怎樣無情的？到底是誰無情？所以譯者添加了meet、part、rejoice、grieve，men和I作主語，譯文解釋的很清晰，且用了反詰句，把全文的感情上升到了高潮之處，這樣，原文“悲歡離合總無情”是個陳述句，被譯為反詰句，深刻地體現出了詩人內心情感的高潮。

（4）．韋莊的《金陵圖》： 江雨霏霏江草齊，六朝如夢鳥空啼。無情最是臺城柳，依舊煙籠十里堤。”

第一句譯文：Over a riverside grass falls a drizzling rain, 譯者活用動詞“falls”連接起“grass”和“rain”, 創造了一種很立體感的意境;第二句Six dynasties have passed like dreams, birds cry in vain.譯者將 ―如夢‖翻成“have passed like dreams‖, 凸顯了歷史的滄桑，感嘆時光的流梭；第三句譯文是 BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

For miles around the town unfeeling willows stand.―stand‖一詞更能反映了臺城柳是無情的，冰冷冷地樹立在那里，怎知道詩人此刻的心情；最后一句Adorning like a veil of mist the lakeside land.譯者添加了 ―adorn‖一詞，讓讀者能聯想到整個畫面的唯美。

（5）、李煜詞中的一首《烏夜啼》：“林花謝了春紅，太匆匆！無奈朝來寒雨晚來風。胭脂淚，留人醉，幾時重？自是人生長恨水長東！”

從第二句譯文來分析： How can they bear cold morning showers , And winds at noon? 譯者把“無奈”譯成動詞詞組“how can they bear”, 告訴讀者，詩人是不堪忍受這樣的寒雨寒風的，譯出了詩人內心的凄涼與無奈；

最后一句When shall we meet again ? As water eastward flows, so shall we part.譯者添加了動詞“meet” 和 “part”, 道出了詩人內心的疑問與期待，以及對人生離別的感慨。這樣的譯文，音美形美，意更美。

（6）李煜還有一首寫漁家樂的小詞，《漁父》：浪花有意千重雪，桃李無言一隊春。一壺酒，一竿身，世上如儂有幾人。

White-crested waves aspire to a skyful of snow, spring displays silent peach and plum trees in a row.A fishing rod, a pot of wine, who in this world can boast of a happier life than thine?

浪花本應是無意，但詩人寫有意千重雪？怎樣能體現出“有意”二字呢？譯者譯為動詞“aspire to”, 渴求，渴望的意思，體現出了擬人手法，原來浪花是由感情的，說明了詩人對大自然的親切之情。第二句“桃李無言一隊春”，譯者用動詞“display”連接起春天和桃樹李樹的關系，一排排一列列的桃樹李樹，裝點了春天，景色是多麼燦爛美麗，詩人心情也是爽朗無比。最后一句“世上如儂有幾人”，如儂有幾人譯為了“boast of a happier life”, boast一詞，本身含有引以為榮的事物，李煜這兩首詞，寫來情調悠揚輕松，應該是亡國前所作，過著那種逍遙，自由自在的日子。可見詩人是多麼渴望與珍惜此時的生活，覺得世上沒有誰再比他幸福了。

（7）.李白的《秋浦歌》“白發三千丈，緣愁似個長。不知明鏡里，何處得秋霜？”

Giles 的譯文是 My whitening hair would make a long long rope, yet could not fathom all my depth of woe;though how it within a mirror’s scope, to sprinkle autumn frosts, I do not know.此詩其實前兩句和后兩句是倒裝，本應是不知明鏡里，何處得秋霜？白發三千丈，緣愁似個長。但詩人倒裝的順序安排更能凸出鮮明的形象。“三千丈”被譯為“make a long long rope”, 借助動詞make, 體現了詩人那種匪夷所思的心情，和奔放的激情，好像把所有積壓在心中的怨憤都體現了出來。

（8）、李煜的《浪淘沙》的后半闕：

獨自莫憑欄，無限江山。別時容易見時難。流水落花春去也，天上人間。Gaze not alone from the balcony, For the landscape infinite extends.However easier parted than met.The river flows— The blossoms fall— Spring going-gone.In heaven as on earth.（林同濟）

譯得很簡潔，沒有一個多余冗雜的詞語，非常忠實原文，四個動詞part、met、flow、fall，做 BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

到了直譯，符合了翻譯中的對等原則，尤其是“春去也”，由going 轉為gone,體現出了時間的飛逝，時光的無情。但是景物雖然描寫出來了，但遠遠不夠，詩人的心境并沒有展現出來，文學翻譯不等于科學翻譯，雖然音美形美，但是意美似乎并沒有體現出來。再看第二種譯文：

Alone at dusk I lean on the balcony;Boundless are the rivers and mountains.The time of parting is easy, the time of reunion is hard.Flowing water, falling petals, all reach their homes.Sky is above, but man has his place.“流水落花春去也”譯者翻譯為動詞“all reach their homes”, 原來流水和落花都是有家的，都是有歸屬的，但詩人心里想念的人還未出現，他只有遙遙遠期的等待心上人的歸來，此譯文音美形美，意境也很美的展現了出來，讓讀者好之，樂之。

（9）、辛棄疾《青玉案》：東風夜放花千樹，更吹落，星如雨，寶馬雕車香滿路。鳳簫聲動，玉壺光轉，一夜魚龍舞。

蛾兒雪柳黃金縷，笑語盈盈暗香去。眾里尋他千百度，驀然回首，那人卻在，燈火闌珊處。One night’s east wind adorns a thousand trees with flowers And blows down stars showers.Fine steeds and carved cabs spread fragrance en route;Music vibrates from the flute;The moon sheds its full light, While fish and dragon lanterns dance all night.In gold –thread dress, with moth or willow ornaments, Giggling, she melts into the throng with trails of scents.When all at once I turn my head, I find her there where lantern light is dimly shed.(許淵沖，1996.)分析譯文：原文抽象動詞居多，而英譯把抽象動詞譯為具體動詞，易于讀者接受，可謂是妙筆生輝。“東風夜放花千樹”的“放”，譯者翻成“adorn”, 將東風擬人化，立刻有了畫面美，那樣的夜晚是多麼燦爛啊。

“鳳簫聲動，玉壺光轉”被譯為動詞 ―vibrate、shed”,立刻凸顯出了畫面的靈動感，使讀者也能感受到場面的光輝和繁華景象。最后 “melt”一詞，突出了人山人海，而她卻消融在了人海里，繁華的外表下襯托出了詩人寂寞的心靈。

（10）、蘇軾的《行香子》：一葉舟輕，雙槳鴻驚。水天清，影湛波平。魚翻藻鑒，鷺點煙汀。過沙溪急，霜溪冷，月溪明。重重似畫，曲曲如屏。算當年，虛老嚴陵。君臣一夢，今古空名。但遠山長，云山亂，曉山青。實意動詞寥寥無幾，下面我們分析英譯文： 開頭“A leaflike boat goes light”，把形容詞“輕”翻成動詞詞組―goes light‖,― At dripping oars wild geese take fright，” 形容詞“驚”翻成詞組“take fright”,強調了動作而不是狀態，好像一副活靈活現的場景展現在讀者眼中。

君臣一夢，今古空名。但遠山長，云山亂，曉山青。The emperor shared the same dream with his peers.Then as now, their fame was left out in the cold.Only the distant hills outspread till they’re unseen, The cloud-crowned hills look disheveled BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

And dawnlit hills so green.(許淵沖，1996)原詩最后五句都是名詞詞組，但譯文卻添加了五個動詞：share、was left out、outspread、look 生動地說明了那幅幅青蔥歲月都歷歷在目，不僅忠實于原文，而且詩人感慨人生如夢的內心也活靈活現的被譯出。

（11）.晏幾道《蝶戀花》前兩句：醉別西樓醒不記，春樓秋云，聚散真容易。

譯文是：Drunk, we parted at Western Bower;Sober ,I can’t recall that hour.Like autumn clouds and dreams of spring disperses every gathering.（許淵沖）

“聚散真容易”用了動詞“disperse”, 運用了擬人的手法，更形象地凸顯了秋云和春夢的無情，也把詩人從夢境中拉回了現實，使讀者看得一清二楚。

3.總結

通過以上11個例子可以得知，中國古詩詞以朦朧美著稱，一個名詞有時也能傳達動態的意境，但是翻譯為英文時不能照貓畫虎的硬譯過來，應該巧用動詞的翻譯，這樣更有情趣和意境，將動態的視角更好的展現給讀者。尤其是在翻譯詩人情感高潮時，動詞的使用更能凸顯出詩人內心的情感波浪和全詩的意境。我們在古詩詞翻譯這條唯美的長河中還要有許多東西值得去探尋和深究，也相信廣大學者會做的越來越好。

參考文獻: 顧正陽著.《古詩詞曲英譯文化探幽》》.國防工業出版社，2012.許淵沖.《翻譯的藝術》.五洲傳播出版社，1996.張保紅.“意像與漢詩英譯”.《解放軍外國語學院學報》，2005.

第三篇：翻譯概論讀書報告

從中西翻譯大家看譯者素養

-----《中西翻譯簡史》讀書報告

《中西翻譯簡史》（a brief history of translation in china and the west），謝天振等著，這本書共包括十五個章節---翻譯與宗教，翻譯與知識傳播，翻譯與民族語，翻譯與當代各國的文化交流，可見本書把中西翻譯發展的歷史放在一起進行描述，既強調中西發展史的共同點，也展示兩者發展過程中的各自的獨特性。

在編寫原則上，本書強調“三抓”：一抓主線，即抓住中西翻譯史上的主要事件；二抓主角，即抓住中西翻譯史上的主要代表性人物；三抓主題，即中西翻譯史上最有代表性的翻譯思想和理論。我的心得體會便是從第二條主線入手的，即中西翻譯史上的主要代表性人物。

我想著重從翻譯大家的身上總結一下作為一名二十一世紀的翻譯專業的學生，到底應該具備什么樣的素養才算合格甚至是優秀。

首先，讓我們看一下他們的所處的時代背景。羅馬帝國時期的翻譯家如西塞羅，賀拉斯，昆體良，哲羅姆等都是順應時代的要求，從翻譯大量的希臘文化典籍到翻譯圣經。中國的翻譯思想出現的時間雖然晚得多，但是也是從宗教典籍---佛經開始的。無論中西方翻譯大家翻譯宗教典籍的目的是出于政治統治，還是為了勞苦大眾的信仰服務，我們都不難得出結論，他們的翻譯工作正是因為順應歷史的要求才取得了如此偉大的成就。

其次，再來看翻譯大家各自的出身情況。哲羅姆的《通俗拉丁文本圣經》是在他任教皇達馬蘇一世的秘書時完成的。而我國著名僧人中諸如彥琮，玄奘雖所處朝代不同，但都是奉召主持翻譯佛經的。我國近代著名的翻譯家和文學評論家傅雷，上海市南匯縣人，1927年赴法學習，主攻美術理論和藝術評論。而恰恰在1931年回國后，他便開始了窮其一生的法國文學工作，且譯作豐碩，共30余種，且風格獨特，備受好評。他之所以能取得如此令人矚目的翻譯成就，和他幾年的赴法經歷不無聯系

最后，個人因素。看了著名翻譯家的詳細介紹之后，還有兩點共性不難被發現。一是他們對母語以及至少一門語的熟練應用。二是他們的博學。其中最值得一提的就是中國著名學者和作家錢鐘書先生，他從小就接受過良好的古典文學教育，不僅在文學創作上成就卓著，其長篇小說《圍城》被譯成多種語言廣為流傳；他在學術研究領域的成就也是舉世矚目，其學術巨著《管錐編》以及詩論《談藝錄》，論文集《七綴集》等都是中國學界的經典之作。

以上是一些列的史實，現在讓我們聽一下關于譯者素養的問題，翻譯大家們的看法是怎樣的。英國著名翻譯理論家泰特勒對譯者該具有的專業素質進行了概括，認為譯者應該在語言和相關的知識方面是行家，這樣才能滿足翻譯的要求。生活于南北朝時期的彥琮在他的翻譯專論《辨證論》中對歷代譯經的得失進行了分析和評點，并在此基礎上提出了一個合格的佛經翻譯者所必須具備的八個條件，即“八備”說：“誠心愛法，益人，不殫久時，其備一也；將踐覺場，先牢戒足，不染譏惡，其備二也；詮曉三藏，義貫兩乘，不苦暗滯，其備三也；旁涉墳史，工綴典詞，不過魯拙，其備四也；襟抱平恕，器量虛融，不好專執，其備五也；耽於道術，淡於名利，不欲官銜，其備六也；要識梵言。乃閑正譯，不墜彼學，其備七也；薄閱蒼雅，粗諳篆隸，不昧此文，其備八也。熱愛佛法，立志幫助別人，不怕費時長久。品行端正，忠實可信，不惹旁人譏疑。彥琮的“八備”說是我國翻譯史上較早論及翻譯主體譯者的條件和要求的論說。“八備”說涉及了譯者的人格培養和學識修養，這兩點是是一個優秀的翻譯家所必須具備的條件。即使放到當代，它也有其現實意義。

最后，我想總結一下到底一名優秀的譯者應該兼備哪些素養： 第一譯者扎實的語言功底。翻澤是一種語言活動，它要求譯者熟練地掌握兩種語言—這是翻譯的根本前提，否則也就無法進行翻譯。譯者翻譯的水準，首先取決于他對原作的閱讀理解能力和鑒賞能力。要提高英語的閱讀理解能力，最基本的是要掌握足夠的詞匯，具有系統的語法知識，以確保理解在語法層面上不出錯誤，或少出錯誤，并要進行大量的外語原著的閱讀，不斷豐富自己的語言知識，提高自己的語言感悟能力。將外來語譯人漢語的譯者，尤其應該下功夫提高自己的漢語表達能力。譯者的漢語水平是決定他譯文質量的第二大要素。凡想在英譯漢上有所作為的人必須大量閱讀漢語原著，進行經常性的漢語寫作訓練，學會熟練駕馭和自如運用漢語的能力。英漢兩種語言屬于不同的語系結構，在詞法與句法上都存在著很大的差異，譯者應熟悉漢英兩種語言在語音、詞匯、句法、修辭和使用習慣上的種種差異。翻譯是語言藝術，是最復雜、最深刻也是最難掌握的藝術門類。譯者以語言文字為媒介，通過再現原作的藝術形象和意境，揭示、展現原作的語言，反映、預示著原語文化。譯者必須了解語言的創造規律及其語言的藝術特征，挖掘出原作的藝術魅力，譯者應該是一個懂得語言藝術的傳播者。

第二譯者文化素養。翻譯不是精通一門外語，借助于詞典和工具書就能為之的事，缺少對原語文化的深人研究很難保證翻譯的水平和質量。翻譯要熟悉兩種語言，悟出語言所具有的無比威力，還要透過語言所傳達的信息，了解其背后的文化和精神，從而體會到中西文化的差異。尤金，奈達說:‘對于真正成功的翻譯而言，熟悉兩種文化甚至比掌握兩種語言更重要，因為詞語只是在其作用的文化背景中才有意義??實際上，文化之間的差異比語言結構上的差異給讀者帶來的復雜性更多”(奈達，2001)。正如英國語言學家萊斯·約翰所說(1997):“特定社會的語言是這個社會文化的組成部分，每一種語言在詞語上的差異都會反映在使用這種語言的社會事物、習俗以及各種活動中。”語言不僅僅是信息的載體，還是文化的載體。不同民族由于不同的生存環境，不同的認識世界的角度，往往形成各自獨特的文化模式。人類對信息形式和內容的理解在相當程度上依賴于本民族的文化模式。原文讀者與原文作者一般具有共同的文化背景，因此原文讀者能按作者所期望的那樣，透過詞匯的表面形式去理解原文的全部文化內涵，而譯者根據自己的語言和文化背景來傳達信息、表達感情，他所面對的則是難以理解甚至是更容易誤解的文化材料，因此“翻譯者必須是一個真正意義上文化人”(王佐良，1989)。譯者不僅應該精通原語和譯人語這兩種語言，而且應該通過各種信息渠道了解這兩種語言所反映的文化，諳熟它們的差異，才能找到契合點，最大限度地縮小原作和譯者之間的距離，準確地捕捉原文中的文化信息，進行有效的傳播。第三除了精通原語和譯語外，譯者常常還要具備一個甚至多個領域的知識，如航空學、化學、人工智能、力學、會計學、國際法、醫學或農學。這些領域需要稱職的翻譯，報酬也比較豐厚。不過有些平常實用的領域也需要相當的專業知識，如電視機維修手冊、風味菜譜和建筑規程。

其他，政治道德條件，身體條件，和計算機知識條件等

第四篇：教案1：翻譯概論

翻譯概述

Genaral Introduction to Translation

一、翻譯的分類

1.按照源語（source language）和譯語(target language)的相對位置:

1）外語譯成本族語

2）本族語譯成外語

2.按照涉及到的語言符號:

1)intralingual translation（語內翻譯）:

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language

語內翻譯指同一語言內部進行的翻譯，如方言與民族共同語，古語與現代語等。

2)interlingual translation（語級翻譯）

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.語際翻譯指發生在不同語言之間的翻譯活動，諸如英漢互譯、法英互譯等。

3)intersemoitic translation（符際翻譯）:

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of non-verbal sign systems.符際翻譯指不同符號之間進行的翻譯，此類翻譯往往只限于通訊及保密等工作。

3.按翻譯手段: 可分為口譯（interpretation）

筆譯（translation）

機器翻譯（machine translation）

4.按翻譯題材:

1)科技翻譯(translation for science and technology)（科技文獻、學術著作等）

2)應用翻譯(practical writing translation)（新聞報道、旅游宣傳品、）

3)政論翻譯（Political writing translation）(政府文件等)

4）文學翻譯(literary translation)

5.按照處理方式

1、全譯

2、摘譯

3、編譯

4、譯寫

5、譯評

6、縮譯

7、綜述

8、改譯

9、闡譯

二、譯者的素養 彥琮，（557—610年），隋代著名高僧，他精通梵文，也是我國佛教史上屈指可數的佛經翻譯家和佛教著作家。他提出了“八備”說：

熱愛佛法，不怕耗時長久； 忠實可信，不惹旁人譏疑； 通達旨意；不存暗昧疑點； 射獵經史，不令譯文疏拙； 度量寬和，不可武斷固執； 淡于名利，不求嘩眾取寵； 精通梵文，不失原文義理； 兼通漢語，不使譯文失準。

用現代的話來說，就是：

漢語功底要好、英語語言能力要強 知識面要廣（合理的知識結構）

政治覺悟要高（高度的政治和職業責任感）熟悉基本的翻譯理論和技巧

扎實的語言功底 廣博的言外知識 敏銳的感受能力 敬業樂業的精神

翻譯工具箱

詞典：《漢英大詞典》

《新世紀漢英大詞典》

《漢英科技大詞典》 雜志：《中國翻譯》 《中國科技翻譯》

《上海翻譯》 《英語世界》 報刊：《 21世紀報》 《北京周報》

《中國日報》

《今日中國》

網 站

1、翻譯人才網

http://cntranslators.com.cn

2、中國自由翻譯人網

http://www.tmdps.cn

6、人民日報網

www.tmdps.cn

翻譯證書考試 全國外語翻譯證書考試（NAETI）

National Accreditation Examinations for Translators and Interpreters 由教育部考試中心和北京外國語大學合作舉辦。網址：www.tmdps.cn 全國翻譯資格考試（CATTI）

China Aptitude Test for Translators and Interpreters 由國家人事部統一規劃，中國外文局組織實施，網址是: www.tmdps.cn

第五篇：翻譯概論word版定

11月7日 第八周 中國翻譯簡史作業 217407009 于繼杰 一.高昌回鶻（hu)族的翻譯活動&二.元代的翻譯活動 一．1.高昌回鶻族簡介2.所譯佛經來源

1.回鶻，維吾爾族的祖先，原稱回紇（he）。743年在唐朝的幫助下，回鶻滅突厥汗國，建立回紇汗國（公元745-840）。公元788年回紇改名回鶻。公元840年回鶻政權被黠戛（xia jia)斯推翻后，大部分回鶻人向西遷徙。一支遷到蔥嶺以西，一支遷到河西走廊，一支遷到西州(今新疆吐魯番)。西州回鶻又向西發展，以高昌(今新疆吐魯番)為中心，建立了高昌回鶻政權。西州回鶻后來改稱為“畏兀兒”，也就是今天的維吾爾族。

高昌回鶻族和內地朝廷保持著友好關系，繼續進行東西方貿易。據《宋史》記載，高昌國于建隆，乾德，太平興國年間，均遣使來朝貢獻。北宋時期，回鶻族著名作家玉素甫?喀（ka)斯喀吉甫于1070年在其文學巨著《幸福智慧》中記錄了當時回鶻族民間口頭歌唱的詩篇，其中《春頌》和《商人贊》就熱烈歌頌了漢族商人在經濟生活上對他們的協助。

回鶻族在西遷以前，原使用突厥文。西遷后廢棄了突厥文，采用粟特字母，創制了一種今天稱為，“古回鶻文”的文字。回鶻文為全音素文字，有18個輔音字母及5個元音字母。字母在詞頭、詞中、詞末會有不同寫法。回鶻文由上至下拼寫成列，列與列由左至右排。契丹人曾仿寫回鶻字創制契丹小字，十三世紀的蒙古人也曾用回鶻字母綴寫蒙古語，可見回鶻字影響之大。

回鶻族西遷以前，原信摩尼教，西遷后又接受佛教。因此在公元965年（宋太祖乾德三年），高昌回鶻可汗曾遣僧法淵來獻佛牙，公元981年王延德使高昌時曾看到那里有“佛寺五十余區，皆唐朝所賜額，寺中有《大藏經》，《唐韻》，《玉篇》等”。因此，就有回鶻文翻譯佛經之舉。

2.所譯佛經來源:（1）早期的回鶻文佛經就是譯自當地的古代庫車語，古代焉耆（qi)語。如，《彌勒會見記》等。（庫車，維吾爾語意為悠久、長久。庫車古稱“龜茲”，歷史悠久，文化燦爛，曾是聯系和溝通亞歐大陸的橋梁，中西文化在這里交融，成為舉世聞名的龜茲文化發祥地。）（焉耆語亦稱吐火羅文A方言，當時主要使用于焉耆至商昌(今吐魯番)一帶，用中巫婆羅謎字母書寫。）

《彌勒會見記》,1959年4月在新疆哈密縣發現。劇本的回鶻文寫本，近300頁，每頁寬22厘米，長44厘米，左邊第7—9行間畫有黑色圓圈，中間有一小孔用以穿繩，此種裝幀稱“梵夾裝”。劇本中，每幕前都用紅色標寫出了演出該幕的場景說明和人物的神情、動作等，還有人物對話和舞臺指示等，也用不同顏色標寫區分了開來。

自治區博物館研究員伊斯拉非爾·玉蘇甫，副研究員艾力江·艾沙等學者一直熱衷于對它的研究。2011年，他們共同申請的國家級課題《回鶻文哈密本〈彌勒會見記〉研究》成功立項。2012年，長期從事該領域研究的德國哥廷根大學皮特勞特（Jenspeterlaut）教授等來館訪問，表示愿意在平等且對等的基礎上進行合作研究。2014年4月，《中國新疆維吾爾自治區博物館與德國哥廷根大學突厥學—中亞研究系合作研究回鶻文〈彌勒會見記〉》項目終于得到了國家文物局批準立項。諸多的歷史之謎，將會通過對兩種版本的回鶻文《彌勒會見記》的比較研究，運用國際通行規范，對原文進行拉丁字母的換寫、轉寫、漢文譯文、注釋等解開，相信不久的將來，《彌勒會見記》將以更加準確、完整的內容呈現出來，讓現代人滿足對它的時空想象。（2）譯自漢文

如《金光明最圣王經》，《八陽神咒經》等。

1928年，新疆吐魯番出土一部回鶻文寫本《菩薩大唐三藏法師傳》，簡稱《玄奘傳》，抄本，是海內外孤本。書的內容是玄奘弟子慧立記述老師生平西行、求經的經過。回鶻佛教僧人詳古舍利于十世紀上半葉譯成回鶻文。

（3）譯自藏文大部分是密宗經典。

《吉祥勝樂輪曼陀羅》是佛教密宗經典，梵文作?rīcakrasamvara Mandala-Abhisamaya，藏文譯本稱之為Cakrasamvara-mandala。其回鶻文譯本是由元朝帝師、薩迦五祖八思巴（1235～1280）的弟子本雅失里（Punya?ri）依據藏文本翻譯的。

該文獻早已引起國際學術界的重視，1928年，德國學者繆勒曾對其做過簡略的研究。他注意到該文獻與藏文文獻《吉祥勝樂輪怛特羅》（藏文作Bde-mchog-lu’i-pa’i lugs-kyi sgrub-thabs rim-pa gsal-ba或Dpal ’khor-lo bde-mchog-gi dkyil-’khor-gyi ’khor-lo’i thabs rim-pa gsal-ba zhes-bya-ba，見載于《薩迦五祖全集》第6卷）近似之處甚多。其后，有不少學者都關注過這一文獻，而用功最巨，成就也最大的當屬匈牙利學者卡拉和德國學者茲默，二人合力于1978年完成了該文獻的轉寫、注釋和德文翻譯工作，使該文獻的全貌終于得以面世，引起了學界的重視。

回鶻文佛典主要是寫本，木刻應屬于元代。最晚的回鶻經是清康熙二十六年（公元1687年）在甘肅刻成的《金光明最勝王經》。高昌回鶻族還譯過文學作品，如印度《羅摩衍那》，《五卷書》以及通過敘利亞景教徒傳入的《伊索寓言》和屬于摩尼教內容的一些贊美詩。

高昌回鶻族不僅從漢文，藏文，吐火羅文，梵文翻譯了大量佛經，而且還翻譯改寫了許多源出佛教傳說，本生故事的文學作品，如《恰希塔尼?伊力克伯克》、《哈勒亞木哈拉和帕帕木哈拉》、《兩王子的故事》、《神猴與帕德摩瓦提姑娘》、《達尼提·帕拉》等。《恰希塔尼?伊力克伯克》源于佛教本生故事，通過對菩薩轉世的恰希塔尼?伊力克伯克翦除兇惡的妖魔，瘟神，解放人民的英勇無畏精神的描繪歌頌，反映出當時勞動人民戰勝社會和自然邪惡勢力的強烈愿望。作者采用對反面人物猙獰面目的夸張描繪，成功反襯出主人公的英雄形象。這種對比陪襯手法成為后代維吾爾文學創作所經常采用的藝術手段之一。

二．1.元代簡介 2.蒙古文字的創新與元代的翻譯力量 3.蒙漢文互譯的情況 4.其他方面的翻譯情況.1206年，乞顏部首領鐵木真在蒙古鄂嫩河畔稱汗，尊號成吉思汗。成吉思汗不斷對外發動戰爭，逐漸吞并了金朝、西夏、西遼、花拉子模、大理，招降了吐蕃，建立了大蒙古國（蒙古帝國），勢力延伸到了西亞和北亞地區，最遠一度到達了東歐 和埃及。除主體政權外，其余占領的地區由成吉思汗的子孫分封統治，也就是四大汗國。

1271年，成吉思汗的孫子忽必烈改國號為元（建立了元朝），1279年滅南宋統一中國。元朝統一中國后持續對外擴張，但在出海征伐日本和東南亞諸國時屢遭失利，如元日戰爭、元越戰爭、元爪戰爭等。

2.蒙古文字的創新與元代的翻譯力量 在成吉思汗之前，蒙古各部未見有文字通行。蒙古勃興之后，雖曾使用文字，然多借自他族，并多行于其他各族。宋人徐霆說：“韃人本無字書，然今之所用，????行于回回者，則用回回字，????行于漢人，契丹，女真諸王國者，則用漢字”。清人趙翼說：“太祖（鐵木真）以來，借用畏吾字以通文檄（xi)。世祖（忽必烈）始用西僧八思巴造蒙古字”。所謂借用畏吾字，就是用畏吾字來拼寫蒙古語，這種文字曾長期通行于蒙古人中。蒙古人用以撰寫本本族的歷史，文學著作，也用以譯寫異族的典籍。但因這種文字不能完全表達蒙古語。因此成吉思汗以后，有吐蕃喇嘛接受當時蒙古貴族的指使，試圖創制新的文字，未成而死。忽必烈繼汗位后，乃命蕃僧八思巴再創蒙古新字。

八思巴制定的蒙古新字是拼音文字，共有四十一個字母，拼成的單詞有一千多個。由世祖下令通行的時間是公元1269年，規定以后用之譯寫一切文字。但是由于新字筆劃復雜，并未通行，只有璽書原來的上與漢字并用而已。原來的畏吾蒙字仍為譯寫用字。武宗海山時，又命吉敖德斯爾更創新字，基本奠定了今蒙古舊字的基礎。

從元世祖忽必烈開始，元朝共傳十帝，除文宗和順帝外，“諸帝多不習漢文”。因此，“凡進文字，必皆譯以 國書”。舉凡接見，均借助于“通事”，蒙古語稱為“怯里馬赤”，（意譯為翻譯者。引申為代言人。）或“乞里密赤”，“卻里馬赤”。朝廷大臣和國君一樣，也很少有人學習漢文。所以，元朝和遼，金一樣，都設有譯史與通事。

譯史，是筆譯吏員，有蒙古譯史和回回譯史之分。

蒙古譯吏的職責是將中央下達的或由地方和某些部門向中央和皇帝呈報的公文，奏章，材料等譯成蒙古文字，以供皇帝審閱或蒙古官員執行。蒙古貴族為了防范漢人，南人官員，用蒙古文字亦可起保密作用。

回回譯史，是專為色目官員服務的，其職責是將公文，表章，報告，表冊等譯成波斯文字，供色目官員照辦。（色目人（「各色名目之人」）是元代時對來自中西亞的各民族的統稱，也是元代人民的四種位階之一，廣義上的來講，一切除蒙古、漢人、南人以外的西北民族都算是色目人。）

“通事之設，本為蒙古，色目官員語言不通，俾bǐ 之傳達”。“各路所設通事，于達魯花赤之前通傳口舌”。（達魯花赤是蒙元時期具有蒙古民族特點和設置最為普遍的官職）由于通事終日活動在官員左右，其作用大于譯史。有時，還常作官府代表辦理公事。

元代培養譯員，設有專門學校。（元朝回回國子學

據《新元史·選舉志》記載：“回回國子學，到元二十六年(公元1289年)始置。是年五月，尚書省臣言：亦思替非文字宜施于用，今翰林院益福的哈魯丁能通其字學，乞授以學士之職，凡公卿大夫與富民之弟子，皆依漢人入學之制，日肄習之。從之。八月，遂置國子學。”（《新元史》卷六十四《志》第三十一）。另據陳垣《元西域人華化考》：“亦思替非為波斯古代都城之名，亦思替非文字者，波斯文字也。回回國子學者，教習波斯文字者也。元時所謂回回文字，實波斯文字。”由此可見，元朝的“回回國子學”是一所教授波斯語言文字的學校。

《辭海》“回回國子學”的解釋是：“元代培養譯員的學校。學生為公卿大夫及‘富民’子弟，供給廩膳，學習亦思替非文字（即回回文）。學成后派充各官府譯史。”（引自《辭海》縮印本第765頁。）

已故江蘇師范學院(1983年改名為蘇州大學)顧樹森教授的遺作《中國歷代教育制度》一書，把元代的中央學校分為三種：一為“國子學”，1269年創立，主要教授儒家經典。二為“蒙古國子學”，1271年創立，規定學生為一百五十人，計蒙古學生七十人，色目學生二十人，漢學生六十人。學科以蒙古文譯寫《通鑒節要》為主，并兼學算學。學成考試，精通者量授官職。三為“回回國子學”，創立于元世祖到元二十六年（1289年），學生名額定為五十人。入學資格，限于公卿大夫及富民子弟。學科授以回回文文字為主，專以培養諸官衙譯史人才為目的。其余學官與考試的制度未詳。）

前述蒙古字學，不論是在京師者，還是在府，州者，其畢業生員經翰林院“出題試問，觀其所對精通者”，即委以必阇 shé 赤，學官或譯史之職。

除譯史，通事外，元朝在中央政權機構內還設置以下專為皇帝服務的翻譯部門和官員: 1.蒙古翰林院，其職責是“掌譯寫一切文字及頒降璽書，并用蒙古新字，仍各以國字副之”。

2.內八府宰相，其職責是“掌諸王朝朝覲儐介之事，遇有詔令，則與蒙古翰林院同譯寫而潤色之”。

3.藝文監，“專以國語敷譯儒書，及儒書之合校讎chóu 者，俾兼治之”。4.經筵譯文官，負責為帝王翻譯和講解儒家經典之類。5.扎爾里赤，又稱扎魯忽赤，負責“職書制誥 gào”。

3.蒙漢文互譯的情況

(1)詔書制造及官方文書的翻譯 元世祖在蒙古新字制定以后，便規定詔書制造及官方文書一律以蒙文為正本，附以各地區的文字。因此，詔書之類必須譯成漢文。趙翼曾在《廿niàn二史札記》中曾指出，有兩篇詔書的譯筆截然不同。一篇是憲宗蒙哥寫給忙哥撒兒之子脫歡和脫爾赤的詔書。趙翼說，此詔譯者是模仿“尚書體”。另一篇是泰定帝登基的詔書，完全是用“白話”譯的。

關于政府機構的公文也有不少是用“白話”翻譯的。譯成漢語的公文及其他未錄文書，其實不是元代的白話，而是不倫不類的硬譯文體。其特點是：

大量夾雜音譯的蒙古詞語。硬譯蒙古語的語法，破壞了漢語的習慣說法。不是用漢語的正常術語，而是硬譯蒙古詞語。

（2）漢本典籍之類的翻譯

元朝統治者屬于文化比較落后的少數民族，他們統治中國，就得向過去有經驗的漢族帝王學習“御民”之術。儒家經典提供了不少治民，愚民的方法，因此他們有必要向之求教。關于所譯書籍，《元史》中零星記載：

《大學衍義》，為元、明、清三朝皇族學士必讀之書，被康熙皇帝稱為“力明正學”，其治國之道、民生之理和廉政文化很為后世所推崇。

《孝經》，中國古代儒家的倫理著作。儒家十三經之一。傳說是孔子作，但南宋時已有人懷疑是出于后人附會。清代紀昀在《四庫全書總目》中指出，該書是孔子“七十子之徒之遺言”，成書于秦漢之際。自西漢至魏晉南北朝，注解者及百家。

《貞觀政要》明成化九年內府刊本，其作者為唐代吳兢，是一本政論類史書。《貞觀政要》主要內容記載了唐太宗在位的二十三年中一些政治、經濟上的重大措施。

《尚書》《尚書》列為重要核心儒家經典之一，“尚”即“上”，《尚書》就是上古的書，它是中國上古歷史文獻和部分追述古代事跡著作的匯編。

《帝范》，《忠經》，《帝戒》，《帝訓》及其他（3）漢族大臣奏章的翻譯 由于元朝諸帝及蒙古大臣多不學漢文，因此漢族大臣所上的奏章必須經過翻譯，再呈御覽。

（4）國史的編譯

元代的各朝都組織力量編寫前一朝歷史，名為“實錄”，還纂修過《經世大典》。這些國史均是漢文寫的。明代宋濂等編修《元史》，除順帝一朝的史實外，其他各朝都系據原有的《實錄》和《經世大典》等刪削而成。但元代國史，還有一份是用蒙文記錄的，叫做《脫卜赤顏》或《脫必赤顏》，記成吉思汗前后的蒙古史實。

文宗在至順元年委任趙世延，趙世安纂修《經世大典》，“專命奎章閣阿憐帖木兒，忽都魯都兒迷失等譯國言所記典章為漢語”。后來奎章閣的纂修人員又要求從翰林國史院取出密藏的《脫卜赤顏》一書，譯出太祖以來的史實。文宗詔令翰林學士承旨押不花和塔失海牙負責此事。押不花說：”《脫卜赤顏》事關密禁，非可另外人傳寫，臣等不敢奉詔。“文宗同意，便作罷論。但仁宗即位后，曾”命察汗譯《脫卜赤顏》，名曰《圣武開天記》。這是節譯本，并非全文。

在翰林國史院編寫各朝實錄時，又往往把漢文本《實錄》轉移成蒙文，送呈皇帝審閱。

4.其他方面的翻譯情況

（1）用蒙文翻譯漢文以外的其他文字

北庭感木魯國人必蘭納識里，皇慶中受命翻譯諸凡經典，還常譯諸蕃朝貢的表箴文字。

搠思吉幹節兒，公元1295年應成宗之邀來大都主管佛教事物，并從事佛典的翻譯。他最大的貢獻是改革畏吾爾蒙古字，編成一部蒙古語語法書《蒙文啟蒙》，解釋了蒙文元音和輔音結合所構成音節的規律，并提出了蒙文字母的一百二十三個音節及蒙文所包含的陰，陽，中三性及語音和協律，還參照古印度語音學的五行說闡述了蒙語的音素。

又有薩迦派喇嘛法光，于武宗至大年中，增定八思巴所制定的蒙古新字，又與西藏，蒙古，中國及回鶻的學者共譯西藏經為蒙古語。

藏族最早的一部格言體哲理詩集《薩迦格言》，首先譯成蒙古新字，在國內外已公認為藏族名著之一。

從吐魯番出土的文書中有畏吾蒙古文字譯本《亞歷山大傳奇》。

意大利修士約翰?孟德?高維諾來元朝傳教，曾把《新約》等譯成蒙文。（2）用漢文譯蒙文以外的文字

山東長清縣大靈巖寺千佛殿東壁的元代藏，漢兩體碑

河南浚（xun)縣天寧寺里的藏，漢兩體碑

地理學家朱思本曾從梵文譯過河源方面的資料。

《回回藥方》一書是元末由阿拉伯文譯成漢文的。

伊朗合贊汗史大丞相剌失德?哀丁?法都刺編寫世界史《史集》中關于蒙古這部分最為翔實，由元朝官員孛（bo）羅親臨伊朗進行協助，還要請兩位中國文人替他翻譯漢文材料。